Works Cited Primary Sources: Books:

Armstrong, M. Thomas and Natalie R. Bell. Autobiography Of A Freedom Rider: My Life as a Foot Soldier for Civil Rights. Deerfield Beach: Thomas M. Armstrong III and Natalie R. Bell, 2011. Autobiography of a Freedom Rider details Mr. Thomas Armstrongs burning need to create social change for his fellow black citizens. It details his journey as a Freedom Rider. This richly woven memoir examines the history of the civil rights movement. Mr. Armstrongs autobiography helped paint a vivid picture of the events. Furthermore, his story allowed me to understand the historical importance of the Freedom Rides. Curthoys, Ann. Freedom Ride: A Freedom Rider Remembers. Australia: Mcphersons Printing Group, 2002. Curthoys book tells the story of a Freedom Ride in Australia on behalf of the Aborigines. Similar to the American Freedom Rides of 1961, Ms. Curthoys memoir allowed me to analyze both Freedom Rides. I understood how the method of nonviolence could be so effective.

Interviews:
Houser, George. Personal Interview. 30 June 2011. Originally a member of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, Mr. George Houser cofounded the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1942 and served as the organizations first executive secretary. Using Gandhis practice of non-violence, Mr. Houser organized
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the Journey of Reconciliation, which was a two-week journey through the Upper South. The Journey is quite commonly known as The First Freedom Ride. Through intense dedication, I was able to contact Mr. Houser and have a lengthy conversation with him. My interview with Mr. Houser allowed me to place my topic in historical context. Secondly, it allowed me to find the fundamental differences between the two rides. Finally I learned how the Journey of Reconciliation and Freedom Rides were both nonviolent revolutions. Nash, Diane and Cordy Tindell C.T. Vivian. Personal Interview. 30 September 2011. Ms. Nash was a founding member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Diane Nash was the chief strategist behind the Freedom Rides of 1961 and was a polarizing figure. Reverend C.T. Vivian was one of the oldest Freedom Riders from the Nashville movement. He served as Ms. Nashs mentor before and after the Freedom Rides. Both Ms. Nash and Reverend C.T. Vivian were in Cleveland, Ohio for the 50th Anniversary of the Freedom Rides. WVIZ, CWRU Social Justice Institute, and American Experience hosted an event commemorating the Freedom Rides at Case Western Reserve University. I attended the event. The header picture which appears on all the pages of my website and some of the footage featured in my website were taken by me. After the event, I had the opportunity to speak extensively with Ms. Nash and Reverend Vivian. Seigenthaler, L. John. Personal Interview. 7 July 2011 John L. Seigenthaler served as an administrative assistant to Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy during the early 1960s. During the Freedom Rides, Seigenthaler was first sent to rescue the first wave of Freedom Riders after they had been beaten in Birmingham,
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Alabama. Because the rides continued, Mr. Seigenthaler was sent to be the chief negotiator for the government. He negotiated safe passage for the Freedom Riders from Birmingham to Montgomery but was a victim of the violence in Montgomery. My interview with Mr. Seigenthaler provided me a brief description of the reaction from the Kennedy administration to the events. It also provided me a brief description of his encounters with Governor Patterson of Alabama. Finally, Mr. Seigenthaler informed me that he believed the Freedom Rides were a non-violent revolution. Zwerg, Jim. Personal Interview. 20 July 2011. Jim Zwerg was a white student from Beloit College in Wisconsin who joined Fisk University, a predominantly black university, in the early 1960s. Inspired by his African American roommate, Zwerg became an ardent practitioner of non-violence and was one of the two white men selected for the Freedom Rides. He was a victim of mob-violence in Montgomery, Alabama and a picture of him lying bruised and battered in a bed is iconic. My interview with Mr. Zwerg was extremely fascinating. I learned what inspired him to join the movement and how it felt to be a part of the Civil Rights Movement. He also provided me with insightful analysis on why it was imperative for the Freedom Rides to continue after the first wave of Riders returned home.

Newspaper Articles:
Attorney Generals Pleas. New York Times. 25 May 1961: 25. This article was published as special report by the New York Times Washington D.C. correspondent. It details their continuous contact with the leaders of Alabama and Mississippi, two states notorious for segregation. This article first details the reaction from the Southern States. Next, it details Attorney General Kennedys reaction to the
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situation. This article, in my opinion, truly represented the Kennedys sentiment towards the issue: though they favored civil rights, they wanted the issue to just go away. This article is also featured on my website. Crowds Surround Montgomery Church Chicago Tribune. 22 May 1961: 1. As thousands congregated in First Baptist Church in Montgomery, a white mob surrounded the church. The National Guard was forced to use tear gas to remove the mob. This article also termed the Freedom Rides a non-violent revolution, a struggle that would radically affect the Civil Rights Movement. Excerpts From Report on Freedom Ride. New York Times. 31 May 1961: 22. This New York Times article was published by an organization known as the Southern Regional Council. This article chronicled the events of the CORE Freedom Rides and the Nashville Movement. It analyzed the situation and was the first newspaper I found to have labeled the Freedom Rides as a non-violent revolution. A quote from the article is featured on my website. Freedom Riders Map Strategy. Chicago Tribune. 24 May 1961:1. This article was published after the events in Alabama. The riders had progressed to Mississippi and inspired many more Americans to join the movement. This article helped me understand the social reforms. The Freedom Rides galvanized Americans all over the country to join the movement. Approximately 400 citizens took part in the events and nearly 300 of them were jailed.

Judge Issues Writ: Alabama Judge Bars Attempts at Freedom Rides in the State. New York Times. 20 May 1961: 1. This article to an extent depicts the reaction of the South to the Freedom Rides. From the article it is clear that the southern states like Alabama refused to accommodate the Freedom Riders. Though banned from continuing the Freedom Rides, after being assured safe passage, the Riders made their way to Montgomery. Unfortunately, Montgomery would be the site of terrible mob-violence. Kennedy Sends 400 Marshals, FBI Men To Alabama: U.S. Aid Isnt Needed or Welcome, City and State Officials Say of Government Intervention. Chicago Tribune. 21 May 1961: 1. As the Riders refused to stop their rides and Governor Patterson of Alabama refused to provide protection, Robert F. Kennedy mobilized U.S. armed forces. State and Montgomery officials reacted with anger. Alabama governor John Patterson stated these forces are not invited and not welcome to come. This article was helpful as it provided reaction towards the Freedom Rides. Lowe, L. Walter. Freedom Riders. Chicago Tribune. 7 June 1961: 3. As the Riders entered Mississippi, they were immediately arrested and placed in the infamous Mississippi State Penitentiary known as Parchman Farm. The Riders decided to employ their jail-no bail tactic and fill up Parchman Farms. This article explored the Riders perseverance and how the international community would react to the violent attacks in Alabama.

Montgomery Under Martial Law; Troops Called After New Riot; Marshalls and Police Fight Mob. New York Times. 22 May 1961: 1. As thousands of civil rights activist gathered in Montgomery, white supremacists began to riot. Unable to maintain control over Alabama, Governor Patterson instituted martial law. National Guard Members arrived to provide safe passage for the Riders through Alabama and up to Mississippi. Though chaotic, the Freedom Riders non-violent revolution was successful. Robert Kennedy Asks I.C.C. To End Bus Segregation: Action of Attorney General Is Inspired by Violence Over Freedom Rides. New York Times. 30 May 1961: 1. After the events of the Freedom Rides, Attorney General Kennedy aimed to eliminate racial segregation on interstate buses and terminals. Attorney General Kennedy petitioned or asked the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to adopt stringent regulations against segregation. These rules would cover waiting rooms, rest rooms, eating places, and any other facilities related to interstate bus travel. These rules would adhere to the Supreme Courts rulings. This article helped me as it was the first major reform brought about by the Freedom Rides. Segregation Rule Tested: Mixed Group Makes Bus Trip in South-Twelve Arrests. New York Times. 28 April 1947: 23. Following a fourteen-day bus trip known as the Journey of Reconciliation through the Upper South by a mixed group of whites and African Americans, the Fellowship of Reconciliation and CORE issued a statement calling for more integration. Members of the group were arrested numerous times on the fourteen-day journey. This article was featured on my website.
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Photographs:
African Americans Voting in Alabama. 1965. 1 March 2012. Retrieved from The Freedom Riders by Deborah Kent. Bus Bombed. 14 May 1961. 1 April 2012. http://www.blackpast.org/files/blackpast_images/Freedom_Riders.jpg CORE Freedom Rides End. 15 May 1961. 25 February 2012. Retrieved from Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice by Raymond Arsenault C.T. Vivian. 1961. 15 February 2012. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/people/ct-vivian Diana Nash. 1961. 18 February 2012. http://www.cocoandcreme.com/2011/05/diane-nash-whatwe-owe-her-and-how-she-defines-the-diversity-of-black-beauty/ Desegregated Schools. 1972. 18 February 2012. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/photography/70thanniversary/50s/school_integration/sch ool9.htm Freedom Rider Arrested. 1961. 20 February 2012. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/index.php/tag/media/373 First Baptist Church. 21 May 1961. 22 January 2012. http://www.downshoredrift.com/downshoredrift/2011/04/freedom-riders-50thanniversary-prayer-vigil-may-20th-2011.html Firebombed in Anniston. 14 May 1961. 22 December 2012. Cleveland Public Library. George Houser and Bayard Rustin. 1947. 1 February 2012. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAhouser.htm Governor Patterson and Robert F. Kennedy. 1961. 12 February 2012.
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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/people/john-patterson

Irene Morgan. 3 June 1946. 1 February 2012. http://tcjewfolk.com/before-rosa-parks-irenemorgan/. James Farmer. 1961. 15 February 2012. http://www.core-online.org/History/james_farmer.htm Jim Zwerg. 1961. 14 February 2012. http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rightsmanaged/BE025108/freedom-rider-jim-zwerg-in-hospital John Lewis. 1961. 14 February 2012. http://cubanexilequarter.blogspot.com/2011/05/freedomriders-demonstrate-both-power.html Members of the Journey of Reconciliation. 1947. 1 February 2012. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAjor.html Nashville Student Movement. 1961. 5 February 2012. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/index.php/tag/media/365 On to Mississippi. 24 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library. Plaque Commemorating Journey of Reconciliation. 2009. 1 February 2012. http://www.flickr.com/photos/forpeace/3294544315/ President Johnson Signs Civil Rights Act. 2 July 1964. 26 February 2012. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/washington/2009/07/obama-civil-rights.html Ralph Abernathy at the Front of a Bus. 21 December 1956. 26 February 2012. http://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/2012/01/09/sharing-images-tworevolutions/r2F04Bt5Qw2AX66tjSAZVP/story.html Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth Entering a Jail. 19 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library.
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Rides Begin on May 4. 4 May 1961. 25 February 2012. Retrieved from Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice by Raymond Arsenault. Riders on the Bus. 11 May 1961. 25 February 2012. Retrieved from Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice by Raymond Arsenault. Robert F. Kennedy. 21 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library Rosa Parks Arrested. 1 December 1955. 10 February 2012. http://www.rosaparksfacts.com/rosaparks-pictures-photos.php? type=civil-rights Stranded in Birmingham. 20 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library Schools Desegregated. 20 January 2012. http://acornpress.blogspot.com/2011/01/busing-comesto-memphis-city-schools.html Sitting in the Front of Bus. 21 December 1956. 25 December 2011. http://framework.latimes.com/2012/01/16/martin-luther-king-jr/#/0 Traveling to Montgomery. 20 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library. Union Soldier Reads Emancipation Proclamation. 1863. 12 February 2012. http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1993/summer/emancipationproclamation.html Violence in Birmingham Jim Peck. 14 May 1961. 22 December 2011. Cleveland Public Library Voters at the ballot box. 1966. 1 March 2012 Retrieved from The Freedom Riders by Deborah Kent.

Videos
June 11 1963: JFK Promises Civil Rights Bill. 11 June 1963. ABC News Video Archive, 1963. Retrieved from < http://abcnews.go.com/Archives/video/june-11-1963-jfk-promises-civil-rights-bill-9295675> This is a speech given by President John F. Kennedy. President Kennedy promises a

law that would guarantee civil rights for all African Americans. This video is featured in my website.

Secondary Sources: Books

Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Riders 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Professor Aresnaults book recreates the Freedom Rides. He shows how the Freedom Riders helped awaken the cautious Kennedy brothers to the moral power of the civil rights struggle. It describes life in the jails in Alabama and Mississippi. Finally, it provides vivid descriptions of dynamic figures involved in the event. Professor Arsenaults book was my most valuable secondary source. Bausum, Ann. Freedom Riders John Lewis and Jim Zwerg on the Front Lines of the Civil Rights Movement. United States: National Geographic Society, 2006. In compelling detail, Ms. Bausum relates the story of the Freedom Rides. She captures both the black and white perspectives on the Freedom Rides and segregation, through the eyes and experiences of John Lewis and Jim Zwerg. She describes how justice ultimately emerged from hatred and discrimination in a period of American history that did indeed

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change the world. I had the opportunity to interview Ms. Bausum and we had a lengthy conversation. Brauer, M. Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. This book recounts how the Kennedy administration responded to a number of dramatic racial crises in the South including the Freedom Rides. Mr. Brauer provides an insightful examination of the public and behind-the scences reaction to the events of 1961. Mr. Brauers book gives an overview of Kennedys motives, summarizes his accomplishments and shortcomings, and evaluates his significance. Catsam, Derek. Freedoms Main Line: The Journey of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009. Professor Catsam offers a new interpretation of the Freedom Rides of 1961. In his book, he argues that the campaign was central to the transition that occurred in the Civil Rights Movement during the 1960s, when the student struggle and black power empowerment came to the forefront. His book focuses more on the Freedom Rides but provides a nice summary of the Journey of Reconciliation. I also had the opportunity of interviewing Professor Catsam. Kent, Deborah. The Freedom Riders. Chicago: Childrens Press, 1993. The Freedom Riders is a short book that provides a quick analysis and summary of the events. It was one of the first books I used and provided me the basic information on my topic. After reading this book, I moved on to more adult and analytical books on the subject.

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Miller, Jake. Sit-Ins and Freedom Rides The Power of Nonviolent Resistance. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004. This book details the use of non-violence throughout the civil rights movement. It analyzes two key events of the civil rights movement: Sit-ins and Freedom R ides. This was another book that labeled the Freedom Rides as a non-violent revolution that provided African Americans civil rights. Payne, M. Charles. Ive Got The Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle. London: University of California Press, 1995. Professor Paynes book uncovers chapters of American social history forged in the Deep South. Payne brings to life the tradition of grassroots African American activism, long practiced yet poorly understood. Ive Got the Light of Freedom irrevocably altered and enriched my understanding of the long struggle for Black Freedom. Roberts, Gene and Hank Klibanoff. The Race Beat: The Press, The Civil Rights Struggle, And t The Awakening of a Nation. New York: Vintage Books, 2006. Both authors draw on private correspondence, notes from meetings, unpublished articles, and interviews to show how a dedicated group of interracial newsmen revealed to a nation its most shameful shortcoming: denying African Americans their rights. The Race Beat is an excellent account of one of the most calamitous periods in our nations history. Watson, Bruce. Freedom Summer The Savage Season That Made America Burn and Made America a Democracy. London: Penguin Books, 2010. Freedom Summer captures America at a critical moment of nascent change, when the power of idealism could not be destroyed by killing its messengers, and the promise of

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justice cast a long, cooling shadow across the land. Mr. Watson traces the impact of the Freedom Rides on the summer of 1961 of Mississippi. Wilkinson, Y. Doris. Black Revolt Strategies of Protest. Berkley: MrCutrhan Publishing Corporation, 1969. This book was published as a study of historical and contemporary tactics of black protest. Black Revolt has a set of pages which analyzed the Freedom Rides. From this book, I was able to draw a few conclusions on the events. The Freedom Rides can be considered a revolution because of the violence they provoked. This book also shows the South was forced to change after the events of 1961.

Interviews:
Bausum, Ann. Personal Interview. 14 January 2012. Ms. Ann Bausum is an author who writes books primarily on U.S. history. I happened to have read one of her books, Freedom Riders John Lewis and Jim Zwerg on the Front Lines of the Civil Rights Movement. I had the opportunity to interview her. My interview with Ms. Bausum provided me with analysis on the Freedom Rides, whether the Freedom Rides can be considered a non-violent revolution, and the reaction from the Freedom Rides. My interview with Ms. Bausum was extremely helpful and is featured on my website. Catsam, Derek. Personal Interview. 28 July 2011. Derek C. Catsam is an associate professor of history at the University of Texas of the Permian Basin. Professor Catsam is a noted expert on the Freedom Rides and has been featured in documentaries on the subject. I read Professor Catsams book and had the opportunity to interview him. Professor Catsam stressed that the Freedom Rides were
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instrumental in the Civil Rights movement and brought about legal reforms such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and The Interstate Commerce Commission rules on interstate travel.

Photographs:
Cartoon of Freedom Rides. 5 February 2009. 12 February 2012. http://www.bitsofnews.com/print.php?id=10152 Governor John M. Patterson. 12 February 2012. http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/g_patter.html Jim Crow Laws. 12 February 2012. eastchestermhs.wikispaces.com John L. Seigenthaler. 12 February 2012. http://images.mitrasites.com/photo/john-seigenthalersr..html Map of Free and Slave States 1860. 12 February 2012. http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/fimage/image.php?id=436 Map of Freedom Rides. 1961. 12 February 2012. http://route1961.blogspot.com/2011/04/routemap.html

Music:
Hallelujah Im A-Traveling. 2011, MP3 Rustin, Bayard. You Dont Have to Ride Jim Crow. 2002, MP3.

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Videos:
American Experience: Freedom Riders. Stanley Nelson. DVD. PBS, 2011. Freedom Riders a documentary directed by Stanley Nelson. This documentary chronicles the journey of the Freedom Rides and was an extremely useful source. It is also featured in my website. Congressman John Lewis Remembers the Freedom Rides. Video. Facing History and Ourselves, 2001. Retrieved from < http://facing.org/video/congressman-john-lewis-remembers-freedom-rid> This video is featured in my website and it has Congressman John Lewis recounting his memories from the Freedom Rides. James Farmer Discussing Gandhi. Video. University of Maryland, 2008. Retrieved from <http://jamesfarmer.umwblogs.org/videos/#V11> James Farmer was the Director of CORE in 1961 and this video discusses how the non-violent teachings of Mahatma Gandhi affected him. Riding to Freedom. Brian Wolly. Video. Smithsonian Museum <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/historyarchaeology/The-Freedom-Riders.html>, 2009. This video is featured on my home page and provides a nice brief summary of the events. This video gave me basic information about my topic and was extremely resourceful. Rosa Parks Interiew. Video. Who2TV, 2010. Retrieved from < http://www.who2.com/> This video is Rosa Parks speech given in 1956 fourth months after she had been arrested in for violating a Jim Crow Law. The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. William Grant. Video. Quest Productions, 2003. Retrieved from California Newsreel. < http://newsreel.org/video/THE-RISE-AND-FALL-OF-JIM-CROW>

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This video highlights Jim Crow Segregation and Jim Crow laws. It is also featured in my website and provided historical context which allowed me to set up my topic.

Websites:
Journey of Reconciliation. Spartacus Educational. 20 January 2012. < http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAjor.htm>. This website provided a detailed overview of the Journey of Reconciliation.. As I began my website, this website provided insightful details about the Journey of Reconciliation. The Freedom Rides. Congress of Racial Equality. 25 January 2012. < online.org/History/freedom%20rides.htm>. This website is designed by the Congress of Racial Equality. It provides a general overview of the events and was extremely informative. Washington, J. Erin. You Dont Have to Ride Jim Crow! Robin Washington. July 2002. 21 January 2012. < http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/home.html>. This website was created for a documentary entitled You Dont Have To Ride Jim Crow. The documentary detailed the Journey of Reconciliation and it was from this website where I obtained the theme song of the Journey of Reconciliation after asking for permission to use it. WGBH American Experience: Freedom Riders. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 22 December 2011. < http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/freedomriders/about>. This website was one of my lifelines during my history day project. I had the opportunity to watch the documentary multiple times. This website clearly conveyed the information and provided material that would be extremely difficult to find elsewhere.

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