49 Coatings ABS

G U I D A N C E
N O T E S
O N
the Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

S E C O N D E D I T I O N
ourM
I S S I O N
The mission of the American Bureau of Shipping is to serve the public interest as well as the needs of our clients by promoting the security of life, property and the natural environment primarily through the development and verification of standards for the design, construction and operational maintenance of marine-related facilities.
quality & environmental

P O L I C Y
It is the policy of the American Bureau of Shipping to be responsive to the individual and collective needs of our clients as well as those of the public at large, to provide quality services in support of our mission, and to provide our services consistent with international standards developed to avoid, reduce or control pollution to the environment. All of our client commitments, supporting actions, and services delivered must be recognized as expressions of Quality. We pledge to monitor our performance as an on-going activity and to strive for continuous improvement. We commit to operate consistent with applicable environmental legislation and regulations and to provide a framework for establishing and reviewing environmental objectives and targets.
C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL
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G U I D A N C E
N O T E S
O N
the Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

S E C O N D E D I T I O N
First Published 1998 Copyright 1998 Reprinted 2004 ABS 16855 Northchase Drive USA Houston, TX 77060
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INTRODUCTION
Steel structure of a vessel is prone to corrosion throughout its service life. Due allowance must be made at the new-building stage, and by periodic maintenance to provide effective corrosion protection to ensure continued structural integrity of the vessel.
With the emphasis on coatings in the Enhanced Survey Scheme, and with the unprecedented acceleration of coating technology, the field surveyor should have some basic factual knowledge on coating systems. It is the intent of this guide to meet this need in a straight forward and practical manner.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This guide draws on many sources for its contents. ABS wishes to acknowledge the assistance and guidance provided by all who contributed to it, in particular the following active members of the ABS Ad Hoc Panel on Coatings:
Bernard Michael Phil Ron Dennis Helena Jim Rong Owen Joseph Tom Tom Ramesh Bruce Bob Charles Richard Dave Frank Len
Appleman..........................................................Steel Structures Painting Council Bentkjaer ..........................................................................................Hempel Paints Birleson ..................................................................................JRS Ship & Offshore Briggs........................................................................................Matson Navigation Buffo.............................................................................Sabine Transportation Co. Buist ................................................................................................................NACE Denny ................................................................Courtaulds (International Paints) Huang .........................................................................................Chevron Shipping Jones ...............................................................................................Royal Chemical Madden ...................................................................................Arco Transportation McIntyre ............................................................................Marine Transport Lines Mulligan .........................................................................................Devoe Coatings Raghavan........................................................................................Sigma Coatings Sawvel............................................................................................................Esgard Stanley .........................................................................Maritime Overseas Carriers Stuckey...............................................................................Drew Ameroid/Ashland Whiteside ................................................................................BP Oil Shipping Co. Witmer.........................................BP Oil Shipping, Co, Chairman NACE TC-14B Windler.......................................................................................Scherwin Williams Zagrzecki........................................................................................................Unitor - Gus Bourneuf Chief Surveyor
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: What is Paint?
Paint Technology........................................................................................................................................................................1 Binders.........................................................................................................................................................................................2 Thermoset Coatings....................................................................................................................................................2 Air Drying Resins.........................................................................................................................................2 Oleoresinous Varnishes ...............................................................................................................................2 Alkyd Resins.................................................................................................................................................3 Epoxy Ester Resins ......................................................................................................................................3 Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins ..........................................................................................................................3 Silcone Alkyd Resins ...................................................................................................................................3 Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins........................................................................................3 Epoxy Resins................................................................................................................................................4 Polyurethane Resins ....................................................................................................................................4 Inorganic Resins ..........................................................................................................................................4 Thermoplastic Coatings..............................................................................................................................................5 Chlorinated Rubber Resins .........................................................................................................................5 Vinyl Resins .................................................................................................................................................5 Bituminous Binders.....................................................................................................................................5 Pigments and Extenders ............................................................................................................................................................6 Anticorrosive Pigments...............................................................................................................................................6 Red Lead ......................................................................................................................................................6 Zinc Chromate.............................................................................................................................................6 Zinc Phosphate............................................................................................................................................7 Zinc ..............................................................................................................................................................7 Barrier Pigments..........................................................................................................................................7 Coloring Pigments ......................................................................................................................................8 Extended Pigments.....................................................................................................................................8 Solvents .......................................................................................................................................................................................9 Other Paint Additivites .............................................................................................................................................10 Typical Groups of Paint Additives ...........................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................11 Steel and the Corrosion Reaction ...........................................................................................................................12 Principals of Corrosion.............................................................................................................................................13 Corrosion in Humid Environment...........................................................................................................................13 Corrosion in Acidic Environment ............................................................................................................................14 Galvanic or Bi-metallic Corrosion ...........................................................................................................................14 Types of Corrosion ...................................................................................................................................................................16 Uniform Corrosion....................................................................................................................................................16 Pitting Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................................16 Crevice Corrosion......................................................................................................................................................16 Deposition Corrosion................................................................................................................................................16 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC) .......................................................................................................................17 Types of Bacteria that Cause Corrosion .................................................................................................................17 Detecting Bacteria ....................................................................................................................................................17 Coatings and MIC.....................................................................................................................................................18 Protection from MIC ................................................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER THREE: Paints for Purposes

Anticorrosives............................................................................................................................................................................19 Barrier Effect.............................................................................................................................................................19 Inhibitor Effect .........................................................................................................................................................20 Galvanic Effect..........................................................................................................................................................20
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Shop Primers.............................................................................................................................................................................21 Demands....................................................................................................................................................................21 Properities..................................................................................................................................................................21 Types of Shop Primers .............................................................................................................................................22 Antifouling Paints ....................................................................................................................................................................23 Fouling ......................................................................................................................................................................23 The Organisms ..........................................................................................................................................................23 Micro-Organisms.......................................................................................................................................................23 Macro-Organisms......................................................................................................................................................23 Distribution ...............................................................................................................................................................23 Antifouling Paints.....................................................................................................................................................24 Classification of Antifouling Paints ........................................................................................................................24 Soluble Matrix (non-polishing) ...............................................................................................................................24 Insoluble Matrix (non-polishing) ............................................................................................................................25 Self Polishing ............................................................................................................................................................26 Roughness .................................................................................................................................................................26
CHAPTER FOUR: Surface Preparation

Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP-1).................................................................................................................................28 Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-2) ...........................................................................................................................28 Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-3) ..........................................................................................................................29 Rotary Wire Brushing................................................................................................................................29 Mechanical Descaling ...............................................................................................................................29 Rotary Power Discing ...............................................................................................................................29 Abrasive Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP-5,6,7,10) ..........................................................................................................30 SSPC-SP-5, NACE No. 1, Swedish Sa 3..................................................................................................30 SSPC-SP-10, NACE No. 2, Swedish Sa 2 1/2.........................................................................................30 SSPC-SP-6, NACE No. 3, Swedish Sa 2..................................................................................................30 SSPC-SP-7, NACE No. 4, Swedish Sa 1..................................................................................................30 Water Jetting and Hydroblasting............................................................................................................................30
CHAPTER FIVE: Methods of Paint Application

Methods of Application ...........................................................................................................................................................31 Brush application......................................................................................................................................................31 Roller application......................................................................................................................................................31 Conventional spray ..................................................................................................................................................32 Airless spray...............................................................................................................................................................32 High-Volume, Low Pressure Spray..........................................................................................................................32
CHAPTER SIX: Alternatives to Hard Coatings & Cathodic Protection

Chemistry ..................................................................................................................................................................................34 Method of Protection ..............................................................................................................................................................34 Thickness...................................................................................................................................................................................34 Opacity ......................................................................................................................................................................................34 Preparation................................................................................................................................................................................34 Application................................................................................................................................................................................34 Cathodic Protection .................................................................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER SEVEN: Glossary of Frequently Used Coating Terms ........................................................................37 CHAPTER EIGHT: Assessment Scale for Breakdown
Assessment of Existing Surface Coating Systems .................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER NINE: How to Use this Guide ..........................................................................................................................41 CHAPTER TEN: Examples...........................................................................................................................................................43
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CHAPTER ONE: What is Paint?
aint can be described as a liquid material capable of being applied or spread over a solid surface in which it subsequently dries or hardens to form a continuous adherent barrier coat. In the past, paint technology and paint making were arts or crafts developed over many years and supported by results of practical experience. The performance limitations of the paints produced were basically attributed to the available raw materials. These were predominantly of natural origin. For example, oxides of iron were used as pigments and various blends of vegetable oils and natural resins used as binders. These traditional coatings, however, did generally fulfill the accepted demands of time. Significant advances in paint technology came about with the demand for higher performance and longer life coatings. These were eventually realized by the progressive introduction and development of synthetic raw materials and intermediates helping to alleviate the restrictions imposed on the paint chemist by traditional technology, and to establish a much more scientifically based industry. Reproducible products with predictable performance resulted. The modern surface coating industry provides many different generic types of coatings used in many different circumstances and applied by many different methods. These range from conventional liquid paints applied by brush and drying at ambient temperatures by oxidation, to powder coatings applied by electrostatic spray and cured by heat. The following notes describe the principle components of paints, their functions, and the properties they impart to the finished product.
PAINT TECHNOLOGY
Paints are mixtures of many raw materials, each of which in turn has been manufactured to give certain specific properties. Basically, however, paints consist of three major components and many additives which are included in minor properties. The major components are: Binder (other terms used include: vehicle, medium, resin, film, polymer) Pigment and extender Solvent Of these, only the first two form the final dry paint film. Solvent is necessary purely to facilitate application and initial film formation; it leaves the film by evaporation and can therefore be considered an expensive waste product.
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BINDERS
Binders are the film forming components of paint. They are predominant in determining the principle characteristics of the coating, both physical and chemical. Paints are generally named after their binder component (e.g. epoxy paints, chlorinated rubber paints, alkyd paints, etc.). The function of the binder is to give a permanent continuous film which is responsible for adhesion to the surface and which will contribute to the overall resistance of the coating to the environment. Binders used in the manufacture of paints fall into two classes, Thermoset and Thermoplastic. This classification is solely dependent upon how they form a film, and whether that film formation is reversible. In the case of liquid paints, they change state, i.e. from a liquid to a solid. This transformation in paint is known as drying or curing. It will be readily appreciated that a Thermoset coating when dry will be chemically quite different from the paint in the can. Thermoset coatings are not affected by solvent wipe, once cured. With a Thermoplastic coating, the dry film and the wet paint differ only in solvent content, but chemically these remain essentially similar. If solvent is applied to a thermoplastic coating, it will soften and try to return to its original state.
THEROSET COATINGS
In liquid paints where solvent is involved, drying is considered a two stage process. Both stages actually occur together but at different rates. Stage One: Solvent is lost from the film by evaporation and the film becomes dry to touch. Stage Two: The film progressively becomes more chemically complex by one of the following methods: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Reaction with atmospheric oxygen, known as oxidation. Reaction with an added chemical curing agent. Reaction with water (moisture in the atmosphere). Artificial heating. Radiation curing (e.g. ultraviolet).
The films formed by the above methods are chemically different to the original binders and will not re-dissolve in their original solvent.
Air Drying Resins

Historically, binders were based on various drying oils, either vegetable or animal. These materials are slow drying, crosslinking of the molecules taking place slowly in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. The addition of various metal catalysts normally referred to as dryers can significantly accelerate the drying process. Vegetable drying oils alone are unsuitable as paint binders. To obtain the optimum film properties, it is necessary to modify the oil with a range of natural or synthetic resins. The following notes describe the various modifications of vegetable oils to produce suitable paint binders, all of which dry by oxidation.
Oleoresinous Varnishes
These materials are developed from vegetable oils where the oil is reacted, or cooked with other compatible resins, e.g. rosin, ester gum, coumarone or phenolic resins. The introduction of the resin component upgrades the film properties and improves hardness, gloss, drying time, and weathering characteristics. The description of the varnish is normally based on the amount and type of oil present. Normally only the more oily materials are used for exterior primers and finishes, where good adhesion and flexibility are important requirements. One of the more important classes of binders from this group are the tung oil phenolics. These are used widely in both primers and finishes particularly where improved water and chemical resistance are required from a conventional coating.
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Alkyd Resins
These are the most widely used air drying resins. Unlike oleoresinous materials, they can be described as pure polyesters. They are formed by the reaction between a special organic acid (e.g. Phthalic acid), a special alcohol (e.g. Glycerol or Pentaerythritol), and a vegetable oil or its fatty acids. The final properties of the alkyd depend on the percentage of oil (termed oil length) and also on the alcohol and organic acid used. Typical variations are shown as follows: Long oil length alkyds (60-80% oil) Normally used in gloss finishes for brush application and also in primers for hand prepared steel. Medium oil length alkyds (40-60% oil) Used in undercoats or in quick drying finishes where appearance and flexibility are of less importance. Short oil length alkyds (less than 40% oil) Suitable as binders for quick drying paints. Only soluble in stronger solvents like xylol (aromatic solvent). Not normally suitable for brushing paints. Alkyds are not resistant to acids or alkalis and many of the modifications given below are aimed at improving this weakness, however, none provide complete resistance.
Epoxy Ester Resins

Sometimes called one-pack epoxies, these resins are more closely allied in performance properties to alkyds. They are manufactured by reacting fatty acids from vegetable oils with high molecular weight epoxy resins. The resulting materials give similar properties to alkyds with improved chemical resistance, but have poorer weathering properties. Epoxy ester paints also suffer from chalking, an effect caused by degradation of the uppermost layers of the paint by UV radiation. This results in a premature loss of gloss.
Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins

Often referred to as a one-pack polyurethanes, but as with epoxy esters, it is better to consider them as modified alkyds. They are formed by the reaction between an alkyd and isocyanate to produce a product with improved drying, gloss, and hardness over the corresponding alkyd but which can sometimes be more difficult to overcoat after aging.
Silicone Alkyd Resins

The modification of an alkyd with a silicon resin results in a material which probably has the best retention properties available in resistance, being stable to temperatures in excess of 200oC. Unfortunately, due to the high cost of silicone resins, silicone alkyds are three to four times more expensive than conventional alkyds. This severely limits their use.
Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins

Reaction of alkyds with either styrene or vinyl toluene monomers produces rapid drying resins with good chemical resistance, however they have a tendency to yellow on aging and their exterior durability is inferior to that of conventional alkyds.
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Epoxy Resins
These resins are particularly important, and their development for use as binders was one of the most significant advances in paint technology. They are examples of the modern approach to synthetic resins, and provide high polymer materials of predetermined structure. These have predictable properties which can be tailored to suit numerous uses. The resins are produced by the condensation or polymerization of epichlorhydrin and diphenylol propane (bis-phenol A). The reaction conditions and relative proportions of the reactants determine the properties of the final product. For example, the molecular weight or chain length, and the number of reactive cross-linkable groups can be varied with wide limits. Thus epoxy resins can vary from low molecular weight, low viscosity liquids at room temperature, to fairly high molecular weight high melting point solids. Situated at the terminal ends of each resin molecule are cyclic epoxide groups which cross-link by chemically reacting with added curing agents such as amines, amine adducts, and polymides. Liquid epoxy resins give high cross-link densities whereas solid materials have fewer reactive groups resulting in a less cross-linked film. In fact, some very high molecular weight epoxy resins are used as uncured one-pack coatings. The rate of cross-linking or curing is dependent on temperature. Below 5oC the curing rate is considerably reduced, and to obtain optimal film properties, full cure is essential. The choice of curing agent is very important as this determines the principle resistance properties of the film. There is a wide choice of both resins and curing agents which allows for formulation of products to suit most applications.
Polyurethane Resins
These are polymers formed by reaction between hydroxy compounds and compounds containing isocyanates. The resins are available in both one-pack and two-pack forms. The one-pack material is based on a resin which has been partially reacted to give a prepolymer; when applied as a film, further reaction with atmospheric moisture occurs, giving full polymerization or film cure. In two-pack systems a special polyether or polyester resin with free hydroxyl groups is reacted with a high molecular weight isocyanate curing agent. A major problem with these materials is their water sensitivity on storage and one application. Polyurethane resins have excellent chemical and solvent resistance and are superior to standard epoxies in acid resistance. Polyurethane finish coats are very hard and have extremely good gloss, gloss retention, and can be formulated to be nonyellowing. In view of all these good film properties, polyurethane paints are considered to be the best all-around coatings produced. Unfortunately they are expensive and can be difficult to overcoat after aging and require very clean surfaces for optimum adhesion. Because of the isocyanate curing agent there is also a health hazard when sprayed. This health hazard has been reduced by minimizing the presence of free isocyantes.
Inorganic Resins
These types comprise the silicates which are almost always used in conjunction with zinc dust. There are inorganic silicates based on lithium, potassium, or sodium silicate and organic silicates normally based on ethyl silicate. Inorganic types are by far the most commonly used. Coatings based on these resins are very hard, corrosion resistant, and temperature resistant.
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THERMOPLASTIC COATINGS
These types of paint binders are simple solutions of various resins or polymers dissolved in suitable solvent(s). Drying is simply effected by the loss of the solvent by evaporation. This is termed physical drying as no chemical change takes place. The resulting film is therefore always readily soluble in the original solvent and can also be softened by heat. Since these coatings, by definition, require the presence of significant amounts of solvent, they are disappearing from markets where volatile organic content is regulated, particularly the USA. Generic types of binders in this category include: Chlorinated Rubber Resins Vinyl Resins Bituminous Binders Cellulose Derivatives
Chlorinated Rubber Resins

These are normally considered to be chlorinated polyisoprene (polyisoprene being synthetic rubber) but also included in the group are chlorinated polypropylene and chlorinated polyethylene. All of these polymers are similar in their general properties. The resins are dissolved in aromatic hydrocarbon solvents like xylene, and form solutions which are film-forming in their own right. However, they produce brittle films. Thus, in most formulations, high levels of plasticiser are required, normally between 30% and 50% of the total binder. The plasticisers normally used are chlorinated paraffin. Chlorinate rubber resins have very good chemical and water resistance. These properties are somewhat adversely affected by the addition of plasticiser and the chemical make-up of these binders provides the reason for their poor resistance to some oils and greases. Another inherent property of the binder is its thermoplasticity which makes these coatings unsuitable for use at temperatures above 80oC. This temperature sensitivity can lead to various film defects when used in very hot climates. In addition, white and pale colors have a pronounced tendency to yellow when exposed to bright sunlight. Due to the viscosity of chlorinated rubber resin solutions, it is only possible to make paints with maximum volume solids of about 45%. For spraying versions, much lower volume solids are necessary. Chlorinated rubber paints will dry at low temperatures and give excellent intercoat adhesion in both freshly applied and aged systems, making them particularly suitable and popular for maintenance purposes.
Vinyl Resins
These are based on film forming polymers consisting of varying ratios of polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate, and polyvinyl alcohol. Composition of the final polymer depends on the ratios of the components used in the polymerization. Whereas chlorinated rubbers are soluble in aromatic solvents, vinyl resins require ketone or ester solvents. Like chlorinated rubbers, vinyls form brittle films and therefore require plasticising. The plasticising level necessary is about 20-25% of the total resin component. Plasticiser types used are tricresyl phosphate or dioctyl phthalate. The volume of solids in vinyl resin paints are relatively low because of their high solution viscosity. No more than about 25-30% volume solids can be achieved without the paint becoming too thick for application. This obviously creates a problem in formulating high build coatings. Higher volume solid materials can be produced by blending the vinyl resin with other materials such as acrylic resins. These modifications detract from some of the more positive properties of the vinyl resins, such as chemical and water resistance. Generally the film properties and weathering characteristics also show good low temperature drying and excellent intercoat adhesion characteristics.
Bituminous Binders
Asphaltum and similar materials have been used for thousands of years as water proofing systems. The majority of materials used today in paint form are based on either petroleum bitumen or coal tar pitch. The latter material has the better water resistance and is more chemically complex requiring stronger solvents for solution. Pigmentation of both types produces easy to use cheap products. Because of their inherent composition, only dark colored paints can be made.
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PIGMENTS AND EXTENDERS

Pigments and extenders are used in paints in the form of fine powders. These are dispersed into the binder to particle sizes of about 5-10 microns for finishing paints and approximately 50 microns for primers. These materials can be divided into the following types:
Type Anticorrosive pigments Barrier pigments Coloring pigments Extending pigments
Purpose To prevent corrosion of metals by chemical and electrochemical means. To increase impermeability of the paint film To give permanent color To help give film properties required
ANTICORROSIVE PIGMENTS Red Lead

This is probably the best known anticorrosive pigment, however, because of environmental and health considerations, lead is not used on coatings in most developed countries. When used in conjunction with linseed oil it gives excellent corrosion protection. The afforded is due to the lead complexes (soaps) which suppress the corrosion reaction of steel, while also reinforcing the film and giving good penetration and adhesion even to weathered corroded steel. The lead soaps are not formed with non-oil binders, consequently in quick drying binders based on chlorinated rubber, vinyl or epoxy resins red lead is much less effective. The slow drying time of the linseed oil, together with the toxicity of the red lead, drastically restricts the use of this type of coating. Other anticorrosive pigments based on lead are metallic lead. It depends largely on its own inertness, but the actual mechanism of corrosion protection is uncertain, calcium plumbate is often used for use on galvanized surfaces. All of these traditional pigments are decreasing in importance for the same reasons as red lead.
Zinc Chromate
There are two types, (1) zinc potassium chromate, (2) zinc tetroxy chromate. Both function as anticorrosive pigments by releasing water soluble chromate ions which help to passivate the steel surface. They are used in a wide variety of binders and are not restricted to oil based types. Once again, health considerations out weigh the benefits heavy metals bring to coatings, therefore, the use of chromates is becoming rare.
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Zinc Phosphate
This is also a widely used anticorrosive pigment although the actual mechanism of protection is uncertain. However, it is thought that under normal exposure condition protection is afforded by a barrier effect. This is reflected in the necessity of having to have high pigmentation levels to give adequate protection. In acidic atmospheres, zinc phosphate primers perform surprisingly well, and it is assumed that this is because the phosphate ion becomes more active in these conditions and electrochemically protects steel in a way similar to that of chromate ions. Zinc phosphate can be incorporated into almost any binder, and because of its low opacity or transparent nature, paints of any color can be produced.
Zinc
Metallic zinc is widely used in primers giving excellent resistance to corrosion of steel. Initial protection is by galvanic action. However, as the coating is exposed to the atmosphere, a progressive build up of zinc corrosion products occurs, producing an impermeable barrier with little or no galvanic protection. To give good galvanic and barrier protection, high levels of zinc are required, about 80% of zinc in dry film. Because corrosion products of zinc with rain water are alkaline, reaction would occur with saponifiable binders such as alkyds, and consequently these types should not be used as binders for zinc primers. The most suitable resins are epoxy, silicate, or chlorinated rubber. Obviously, for the zinc to function correctly, it has to be in intimate contact with the steel substrate. High degrees of surface cleanliness are therefore necessary. Other available anticorrosive pigments which have not found general acceptance because of their lack of cost effectiveness are: Barium Metaborate Calcium Molybate Zinc Molybate Lead Silicochromate
Barrier Pigments
The most common types of these pigments are aluminum (leafing aluminum) and micaceous iron oxide (M.I.O.). Both have particle shapes which are termed lamellar (plate-like). These materials are often used in combination, the aluminum lightening the almost black shade of M.I.O. M.I.O. pigmented films have durability, but to achieve this, high levels of M.I.O. are necessary, of the order of 80% if the total pigment. Aluminum has been used for many years as the principle pigment in paints for use underwater, the lamellar shape helping to make the film more water impermeable. The diagram below illustrates how the impermeability of the film is increased and how the binder is protected, both benefits being promoted by the lamellar structure of the incorporate pigment. Glass flake is also often used as a barrier pigment.
UV DIRECT PATH
W ATER
UV
W ATER
NON-LAMELLAR PIGMENTS
LAMELLAR PIGMENTS
Figure 1-1
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Coloring Pigments
These pigments provide both color and opacity and can be divided into either inorganic or organic types. Inorganic pigments can be either naturally occurring or synthetically produced whereas all the organic pigments are nowadays synthetically manufactured.
INORGANIC ORGANIC
NA TURAL
SYNTHETIC
Figure 1-2 The most common coloring pigment is titanium dioxide, which is white. Commonly used inorganic pigments include oxides of iron, which can be black, red-brown or yellow-brown in color and lead chromates which can vary from yellow to scarlet. Yellows, blues, greens, and reds are more commonly obtained as organic pigments. They are generally bright in color and their low toxicity makes them more generally acceptable for decorative coatings. In paint, all pigments are normally dispersed to a very fine particle size in order to give maximum color and opacity (hiding power).
Extended Pigments
More commonly known as extenders, and as the name suggests, they basically adjust or extend the pigmentation of the paint until the required pigment volume concentration (PVC) is achieved. They are all inorganic powders with various particle shapes and sizes. Although making little or no contribution to the color opacity of the paint, they can have significant influence on physical properties. These include flow, degree of gloss, anti-settling properties, sprayablility, water and chemical resistance, mechanical strength and hardness, firm build (volume solids, hold up thixotrophy). Mixtures of extenders are often used to obtain the desired properties. They are relatively inexpensive when compared to resins, anticorrosive pigments and coloring pigments. Common Extenders
Extender Barytes (Barium Sulphate) China Clay MICA
Uses A medium hard powder which helps to reinforce the film. Sometimes used to vary the level of gloss. Has a relatively high oil absorption. The lamellar properties of this material enable it to act to some extent as a barrier pigment to reduce permeability. It can also improve film durability by preventing cracking. Can have a similar effect to MICA but to a lesser degree.
TALC
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SOLVENTS
Solvents are used in paints principally to facilitate application. Their function is to dissolve the binder and consequently reduce the viscosity of the paint to a level which is suitable for the various methods of application, i.e. brush, roller, conventional spray, airless spray, dipping, etc. After application, the solvent evaporates and plays no further part in the final paint film, the solvent therefore becomes a high cost waste material. Liquids used as solvents in paints can be described in one of three ways: True Solvents A liquid which will dissolve the binder and is completely compatible with it. Latent Solvent A liquid which is not a true solvent. However, when mixed with a true solvent, the mix has stronger dissolving properties than the true solvent alone. Diluent Solvent A liquid which is not a true solvent. Normally used as a blend with true solvent/latent solvent mixes to reduce the cost. Binders will only tolerate a limited quantity of diluent. There are numerous solvents used in the paint industry. This is partly due to the number of different properties which have to be considered when selecting a solvent or solvent mixture. In addition to commercial factors such as price and availability, these include toxicity, volatility, flammability, odor, compatibility, and suitability.1 The table below outlines typical solvents and their uses.
Solvent Type Aliphatic Aromatic
Typical Solvent Name White Spirit Tobuol Xylol
Typical Paint Types Most conventional paints based on vegetable oils, e.g. alkyds. Quick drying primers for automatic plants. Modified alkyds. Chlorinated rubbers, some stoving paints. A diluent solvent for epoxies, vinyl, polyurethanes. Quick drying primers for automatic plants. True solvent for vinyls. Quick drying primers. True solvent for vinyls used sometimes for epoxies. A slow evaporating true solvent to give good flow in vinyls and epoxies. Latent solvents for vinyls, wash and etch primers. Some stoving paints used for epoxies in conjunction with aromatics. Polyurethane and vinyls. Emulsion paints-some special epoxies.
Ketones
Acetone Methylethy Ketone (MEK) Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) Cyckihexanone
Alcohol
Isopropanol Butanol
Esters Water
Butyl Acetate, Cellosolve Acetate Water
1 In certain countries certain types of solvents are not allowed. This is especially true in the USA, where the Hazardous Air Pollutant Substances Act, (HAPS) dictates a time line for removing many solvents and extenders from coatings. Application properties, dry times, and overcoat windows will most likely be affected as this AACT is implemented.
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OTHER PAINT ADDITIVES

Modern paints along with the principle ingredients, i.e. pigment/binder/solvent, require various other additives which aid manufacture, shelf life, application, film formation, film curing and film properties of the paint. The term additive covers a very wide range of materials which are essential to good formulation, but which are used in minor proportions of the whole paint.
Typical Groups of Paint Additives

Aids to Manufacture Dispersion agents De-foamers Aids to Shelf Life Stabilizers Antisetting agents Antiskinning agents (antioxidants) Preservatives Thickening agents Moisture absorbers Aids to Application Flow promoting agents Solvent retarders Conductivity controllers Antistatic agents Aids to Smoothness Antifloating agents Pattern additives Matting agents Thixotropes Antigas Checking agents Aid to Film Curing Driers Curing agents/catalysts Adhesion promoters Aids to Film Formation Heat stabilizers Fire retarders Optical brighteners Slip and anti-slip agents Anti-fouling agents Fungicides Bactericides Insecticides Absorbers Antiscuff agents Corrosion inhibitors Others Deodorants Flash point controllers
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CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

orrosion of metals may be defined as an electromechanical process in which the metal reacts with its environment to form an oxide, or other compound, similar to the ore from which it was originally won. The strength of any metal is determined by the arrangement of atoms within the metal, but it is the atomic structure at its very surface that determines its tendency to corrode.
IRON ORE Iron Oxide
HEA T
IRON METAL
O XYGEN
W ATER
REVERSION REA CTION
RUST IRON OXIDE Chemically similar to origin
Figure 2-1: The Reversion Reaction The majority of metals are found in nature in the mineral state, that is, in their stable oxidized condition as oxides, chlorides, carbonates, sulfates, sulfides, etc. The extraction of a metal from the appropriate mineral involves a reduction process in which a great deal of energy is absorbed. As a consequence of this large energy input the metal is in a high energy condition and will endeavor to return to its former stable oxidized low energy state as quickly as environmental conditions will allow. It is this energy difference between the pure metal and its oxidized forms which is the driving force for corrosion of the metal. Many corrosion products show a chemical similarity to the corresponding minerals. Iron, for example, is extracted from its ores, mainly oxide and carbonate, by reduction with carbon in a blast furnace. In the presence of moisture the iron metal so obtained is oxidized rust, which if analyzed is found to have a composition similar to the mineral ore.
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Steel and the Corrosion Reaction

All surfaces strive to achieve a certain balance, equilibrium, with their surroundings. On the atomic scale there is no distinct borderline between a metal and its environment. The metal will surrender atoms to its environment and in return absorb some atoms from the environment. Metal atoms leave the metal and they go into solution as positively charged metal ions, leaving behind negatively charged electrons. Consequently, the metal becomes more negatively charged. This makes it increasingly difficult or impossible for the remaining metal atoms to escape as positively charged ions as they are being held by the negative charge of the metal. For the process of releasing atoms as positively charged ions to continue, or for the corrosion process to continue, the excess of electrons in the metal must be done away with. The manner and speed with which these excess electrons can be removed determines the rate of corrosion. The important step in the corrosion of steel is the transformation of a metal atom to metal ion by the loss of two electrons. This is the anodic reaction: (1) Fe IRON ATOM (FERROUS) This reaction can only occur if there is a suitable electron acceptor to combine with the electrons released by the ion atom. Freshwater or seawater contain dissolved atmospheric oxygen which readily serves this purpose. The oxygen is electrochemically reduced to hydroxyl ions in the cathodic reaction. (2) O2 OXYGEN + 2H2O WATER + 4e ELECTRONS = = 4OH HYDROXYL IONS = = Fe++ IRON ATOM + 2e ELECTRONS
The heterogeneous character of the metal surface allows for some areas or sites to favor reaction (1) anodes and others reaction (2) cathodes. The whole surface of the metal is therefore divided up into large numbers of anodes and cathodes. Figure 2-2 shows the progress of corrosion where metal is lost from the anode, causing it to progressively become thinner, accompanied by a flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode which in turn react with both oxygen and water to form hydroxyl ions.
Mild Steel W ater
e
Cathode
OH O2
Anode
Fe
Fe++
Cathode
OH e
Figure 2-2
O2
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(3)
Fe+ FERROUS IONS
2OH HYDROXYL IONS
= =
Fe (OH)2 FERROUS HYDROXIDE
Ferrous hydroxide in the presence of an abundant supply of oxygen is oxidized to the familiar reddish brown rust. (4) 2Fe (OH)2 FERROUS HYDROXIDE + O2 OXYGEN = = Fe2O32H2O RUST
The above reactions, (1) (2) (3) (4), are the basic reactions which occur when iron or steel transforms to rust or, more specifically, to iron oxide. In practical situations the process is not so simple. For instance, corrosion of steel in seawater or in polluted atmospheres results in more rapid and complicated reactions producing corrosion products in association with iron oxide. Some of these iron salts are water soluble and can cause major problems to paint coatings if not removed before application.
Principles of Corrosion
Corrosion in Humid Environment
Steel immersed in seawater or exposed to high humidity will corrode as shown in Figure 2-3.
O2 e e 2H 2O e e
e e e e e e e Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++
4OH
Figure 2-3 Areas from where iron ions go into solution (the anodes) and areas where electrons are consumed in a reaction with the environment (the cathodes), may continuously change resulting in a comparatively even corrosion. In an electrolyte of seawater, there is nothing to retard the dissolution of iron, and the rate or speed of corrosion is almost exclusively determined by the rate at which oxygen reaches the cathode areas. Hydroxyl ions and iron ions with the addition of oxygen react further to form iron hydroxide, a major component of rust. In given environments certain metals will form protective corrosion products, oxides, that prevent or retard further corrosion. Aluminum and stainless steel are examples of this.
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Corrosion in an Acidic Environment

In a very acidic environment, such as diluted sulfuric acid, steel will corrode evenly while creating hydrogen gas. See figure 2-4.
H2
e e e e e
Fe++
Fe++ e Fe++
e e e e 2H + e e
e Fe++ e
Fe++
Figure 2-4 The rate of corrosion of steel in an acid solution is much higher than in a neutral environment, partly because the hydrogen gas easily and quickly escapes the steel surface and partly because the corrosion products are soluble in acid. This prevents the formation of a rust layer that could retard the corrosion process.
Galvanic or Bi-metallic Corrosion

Since steel is less noble, i.e. releases electrons more easily than copper, metallic contact between the two would cause any excess electrons to travel from the steel to the copper. See figure 2-5.
e
STEEL
COPPER
e e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e e e e e ++ Fe++ Fe e e e e ++ 4OH Fe ++ Fe++ Fe H 2O 2O 2
Figure 2-5 In accordance with the traditional concept, an electrical current travels from the copper to the steel (from the positive cathode to the negative anode). The cathode will strive to rid itself of the excess electrons it receives. The anode, on the other hand, will strive to regain its negative potential by releasing more metal ions, corroding. An expression for the rate of corrosion is the flow of electrical current that can be maintained through the electron consuming process on the cathode, and the electron generating process on the anode.
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Corrosion of the steel is accelerated through its contact with copper. The steel suffers galvanic corrosion while the copper is protected cathodically. The most positive (noble) material will be protected against corrosion at the cost of the most negative (ignoble) material. See figure 2-6 table of materials in the Galvanic Series.
+0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Magnesium Zinc Berylium Aluminum Alloys Cadmium Mild Steel, Cast Iron Low Alloy steel Austanitic Nickel Cast Iron Aluminum Bronze Naval Brass, Y ellow Brass, Red Brass Tin Copper PbSn Solder (50/50) Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Brass Manganese Bronze Silicone Bronze Tin Bronzes (G & M) Stainless Steel T ypes 410, 416 Nickel Silver 90-10 Copper -Nickel 80-20 Copper -Nickel Stainless Steel T ype 430 Lead 70-30 Copper -Nickel Nickel Aluminum Bronze NickelChromium Alloy 600 Silver Bronze Alloys Nickel 200 Silver Stainless Steel T ypes 302, 304, 321, 347 NickelCopper Alloys 400, K -500 Stainless Steel T ypes 316, 317 Alloy 20 Stainless Steels, Cast and W rought Nickel-IronChromium Alloy 825 Ni- r-MoC Cu-Si Alloy B Titanium Ni- r-Mo Alloy C C Platinum Graphite . Certain alloys Alloys are listed in the order of the potential they exhibit in flowing seawater indicated by the symbol: inlow -velocity orpoorly aerated waterand atshielded , areas, may become active and exhibit a potential near 0.5 volts.
Figure 2-6 Galvanic Series

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Types of Corrosion
Uniform Corrosion
The most common type of corrosion encountered is the general attack of a more or less uniform nature, although the loss of metal is concentrated at the anode sites and there is a continual change in the surface with time. With progressive metal loss, areas which were initially anodic cease to be active and new anodic sites take over. There is thus a continuous interchange between the anodic and cathodic areas, such that over a period of time the loss of metal over the entire surface is fairly uniform. This is the easiest form of corrosion to combat or allow for because structural life time can be predicted, a feature which is not possible with the following corrosion forms.
Pitting Corrosion
The characteristic of this type of attack is that it is extremely localized and the penetration is deep in relation to the area attacked. Pitting is one of the most dangerous forms of corrosion and often occurs in places where it cannot be readily seen. Pitting corrosion can be extremely intense on mill scaled steel left outside, as shown in figure 2-7 Pitting Corrosion.
RUST W et Surface OH Mil Scale Fe2O 2 OH Cathode O2
e STEEL Anode
Figure 2-7
Crevice Corrosion
Intense localized corrosion, ranging from small pits to extensive attack over the whole surface, can occur within narrow crevices formed by the geometry of a structure, for example: riveted plates or threaded joints. Crevice corrosion is characterized by a geometrical configuration in which the cathode reactant, oxygen, can readily gain access to the metal surface outside the crevice and less access to the crevice. The metal within the crevice is therefore anodic to the surrounding steel and suffers preferential corrosion.
Deposition Corrosion
This is a similar type of attack to that occurring in crevices. Wherever loose debris collect, there will be a depletion in a crevice. Consequently, the attack is localized beneath the loose debris or sediment. See figure 2-8 Deposition Corrosion.
HIGH O2
ACCUMULA TED DEBRIS
Anode Cathode L O 2 OW STEEL
Figure 2-8
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Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)

All metals, even stainless steel, may incur corrosion from microbiologically influenced corrosion, MIC. This type of corrosion has been in existence for a long time and is either completely overlooked or goes unrecognized. However, it is gaining attention in the marine environment as a leading cause of corrosion in cargo, ballast and void spaces. Corrosive bacteria thrive in low oxygen or oxygen free environments and require some type of food source. In an ideal environment microbes may double their mass every 20 minutes, but such conditions rarely exist on board vessels. On board ships microbes can thrive in the water layer at the bottom of oil cargo tanks and in the sediment in ballast tanks. Once bacteria become established, they become difficult to control and may corrode steel up to 1/16 to 1/8 inch per year. The reaction of microbes and steel is not very clear, but this much is known in what they can achieve: 1. Microbes produce acids 2. Destroy coatings 3. Create corrosive cells 4. Produce hydrogen sulfide
Types of Bacteria that Cause Corrosion

The two most common types of bacteria that cause corrosion are Acid Producing Bacteria (APB) and Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). Both live in colonies attached to the surface of the steel where they assist each other in their growth. Acid Producing Bacteria ( APBs ) These are generally the first to colonize the surface of the steel inside ballast and cargo tanks. APBs feed on organic compounds such as oil and oil products to form organic acids. APBs thrive in conditions where there is very little oxygen. Stagnant waters in ballast tanks create this condition. In utilizing the residual oxygen about them they create a very acidic environment beneath the colony. By consuming the small amount of oxygen about them, an oxygen free environment is developed making conditions ideal for Sulfate Reducing Bacteria to develop. Sulfate Reducing Bacteria ( SRBs ) Sulfate Reducing Bacteria thrive only in an oxygen free environment. The oxygen they require is extracted by removing oxygen from the sulfate ion in seawater. SRBs also utilize hydrocarbons as a food source, but prefer the organic acids given off by the APBs. Once the oxygen is removed from the sulfate ion, they discard the sulfide in the form of hydrogen sulfide. The combination of the hydrogen sulfide and organic acids under the colonies create a condition that is highly aggressive to steel and the characteristic craters or pits are formed.
Detecting Bacteria
Initial detection is first achieved visually by noting a black slime deposit on the surface of the steel. Also, the detection of Hydrogen Sulfide, rotten egg smell, could possibly be noted. Corrosion attributed to MIC is almost always highly localized pitting. The pits are generally filled with a black ferrous product. The walls of the pit are generally terraced. The metal surface below the corrosion products is often bright and active. Another method for detecting the presence of MIC can be accomplished by taking samples and sending them to a recognized laboratory where cultures are grown to determine the type of bacteria involved. Enzyme tests may also be utilized. See figure 2-9.
O2 OxygenContaining W ater Cl
ei o c A er bi Bact ra alDeposii g tn M et ei B act ra
Cl
O 2 + 2HO + 4e 4OH 2 Oxide ayer L
Anode M M2 + 2e
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Coatings and MIC

Soft coatings Rapid attack by bacteria on soft coatings is the result of the base product, paraffin and oil, being a nutrient for bacteria growth. Alkyds Alkyd coatings use an organic binder dissolved in solvents to form a protective barrier after the solvent evaporates. Because alkyds have a high base organic and hydrocarbon compounds, they would probably be rapidly attacked by bacteria. Vinyls Vinyls are also rapidly attacked by some types of bacteria, especially molds and mildew, and would not perform well when exposed to bacteria. Epoxies Epoxies are chemically cured and their resistance to bacteria would be dependent on the type of epoxy and the solvent used as a curing agent. If the epoxy became porous or mechanical damage should occur, it would come under attack by bacteria. Amine cured epoxies are the most susceptible to bacteria acid attack, with the imide cured epoxies being the most resilient. Epoxy Novolac is an example of a good, albeit expensive coating. Coal Tar Epoxy has good resistance against acid attack due to the properties of the coal tar pitch. It resists bacterial attack due to its phenol content. Urethanes Urethanes are also chemically cured coatings and have shown good resistance to bacterial attack. Bacteria will grow on urethane, but will not degrade the coating. Cathodic Protection Supplementing a coating protection system with anodes causes the pH within the tank or space to increase. The high pH creates a calcareous deposit to occur on the surface of the steel. Bacteria do not usually thrive in areas where the pH level in the space is in the range of 10 to 11. If the pH level goes below this level the bacteria growth level will return to normal levels in less than a half a day.
Protection from MIC

Utilizing a protective coating system or a combination of coatings and cathodic protection in cargo and ballast tanks can protect a vessel from the onslaught of MIC. Locations where MIC can become a problem are in the ballast tank, where water can become stagnant, and in the sediment in the bottom of the tank. MIC is a problem in cargo tanks in the water layer that collects in the bottom of cargo tanks where generally there is a good supply of hydrocarbon food source in this area. Coatings act as a barrier between the surface of the steel and the environment it is being subjected to. Anodes protect the steel at the imperfections in the coating. Bacteria are able to utilize some of the compounds within the various coating systems as nutrients, causing deterioration within coating systems. Utilizing biocides for treating bacterial affected areas have been used, but these have short time effects. Biocides such as chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, iodine and quaternary amine have been used. Also, at the new construction phase, design features should be utilized in eliminating areas for the accumulation of mud and sediment. Also, proper drainage of all liquids to a common stripping area is desired to eliminate the possibility of stagnant water accumulating. Good design is safe, environmentally acceptable and permanent. References 1. John S. Smart, Ph.D. Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of Ships 2. Gregory Kobrin Corrosion by Microbiological Organisms in Natural Waters 3. E. C. Hill and G. C. Hill Microbiological Pitting Corrosion Old Problems in New Places 4. Bruce Sawvel Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
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CHAPTER THREE: Paints for Purposes

ost of the important properties of a paint are determined by its binder and the manner in which the film is formed. These general properties cannot be notably changed, but in the formulation of paints it is possible to enhance, modify, or even add to these basic characteristics. The result is a much wider range of paint types than would off hand appear from the generic classification. Some of these types are more often referred to by their function or purpose, than by their generic type. In this chapter the following are described:
Anticorrosives Shop Primers/Holding Primers Antifoulants
ANTICORROSIVES
In corrosion prevention with paints, three main principles are employed: Create a barrier that keeps out charged ions and retards the penetration of water and oxygen. Ensure that water on its passage through the paint coating takes on special properties or compounds inhibiting its corrosive action. Ensure metallic contact between the steel and a less noble metal, such as zinc, affords cathodic protection of the steel by utilizing the galvanic effect.
Barrier Effect
Barrier effect is obtained by applying thick coatings, 10 to 20mils., of paint with very low water permeability. Typical representatives are: Bitumen Coal tar epoxy Epoxy By adding flake pigments, such as leafing aluminum, a barrier effect can be achieved at lower film thickness. The flake pigments are oriented parallel to the steel surface, and water trying to pass through has to select the more complicated and longer passage around the pigments. See figure 3-1
Figure 3-1
For permanently immersed steel, the first and often the only choice of protection in coating protection is to utilize the barrier effect. If a barrier coating is damaged, the damaged area is open for corrosion to begin. Corrosion can then proceed into the steel substrate and outwards under the intact coating, known as under rusting. Thus, where there is a risk of mechanical damage, additional protection such as cathodic protection is sometimes provided.
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Inhibitor Effect
A corrosion inhibitive effect is achieved by using primers containing inhibitors. These are soluble or basic pigments designed to suppress the corrosion process. Example of types of inhibitors utilized are: Zinc Chromate Zinc Phosphate Zinc Metaborate Red lead Calcium Plumbate (The first three inhibitors do not contain metallic zinc particles) Inhibitors are and must be somewhat water soluble. To prevent them from being washed out of the primer coats, top coats without inhibitors are applied to provide the barrier necessary for the inhibitive primer to last. Due to water solubility of the pigments used, inhibitive primers are not suited for prolonged immersion. This exposure would result in blistering and early breakdown of the coating system. When damaged, a reasonable protection against rust creeping or under rusting is afforded, but the damaged area is exposed to corrosion.
Galvanic Effect
Protection of steel through the galvanic effect, cathodic protection, can be achieved with paints containing large amounts of metallic zinc. A condition for effective protection is that the paint is formulated to give metallic contact between the individual zinc particles and between zinc particles and the steel. Typical binder for zinc dust paints are: Epoxy Ethyl Silicate Alkali Silicate The very nature of these paints requires an absolutely clean steel surface and, especially for the zinc silicates, a rather well defined surface profile for a lasting coating system. When applied, zinc silicates are initially rather porous. After a while the pourousness is filled with corrosion products from the zinc, and a barrier is formed. When damaged, the galvanic effect is re-established at the damaged area and protected effectively against rust creeping. Since the corrosion products of zinc (zinc salts) are slightly water soluble, zinc dust paints are not normally suited for permanent water immersion service, but zinc silicate, because of its superior solvent resistance, is the favored protection in ballast tanks.
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SHOP PRIMERS
Shop primers, also referred to as pre-construction primers, are anticorrosives designed for application in automated plants to plates or profiles prior to assembly or construction.
Demands
The special demands of these primers are: Provide protection against corrosion during the construction period. Spray applicable in a variety of automatic installations. Time between application and dry to handle is very brief. Should not influence the speed of welding or cutting. Must not produce noxious or toxic fumes during the welding or cutting process. Must not influence the strength of the welds. Should be able to withstand comparatively rough handling. Should form a suitable base for the widest possible range of coating systems.
Properties
Consequent to the requirements listed above, shop primers possess properties not normally found in paints designed for other purposes. They are applied in low film thickness, 3 to 5 mils., and do not interfere with the speed of cutting or welding. Reasonable protection at such low film thickness can only be achieved if the coating follows the contours, (surface profile), of the blasted steel.
Figure 3-2 Inherent in the formulation of shop primers are fast drying and retarded flow properties. A side effect of this is low cohesive strength. Shop primers applied with excessive dry film thickness, DFT, have a pronounced tendency to crack. To achieve the desired protection and avoid immediate or subsequent cracking, the dry film thickness of the primer must be closely monitored and the manufacturers specification followed closely. This exactness is usually found in automated paint facilities. Where temporary protection to blast cleaned steel is applied by hand spray, as in a maintenance situation, one would choose a suitable anticorrosive, holding primer with a reasonably long re-coating interval and apply it in a lower than usual film thickness. Anticorrosive primers suitable, and frequently used, for this purpose are referred to as holding primers. They are ideally based on the same generic type as the top coat to follow.
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Types of Shop Primers

The most widely accepted shop primers are: Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) Epoxy Iron Oxide Zinc Epoxy Zinc Silicate A general summary of the more important properties of these shop primers are in Table 3-1
Type of Shop Primers Property Delivery Solvents and Thinners Dry Film Thickness Anticorrosive Properties Mechanical Strength Recoatability Resistance to 4 ICCP Zinc Expoxy two pack esters, ketones, aromatics 12-20 um very good good sometimes critical Not usually used with ICCP Zinc Silicate two pack or one pack water or alcohols 12-20 um excellent excellent critical Not usually used with ICCP Epoxy Iron Oxide two pack esters, ketones aromatics 20-20 um good good sometimes critical good PVB two pack or one pack alcohols, ketones, aromatics 15-25 um fair good good limited
Table 3-1
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ANTIFOULINGS
Ships underwater hulls are painted to protect the building material, usually steel, and prevent undue roughness. The effect of roughness on the hull area is an increase in resistance to movement, resulting in reduced speed and/or increased fuel consumption. The penalty is a higher operating cost.
Fouling
The most severe hull roughness is that caused by fouling, the growth of various marine plants, animals, and organisms. Some 20% of the fuel bill for the Royal Navy, it is estimated, is caused by fouling.
The Organisms
Many of the species populating the oceans swim or are carried by the ocean currents. Others are compelled to attach themselves to a firm surface to fulfill their life cycles. Every available space is contested and covered by a variety of marine growth. The number of species involved in fouling is estimated to be as high 4 to 5,000.
Micro-Organisms
The micro-organisms are the first to settle. They form the primary bio-film or slime layer. The most significant ones are: Bacteria Diatoms (unicellular algae)
Macro-Organisms
Macro-organisms are big enough to be seen without the aid of a microscope. Example of macro-organisms are: Algae (sea weed or grass) Animals (Hard and Soft Shelled) Among the hard shelled animals, barnacles, goosenecks, tubeworms, bryozoans, and mussels are the most common. Soft bodied animals found most commonly are hydroids and tunicates.
Distribution
Fouling is generally regarded as being most dominant in ports, harbors, and coastal areas where firm surfaces on which to settle abound. The distribution of macro-organisms on a ship is seldom uniform. This is due partly to differences in flow conditions on the hull and partly to differences in the settling pattern of the organisms. A relatively well defined vertical zone division can normally be observed. Since algae depends on light for its existence, this type of fouling is predominant to a depth of approximately two meters. This is the algae zone and is fouled first and most heavily. On the vertical bottom, below the algae zone, scattered fouling of barnacles, encrusting bryozoans, tubeworms and goosenecks are common. The flat bottom is dominated by hydroids, barnacles, mussels, tunicates, bryozoans, and sometimes goosenecks. Severity and distribution of macro-organisms on a ships underwater hull will be influenced by the ships trading and operational pattern. Algae settles in a matter of hours, whereas animals normally require a couple of days. Very few organisms can attach themselves at speeds in excess of four knots. The settlement of micro-organisms, bacteria and diatoms, are not confined to specific zones or areas. It is comparatively uniform and independent of the vessels service pattern.
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Antifoulant Paints
The antifouling paints used today are based on physically drying binders. They prevent fouling by releasing bioactive materials that interfere with the biological processes of the fouling organisms. Bioactive materials used today are mainly cuprous oxide or organo-tin compounds. These compounds are used either individually or as a combination of each.
Classification of Antifouling Paints

Antifouling paints differ basically in their load or concentration of bioactive material and in the mechanism controlling the release of that material. According to the manner in which bioactive material is leached from the coating, antifoulants may be grouped as the following: Soluble Matrix Types (non polishing) Insoluble Matrix Types (non polishing) Self Polishing Types Particularly in the latter two groups a great number of grades (type /concentration of bioactive material) will be found.
Soluble Matrix (non polishing)

Such antifoulants have, as a main constituent of their binder, a sea water soluble resin. As the binder dissolves, the bioactive material is released. The release rate is uneven and since the binder is comparatively weak the load of bioactive material is low.
Non-P olishing soluble matrix
12
L T
LT
Release rate of BIOACTIVE MATERIAL
TV TIME
LT
Figure 3-3 Soluble Matrix (non polishing)

Bioactive materials
General Properties Effective protection rather limited (up to approximately 12 months). Only antifoulant type that can be safely applied over soft, bitumen, primers. The binder oxidizes and is sensitive to sunlight. Therefore the vessel must be launched or floated soon after curing. Sensitive to oil pollution (mineral and fish oils) Due to the low strength of the binder, subject to cold flow.
Binder Anticorrosive primer LT TV Lifetime of antifouling Threshold Value, minimum release i.e., rat ofbioactive material required protecti for against fouling .
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Insoluble Matrix (non polishing)

These antifoulants may be based on a vinyl binder. These have high mechanical strength and are not affected by seawater, therefore, the load of bioactive material must be high enough for the particles of this material to be in contact with each other.
12
Non-P olishing -insoluble matrix
L T
LT
TV
Self-P olishing 0 LT
Figure 3-4 Insoluble Matrix (non polishing) General Properties Medium extended effective protection (up to 24 to 30 months, depending on trading pattern). No risk to cold flow. Re-activation (removal of empty matrix) possible through scrubbing (Scamp cleaning). Empty matrix may become blocked by pollutants. An empty matrix, because of its sponge like properties, should be scaled off prior to a fresh or new coat of antifoulant is applied.
Bioactive materials Binder Anticorrosive primer LT TV Lifetime of antifouling Threshold Value, minimum release i.e., rate ofbioactive material required protection for against fouling .
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Self Polishing
These are based on acrylic binders incorporating organo-tin in the very polymers of the binder. In contact with sea water it dissolves at an even and predictable rate. As the antifoulant wears off/polishes the bioactive material, organo-tin is released at an even rate.
0
12
L T
LT
TV
LT
Figure 3-5 Self Polishing General Properties Medium to very high effective protection against fouling (up to 48 months). Excellent mechanical strength and stability. Effective life is directly proportional to applied film thickness. No sealer coat required at subsequent dry dockings . Remaining antifoulant becomes an effective part of the new system (can overcoat).
Roughness
Self polishing antifoulants cannot turn a rough hull into a smooth one. They can maintain and preserve an existing smoothness and, since the polishing rate is higher on roughness peaks than valleys, even improve smoothness. The use of self polishing antifoulants prevents the accumulation over the years of old and spent antifoulant systems, and thus greatly contribute to maintaining a smooth underwater hull. Roughness development versus time, as a function of the type and grade of antifoulant, can be qualified by computer simulation and the economical impact predicted. This can serve as the basis for selecting the most economical coating system for each individual vessel.
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CHAPTER FOUR: Surface Preparation
ood surface preparation is, perhaps, the most important part of the entire coating job, in that the greatest percentage of coating failures can be traced directly to poor surface preparation. No paint system will give optimum performance over a poorly prepared surface. All paint systems will fail prematurely unless the surface has been properly prepared to receive the coating material. If contaminants such as oil, grease, dirt, salts, chemicals, etc. are not removed from the surface to be coated, adhesion will be compromised, and/or osmotic blistering will occur. Loose rust left on the surface will cause a loosening of the coating and eventual loss of adhesion. Also, good surface preparation roughens the surface to assist in obtaining the proper surface profile, thereby promoting better coating performance in the areas of adhesion, abrasion resistance, chemical and water resistance, as well as the long term cosmetic appearance of the paint system. The following table provides a Summary of Surface Preparation Standards and a cross-reference of those Standards by various world-wide agencies. There are differences which can be important in some instances; care is advised when a crossover is required. While these standards are limited to steel substrates by use of common sense, many of the techniques, with their inherent advantages and disadvantages, hold true for substrates.
PREPARATION STANDARDS
Nonabrasive Blast Cleaning Solvent Cleaning Hand Tool Cleaning Power Tool Cleaning Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal
NACE1
SSPC2 SSPC-SP-1 SSPC-SP-2 SSPC-SP-3 SSPC-SP-11
Abrasive Blast Cleaning White Metal Near-White Metal Commercial Brush-Off NACE-1 NACE-2 NACE-3 NACE-4 SSPC-SP-5 SSPC-SP-10 SSPC-SP-6 SSPC-SP-7
Water Blasting
NACE-5
SPS-SP-12
Figure 4-1 NACE = National Association of Corrosion Engineers SSPC = Steel Structures Painting Council
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Solvent Cleaning (SSPC-SP-1)

A process of using solvents, expanded more recently to include other cleaning compounds, to remove oil, grease, and other contaminants. This process is best utilized as a preliminary step in the total surface preparation procedure. Solvents are no longer the recommended cleaner, as they may become an impediment rather than a help, if not properly removed. If solvent cleaning is chosen, then safety is very important. Adequate ventilation and minimizing the potential fire hazard are paramount. Clean-up rags should be changed often to prevent smearing. A proprietary water soluble oil and grease remover and fresh water washing is the perfect method of achieving this standard. (Some will also etch the surface, further promoting adhesion.)
Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-2)

This method is the slowest and usually the least satisfactory method of surface preparation. Wire brushing, in fact, can make the surface worse by polishing rather than cleaning the rusted surface. Scrapers, chipping hammers, or chisels can be used to remove loose, non adherent pain, rust or scale, but is usually considered incomplete. For this reason, the area to be prepared should be sufficiently small to allow for the time required.
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Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP-3)

The advantage of power (electrical or air) tool methods over hand tools, is that they are generally less laborious, but, as with manual, easier to feather loose coatings back to tight impact paint. The effectiveness of cleaning will depend on the effort and endurance of the operator, and becomes especially tiring when working above shoulder height. Some of the more popular methods are as follows:
Rotary Wire Brushing

This method does have some value, depending upon the condition of the surface. Loose powdery rust can be removed but hard scale will resist the abrasion of the wire bristles. When rust scale is intact and adherent to the substrate, rotary wire brushing tends to merely burnish the surface of the rust scale, but does not remove it. Care should be exercised, in that the burnished surface may give the appearance of a well cleaned surface, which is often misleading.
Mechanical Descaling
Needle Guns, Roto-Peen, and other pounding type instruments are effective to some degree in removing thick rust and scale. The action of these types of devices is dependent upon cutting blade or point pounding the surface and breaking away the scale. Cleaning is only effective at the actual points of contact. The intermediate areas are only partially cleaned, because the brittle scale disintegrates, but the lowermost layer of rust and scale remains attached to the substrate. This may be sufficient for surface tolerant epoxies.
Rotary Power Discing

Of the power tool methods, this one is the most effective in producing a surface suitable for the application of most types of coating systems, especially for most on-board maintenance. While effective, discing should generally be limited to localized areas of fairly severe corrosion or more widespread light corrosion, because, once again, this method can be quite slow and labor intensive. Normally silicon carbide discs are used and the grade selected to suit the conditions of the surface to be abraded. It is important to change the discs at regular intervals in order to maintain efficiency. Care should be exercised in the selection of the grit size and type of disc to be utilized, so that the surface is not excessively smoothed, thereby reducing the ability of the paint to adhere. Irregular and pitted surfaces may require a combination of the various power tool cleaning methods to maximize effectiveness.
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Abrasive Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP-5,6,7,10)

This is by far the most efficient and effective method of removing paint, rust, mill scale, etc. from substrates, also, it is generally considered to provide the proper surface profile to promote coating adherence. However, compared to the methods discussed above, it is also the most expensive method. For this reason, it is chosen to reduce the time for surface preparation, or to achieve standards of cleanliness that are only attainable by some type of abrasive blasting. It is not feasible to provide a complete treatise on the types of blasting, types, and sizes of grit available, surface profiles, and mechanics of abrasive grit blasting, however, each abrasive blast standard will be defined as follows:
SSPC-SP-5, NACE No. 1, Swedish Sa 3

White Metal Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This blast standard is defined as a surface with a gray-white, uniform metallic color, slightly roughened to form a suitable profile for coatings. This surface shall be free of all oil, grease, dirt, visible mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint, or any other foreign mater. This surface shall have a color characteristic of the abrasive media used.
SSPC-SP-10, NACE No. 2, Swedish Sa 2 1/2

Near White Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This finish surface is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, mill scale, rust, corrosion products, oxides, paint or other foreign matter have been removed except for very light shadows, very light streaks, or slight discolorations. At least 95% of a surface shall have the appearance of a surface blast cleaned to a white metal surface finish, and the remainder shall be limited to the light discoloration mentioned above.

Commercial Blast Cleaned Surface Finish. This finish is defined as one from which all oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, and foreign matter have been completely removed from the surface and all (Sa 2 provides for almost all) rust, mill scale, and old paint have been completely removed except for slight shadows, streaks, or discolorations. At least 67% of the surface area shall be free of all visible residues and the remainder shall be limited to light discoloration, slight staining, or light residues mentioned above.

Brush Off Blast Cleaned Surface. This finish is defined as one from which oil, grease, dirt, rust scale, loose mill scale, loose rust and loose paint or coatings are removed completely, but light mill scale and tightly adhered rust, paint, and coatings are permitted to remain, provided they have been exposed to the abrasive blast pattern sufficiently to expose numerous flecks of the underlying metal fairly uniformly distributed over the entire surface.
Water Jetting and Hydroblasting

As discussed previously dry abrasive blasting is the most commonly used method of surface preparation. Accompanied with this style of preparation are some known problems. In general with abrasive blasting the resultant flying abrasive particles and drifting dust may damage equipment, clog filters and create possible environmental problems. Also, it is possible to trap contaminants on the surface of the substrate being cleaned. Government regulations are continuously investigating and developing more environmentally sensitive and user friendly methods of surface preparation. The use of hydroblasting is becoming an increasing viable means to accomplish this. Standards from both NACE and SSPC are being developed to satisfy this need. It should be noted that hydroblasting does not produce a profile on the steel surface as does abrasive blasting. It does, however, expose the original abrasive blast surface profile. To be an effective agent the water being used should be pure enough that it does not contaminate the surface being cleaned. Pressures used in hydroblasting can exceed 35,000 psi. This pressure removes most contaminants, such as salts, dirt, grease and rust scale. Utilized sometimes in this type of preparation are inhibitors which are added to the water to help prevent flash rusting prior to coating being applied. Advantages to hydroblasting are: Water as a cleaning material is generally available in inexpensive large quantities. Lack of contamination of surrounding areas because there are no abrasive particles. Lack of dust.
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CHAPTER FIVE: Methods of Paint Application
he objective in applying paint coatings are to provide films which will give protection and, normally to a lesser extent, decoration to the structure being painted. The variables which govern the success of any application are:
Surface preparation Film build and total thickness of system Methods of application Atmospheric conditions during application
Methods of Application
The normal methods of application of paint coatings are by: Brush Roller Conventional Spray Airless Spray High-Volume, Low Pressure spray (HVLP) Other methods may also be encountered, such as dipping and pouring, and more sophisticated adaptations of spraying such as electrostatic, powder coatings application, and automatic plants, but in this paper we will concentrate on the four basic methods detailed.
Brush Application
The historical method of paint application is not as fast as spraying or rolling and is generally used for the coating of small complicated or complex areas or where the need for clean working with no overspray precludes the use of spray application. When painting it is important to dip the brush in paint frequently and not to over-brush the surface, as this will result in large variations in film thickness, the inherent problem with brush application. Choice of brush, both size, length and type of bristle, and shape, are important, and the type of paint being applied will modify the selection. Thus, large flat brushes are normally used for the majority of purposes, but round brushes are better for painting bolt-heads and difficult areas. Special brushes are available with offset heads and long handles to facilitate painting the backs of structures and inaccessible areas. Brush application is most suited to the slower drying, normal build type of coatings, and will not always be suitable for the more sophisticated fast-drying or hi-build materials. It is often not possible to achieve the required film thickness in the same number of coats as with spray application, and multi-coat applications are necessary to give the specified film build.
Roller Application
Roller application is faster than brush on large, flat surfaces, such as tank sides and tops and walkways and deck areas, but it is not so good for difficult areas. It is hard to control film thickness, however, and care must always be taken that the coating is not over-rolled in the same manner that it can be over-brushed. Choice of roller pile (short or long hair, sponge or lambs wool) is dependent on type of coating and roughness and irregularity of surface being coated.
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Conventional Spray
This is a widely accepted, rapid method of applying paint to large surfaces. The equipment is relatively simple and is usually confined to fairly low-viscosity paints, although newer techniques using pressure-pot or hot spray apparatus allow application of some of the higher build type coatings. Whatever type of equipment is used, the mechanisms is the same. Paint and air are fed separately to the spray gun and mixed at the nozzle, where the paint is atomized and air is mixed with these droplets forming a fine mist of paint which is carried by the air pressure to the work surface. It is important to have only sufficient air to provide good atomization, as excess air gives rise to overspray and rebound from the work surface. The gun should be held at right angles to the work surface with the nozzle some 6-8 (15-20 cms) away. Normal air pressure is from 40-80 psi (2.8-5.6 kg/cm2). The pattern of the fan so produced is controlled by adjusting the air and fluid pressures. A change in paint type can be accommodated by different sizes of nozzles.
Airless Spray
By far the most important and efficient method for the application of heavy duty marine coatings. As the name implies, it is a technique of spray application which does not rely on the mixing of the paints with air to provide atomization, which is achieved by forcing the paint through a specially designed nozzle or tip at very high pressures, as compared with air pressure associated with conventional spray, 2500-3500 psi, (176-246 kg/cm2).
High-Volume, Low Pressure Spray

High-Volume, Low Pressure spray systems use a high volume of air delivered at 10 psi or less to atomize a coating into a soft low velocity pattern. This reduction in the air stream compared to conventional spray systems (40 - 70 psi) results in: A more controlled spray pattern Reduced bounce back Reduced overspray Reduced VOC emissions Savings in materials Less hazardous waste Reduced overspray improves visibility, which reduces operator error, and therefore improves finish quality. For example, two thirds or more of every gallon of coating sprayed by conventional methods can be lost to overspray, compared with one pint per gallon or less when using high-volume, low pressure. HVLP is made more graphic by the current trend in regulations regarding the amount of material being applied versus the amount lost to over spray. California enacted legislation requiring all spray equipment deliver at least 65% transfer of material to the surface being coated. Similar legislation is pending in other states.
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CHAPTER SIX: Alternatives To Hard Coatings & Cathodic Protection
here are several different alternate coatings to choose from other than a hard coating. The alternative coatings are divided into two categories dependent on their properties: Soft Coatings Semihard Coatings
Soft Coatings
Soft Coatings are coatings that remain soft, so that they wear off at a low mechanical impact or evenly only when touched by hand. These coatings will give temporary protection of rusted steel surfaces and must be maintained or re-coated every year or every second year. These coatings always remain soft and can be damaged or removed by walking or touching. Semihard Coatings Semihard Coatings are coatings that dry in such a way that they stay soft and flexible, but are hard enough to touch and walk upon and will not wear off or erode by ballast water movement. This coating also gives temporary protection of rusted steel. Of the two aforementioned coatings, the semi-hard is the preferred coating for protection of steel surfaces when a good hard coating is not applied. It is important to note that alternative coating products are very diverse and can vary by: Chemistry Method of Protection Thickness Opacity Preparation Application
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Chemistry
Products can be one or a combination of the following: Lanolin/wool grease based Petroleum based Vegetable oil based Organic or inorganic Each type has its own unique characteristics and corrosion protection capabilities.
Method of Protection
Products can be classed by one or a combination of the following: Corrosion inhibitor (interacts with oxides to prevent further oxidation) Corrosion barrier (prevents oxygen from reaching metal surface) It should be noted that a pure corrosion barrier product will still allow a corrosion cell to be active underneath the product, while a corrosion inhibitor stops this activity.
Thickness
Product film thickness can vary from a thin film of 3 mils. up to a thick film of 80 mils. This is an important feature to consider when inspecting a tank, since a thicker product may be a safety hazard and require spot removal in order to view the steel surface or structure underneath.
Opacity
The products are either: Opaque (dark or black) Gray Transparent This feature will have an impact on the inspection of the tank. The opaque products will require spot removal to allow for inspection of the steel surface, whereas the transparent product could allow the inspector to view most of the steel surface, without removing the coating.
Preparation
All silt, mill scale, sheet scale, cement, oil, grease or chemical contaminants must be removed. The bare metal substrate must be visible. This is to a SSPC Standard of SP-2. De-scaling until all loose material is removed is required. Old grease, if still remaining, should be scraped off, followed by degreasing using hot water jetting. Hydroblasting, when used, should be at a recommended pressure of 6000 psi. Prior to application the surface should be dry. This to be accomplished either by ventilation or dehumidification.
Application
Products are to be applied by either brush, roller, or airless spray. Most soft coating are applied via a float method. This method will require additional product, but no staging. Care must be taken to adhere to pollution prevention procedures when applying coatings in this method.
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Cathodic Protection
Metallic Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon, metal degradation being accompanied by the passage of electrons. Consequently, as a metal corrodes it takes on its own electrical potential, known as the corrosion potential, with respect to a fixed reference. Table 6-1 gives the relative tendencies of commercially available metals to corrode in seawater.
Metal Electrode Potential (VOLTS Versus: Standard Calomel Electrode) Magnesium..........................................................................-1.50 BASE (IGNOBLE) Zinc ........................................................................................-1.03 CORRODED END Aluminum ............................................................................-0.79 Cast Iron ...............................................................................-0.61 Mils Steel..............................................................................-0.61 Lead........................................................................................-0.50 Tin...........................................................................................-0.42 Brass.......................................................................................-0.30 Copper...................................................................................-0.28 Cupro Nickel........................................................................-0.25 Bronze ...................................................................................-0.23 Nickel.....................................................................................-0.14 Silver......................................................................................-0.13 Titanium................................................................................-0.10 CORROSION RESISTANT END Table 6-1: Galvanic Series When two dissimilar metals become electrically connected and are exposed to the same solution (seawater) their individual corrosion behavior can become significantly altered, particularly if the difference in their corrosion potentials is large. When mild steel and copper are in contact, for example, the mild steel, being the more base metal, suffers greater corrosion than it would if the two metals were isolated. The corrosion of the more noble copper is reduced.
ELECTRON FL OW
COPPER (CATHODE) PRO TECTED
MILD STEEL (ANODE) ACCELERA TED CORROSION
SEA W ATER
Figure 6-1
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In the same way that the corrosion of copper is reduced, as shown above, the corrosion rate of mild steel can be significantly lowered by connecting it to zinc, which is near the end of the galvanic series. The zinc is referred to as the sacrificial anode and the prevention of corrosion of the mild steel is by cathodic protection.
ELECTRON FL OW
ZINC (ANODE) ACCELERA TED CORROSION
MILD STEEL (CATHODE) PRO TECTED
SEA W ATER
Figure 6-2 As an alternative to sacrificial cathodic corrosion protection, it is also possible to suppress the corrosion of mild steel in seawater by using impressed current cathodic protection. In the same way that coupling mild steel to zinc results in a flow of electrons to the mild steel to prevent metal loss, an auxiliary anode made from a non-consumable material, platinised niobium, replaces the anode of the sacrificial system. The arrangement is shown schematically in figure 6-3.
+ ANODE D C POWER SOURCE CURRENT FLOW REF ELECTRODE
PRO TECTED STRUCTURE
Figure 6-3 Generally the structure would be coated, otherwise the current requirement for protection would be too expensive. Cathodic protection systems are generally used in conjunction with painted steel, protection being afforded to gaps or breaks in the coating.
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CHAPTER SEVEN: Glossary of Frequently Used Coating Terms

AIR DRYING PAINTS: are paints which dry and form a film when exposed to air, without any external heat being applied. Oil and alkyd paints are usually air drying. is a method of paint spraying which does not use compressed air to atomize the paint. In this method, the paint is put under great pressure (up tp 5000 psi - 360 kg/sq.cm) and is atomized by being forced through a small nozzle. Airless spray is a very fast and efficient method of application since the paint is forced into the surface at very high speed, which assists in wetting the surface. is a synthetic resin made by reacting two chemicals in the presence of a natural or processed oil. Because of the wide variety of possible constituents, alkyds can be tailor-made to meet conditions found in practice. a piece of metal fixed to steel to provide cathodic protection. Anodes must be fixed so that they are in electrical contact with the steel they have to protect, and must not be greased or painted. for underwater use on hulls. Contains agents which prevent the adhesion and growth of organisms on the hull. Antifoulings are formulated so that the control agents migrate into water closest to the hull, making it repel organisms. the component in paint or varnish which binds the constituents to the surface. Depending on the type of paint, most manufacturers use binders based on alkyds, chlorinated rubbers, epoxies, etc.
AIRLESS SPRAY:
ALKYD:
ANODE:
ANTIFOULING:
BINDER:
CATHODIC PROTECTION: a method of altering the electrical characteristics of steel so that it is less liable to rust in water. Steel protected in this way has to be painted with particularly resistant paint systems. COAL TAR EPOXY: a combination of epoxy resins and tar which, in a paint, give a very water resistant film. A curing agent must be added if curing is to take place.
CONVENTIONAL PAINTS: a collective description of paints based on naturally occurring binders, such as bitumen, alkyds, and oils. They are all one pack types, and usually react with air to dry and cure. EMULSION PAINTS: paints in which the binder is dispersed in water (emulsified) e.g. polyvinyl acetate (PVA), acrylics etc. The paints dry as soon as the water evaporates and the emulsified droplets of resin join together to form a solid film. epoxy resins which are cured by chemically reacting with a curing agent such as amines, amine adducts, and polyamides. Properties can be tailored to meet a wide range of needs. is the thickness of the paint or system. The recommended film thickness for each product are given in the Technical Data Sheets. The protection given by a paint depends on the applied thickness. Specialized equipment is available to measure the film thickness. the temperature at which the vapor of a material will be ignited by a spark or open flame. It is measured under standardized conditions. is a coating which chemically converts during its curing process, normally used for new construction, or non-convertible air drying coating which may be used for maintenance purposes. Hard coating can be either inorganic or organic. a resin used in emulsion paints. powders, insoluble in resins, which give the paint its color, finish, and protective properties.
EPOXY:
FILM THICKNESS:
FLASHPOINT:
HARD COATINGS:
LATEX: PIGMENTS:
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POLYMER:
a high molecular weight material created from lower molecular weight constituents by chemical reaction. Polymers with resinous characteristics are frequently used in paints. a resin with special characteristics. Paints based on polyurethane are either one or two pack, are extremely hard wearing, and are generally resistant to chemicals. They may be formulated to be exceptionally color stable and weather resistant. the time for which a two pack paint or varnish can remain mixed before it should be discarded. The paint should be used within this time, since the curing will be so far advanced by then that the paint will not behave in the normal manner. Paint must never be allowed to remain in spray equipment after the expiry of it potlife see Emulsion Paints a material used as a binder constituent which forms a noncrystalline film when dried. coating which dries in such a way that it stays flexible, but still hard enough to touch and walk upon. These coatings do not appreciably erode with the usual ballast water movement. Such coatings provide temporary protection of existing structures. a rust preventing paint for temporary protection of blasted steel immediately after blasting. Shopprimers will protect the surface from corrosion during construction and until the final paint system is applied. coating that remains soft so that it wears off at low mechanical impact or when touched by hand; often based on oils (vegetable of petroleum) or lanolin (sheeps wool grease), these coatings are generally used to give temporary protection to existing structures.
POLYURETHANE:
POTLIFE:
PVA PAINT: RESIN: SEMI-HARD COATING:
SHOPPRIMER:
SOFT COATINGS:
SOPHISTICATED PAINTS: are paints which are based on unconventional binders, such as epoxies, chlorinated rubbers, vinyls, etc. Generally, sophisticated paints give a higher level of protection than conventional paints, but are not so simple to handle. SPREADING RATE: TAR EPOXY: the area which is covered by one liter of paint. see Coal Tar Epoxy
THERMOPLASTIC PAINTS: are paints which dry by evaporation of solvent only. The binder is unreactive. THIXOTROPIC PAINTS: have a semi-solid or gel consistency when undisturbed, but flow readily when stirred or shaken, or when being applied. The process is reversible, and a fluid paint reverts to a gel consistency when the disturbance ceases. When applied, thixo-tropic paints will flow easily as long as they are being worked, but quickly regain a gel consistency which assists in preventing runs and sags. used to describe paints which are supplied in two separate containers and which have to be mixed together before use. a pigment with corrosion preventing properties. zinc-filled paints based on an inorganic binder. Zinc silicates. zinc filled paints based on a large proportion of metallic zinc in powder form. They usually contain more than 85% zinc in the dry film and provide very hard films, and are resistant to solvents.
TWO PACK PAINTS:
ZINC PHOSPHATE: ZINC SILICATE PAINTS: ZINC-RICH PAINTS:
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CHAPTER EIGHT: Assessment Scale for Breakdown

ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING SURFACE COATING SYSTEMS
For the purpose of consistent assessments of the degree of effectiveness of an existing surface coating system, it is suggested that the following rating be used: GOOD condition with only minor spot rusting. FAIR condition with local breakdown at edges of stiffeners and weld connections and/or light rustling over 20% or more of areas under consideration, but less than as defined for POOR condition. POOR condition with general breakdown of coating over 20% or more of areas or hard scale at 10% or more of areas under consideration. Tanker Structure Co-Operative Forum has tabulated the above definitions as follows:
DEFINITION OF COATING CONDITIONS

Rating/Condition Spot Rust Light Rust Edges Weld Hard Scale Minor General Breakdown Other References ISO European Rust Scale RI3 RE3 RI4 RE5 RI5 RE7 Minor <10% <20% >10% >20% Good Minor Minor <20% Fair >20% >20% Poor
Note: The lowest rating within any category shall govern the final rating.
An Assessment Scale for Breakdown of coatings is shown in Examples of coating system condition categorized under the above rating system. These are shown on the following pages.
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CHAPTER NINE: How to Use This Guide
he coating condition should normally be judged over large areas. For classification purposes, it is normal to judge the complete tank. However, if the conditions vary to a great extent between the various main parts (bottom, deck, longitudinal bulkheads, and transverse bulkheads) of the tank, then an evaluation of the various parts may be advantageous. Some of the pictures shown in this guide are not from tankers but from ballast tanks of dry cargo ships. However, since the coating condition is in focus here, it was decided to use them is this context. The photographs should be considered a tool to assist the Surveyor in the performance of his duties, and this Guidance Manual is intended to be used as such. It does not set a standard. It is not part of the Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels.
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CHAPTER TEN: Examples

A small handbook is also provided for the following pages for easy reference.
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Blisters 2. Surface discoloration
less than 1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 1

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Coating intact 2. Filmy surface contaminant peeling 3. No corrosion 4. No scale less than 1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 2
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Minor rusting on weld seams 2. Spot rusting 3. Filmy deposit much of surface

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Line of sediment 2. Note absence of rust stains

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Visible coating repairs 2. Minor rust stains

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Coating discolored from surface contamination 2. Organisms 3. No corrosion 4. No scale less than 1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 6
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Good coating 2. Dirty surface 3. Sediment on structure

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Minor corrosion 2. Surface contamination (oily and sediment)

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Dirty coating 2. Discolorations due to oily contaminants and sediments

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Scattered corrosion 2. Coating repaired

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Sediment 2. Drip marks on lower frames

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Rust stains 2. Moist coating or stiffeners

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Scattered corrosion

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Marine organisms 2. Dark stripe coat 3. Spots are contaminants

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. No corrosion 2. Significant surface discoloration

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Top coat failure 2. Blisters 3. Detachment 4. No corrosion less than 1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 16
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Filmy surface contamination 2. Discolored coating - note drip pattern 3. No corrosion

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Scattered corrosion on edges and welds 2. Surface discoloration

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Staining - scattered over >20% 2. No edge breakdown 3. Note absence of texture red/orange areas

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Light rusting >1% 2. Scattered rusting 3. Extensive rust staining >20%

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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Coating discolored from surface contamination 2. Organisms 3. No corrosion 4. No scale less than 1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 21
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1%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion on edges and some welds - minor spot rusting
1% Coating Condition ............................................................................. GOOD Example Number: 22

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2%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion 2. Localized breakdown on edges 3. Intact coatings on welds 4. Extensive staining 1% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 23
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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Light rusting >20% 2. Touch-up, (light areas) repairing 3. Isolated breakdown at corner
less than 20% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 24

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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Anode working 2. White deposits 3% 3. Corrosion on edges 4. Top coat loss 5% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 25
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10%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Active corrosion on pipe 2. Discoloration on flats 3. Deposits on vertical structure 4. Scattered corrosion on flat blisters less than 10% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 26
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge corrosion 2. White deposits 3. General corrosion 10% - 20%
10% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 27

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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Localized heavy corrosion beside anode - >50% on upper part of tank 2. White deposits 3. Dark scale less than 50% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 28
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge corrosion 2. Light rusting >20%

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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Coating breakdown on welds 2. Spot rusting

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0.5%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edges corrosion 2. Anode working 3. Coating generally intact

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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge corrosion 2. White deposits lower areas 3. Red rust on overheads
0.5% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 32

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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Significant edge breakdown 2. Discoloration

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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge corrosion 2. Corrosion on welds 3. Generalized breakdown 10 - 20% 4. No hard scale 10% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 34
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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge breakdown >20% 2. General breakdown

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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge breakdown 2. Hard scale >10% 3. Light corrosion >20% 4. Abscence of red rust due to white deposits from Anode action 10% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 36
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Light rusting - 20% 2. Staining at waterline 3. Rust stains

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20%
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TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge breakdown 2. White deposits >5% 3. Red rust noticeable

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20%
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FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Local corrosion on edges of stiffeneers and drain holes
0.5% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 39

ABS
83
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edges breakdown 2. White deposits >5% 3. Red rust
5% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 40

84
ABS
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edges breakdown on vertical stiffeneers 2. White deposits 3. Abscence of red rust 4. Surface contamination below weep holes less than 20% Coating Condition................................................................................ FAIR Example Number: 41
ABS
20%
85
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Edge breakdown 2. Corrosion on horizontal surfaces 3. Hard scale on horizontal surfaces 4. Discoloration 20% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 42
86
ABS
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. General breakdown >20% 2. Topcoat detachment
less than 20% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 43

ABS
20%
87
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion >20% 2. Hard scale >10% 3. Deformed stiffeneer edges

88
10%
ABS
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion 20% 2. Scale not visible 3. Discoloration

ABS
20%
89
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion >20% 2. Discolorations 3. Intact coatings on welds 4. Top coat loss less than 20% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 46
90
ABS
20%
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Localized corrosion >20% 2. Steel cross section loss

ABS
91
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion >20% 2. Hard scale >10%

92
10%
ABS
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. General breakdown on overhead >20% 2. Edge breakdown 3. Rust staining

ABS
20%
93
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion >20% 2. Scale >5% 3. Topcoat detachment 4. Black staining 20% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 50
94
ABS
5%
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Anode working 2. White deposits 3. Top coat delamination 4. Edge breakdown 5. Coating loss on vertical bulkheads on right less than 10% 10%
Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 51

ABS
95
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Corrosion 20% 2. Hard scale >10% 3. Delamination of scale on bracket

96
10%
ABS
FOR
F IELD S URVEYORS
TSCF Assessment Scale: Notes: 1. Hard scale 2. Rust stains 3. Surface discolorations 4. Note top surface of lower longitudinal less than 10% Coating Condition .............................................................................. POOR Example Number: 53
ABS
10%
97
ABS WORLD HEADQUARTERS

ABS Plaza
16855 Northchase Drive Houston, TX 77060 USA Tel: 1-281-877-5800 Fax: 1-281-877-5803 Email: abs-worldhq@eagle.org
ABS EUROPE DIVISION

ABS House
No. 1 Frying Pan Alley London E1 7HR, UK Tel: 44-20-7247-3255 Fax: 44-20-7377-2453 Email: abs-eur@eagle.org
ABS PACIFIC DIVISION

438 Alexandra Road #10-00 Alexandra Point Singapore 119958 Republic of Singapore Mail: PSA Building, P.O. Box 0496 Singapore 911147 Tel: 65-6276-8700 Fax: 65-6276-8711 Email: abs-pac@eagle.org
ABS AMERICAS DIVISION

ABS Plaza
16855 Northchase Drive Houston, TX 77060 USA Tel: 1-281-877-6000 Fax: 1-281-877-6001 Email: abs-amer@eagle.org
WEBSITE:
http://www.eagle.org

49 Coatings ABS

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G U I D A N C E

the Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

quality & environmental

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

the Application and Maintenance of Marine Coating Systems

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

CHAPTER THREE: Paints for Purposes

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

CHAPTER FOUR: Surface Preparation

CHAPTER FIVE: Methods of Paint Application

CHAPTER SIX: Alternatives to Hard Coatings & Cathodic Protection

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

CHAPTER ONE: What is Paint?

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Air Drying Resins

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Epoxy Ester Resins

Urethane Oil/Alkyd Resins

Silicone Alkyd Resins

Styrenated and Vinyl Toluenated Alkyd Resins

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Chlorinated Rubber Resins

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

PIGMENTS AND EXTENDERS

Type Anticorrosive pigments Barrier pigments Coloring pigments Extending pigments

ANTICORROSIVE PIGMENTS Red Lead

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Extender Barytes (Barium Sulphate) China Clay MICA

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Solvent Type Aliphatic Aromatic

Typical Solvent Name White Spirit Tobuol Xylol

Acetone Methylethy Ketone (MEK) Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) Cyckihexanone

Butyl Acetate, Cellosolve Acetate Water

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

OTHER PAINT ADDITIVES

Typical Groups of Paint Additives

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

CHAPTER TWO: Corrosion

IRON ORE Iron Oxide

REVERSION REA CTION

RUST IRON OXIDE Chemically similar to origin

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Steel and the Corrosion Reaction

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Fe+ FERROUS IONS

2OH HYDROXYL IONS

Fe (OH)2 FERROUS HYDROXIDE

e e e e e e e Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++ Fe++

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Corrosion in an Acidic Environment

Galvanic or Bi-metallic Corrosion

e e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e Fe++ e e e e e ++ Fe++ Fe e e e e ++ 4OH Fe ++ Fe++ Fe H 2O 2O 2

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

Figure 2-6 Galvanic Series

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL

ACCUMULA TED DEBRIS

Anode Cathode L O 2 OW STEEL

C OATING S YSTEMS : A G UIDANCE M ANUAL