Electrical Electronics Formulas & Equations Electrical Data Sheets

Electrical Formulas

Options:
- Motor Formulas - Transformer Formulas E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC/DC Formulas
To Find Amps when Horsepower is Known Amps when Kilowatts is known Amps when kVA is known Kilowatts Kilovolt-Amps Horsepower (output) Direct Current AC / 1phase 115v or 120v AC / 1phase 208,230, or 240v AC 3 phase All Voltages

HP x 746 E x Eff kW x 1000 E

HP x 746 E x Eff X PF kW x 1000 E x PF kVA x 1000 E I x E x PF 1000 IxE 1000 I x E x Eff x PF 746

HP x 746 E x Eff x PF kW x 1000 E x PF kVA x 1000 E I x E x PF 1000 IxE 1000 I x E x Eff x PF 746

HP x 746 1.73 x E x Eff x PF kW x 1000 1.73 x E x PF kVA x 1000 1.73 x E I x E x 1.73 PF 1000 I x E x 1.73 1000 I x E x Eff x 1.73 x PF 746

IxE 1000

I x E x Eff 746

Three Phase Values

For 208 volts x 1.732, use 360 For 230 volts x 1.732, use 398 For 240 volts x 1.732, use 416 For 440 volts x 1.732, use 762 For 460 volts x 1.732, use 797 For 480 Volts x 1.732, use 831

E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC Efficiency and Power Factor Formulas

To Find Efficiency Power Factor Single Phase 746 x HP E x I x PF Input Watts VxA Three Phase 746 x HP E x I x PF x 1.732 Input Watts E x I x 1.732

Power - DC Circuits
Watts = E xI Amps = W / E

Ohm's Law / Power Formulas

P = watts I = amps R = ohms E = Volts

Voltage Drop Formulas

Single Phase VD = (2 or 3 wire) CM= VD=
2xKxIxL CM 2K x L x I VD 1.73 x K x I x L CM K = ohms per mil foot (Copper = 12.9 at 75) (Alum = 21.2 at 75)
Note: K value changes with temperature. See Code chapter 9, Table 8

L = Length of conductor in feet

Three Phase CM=

1.73 x K x L x I I = Current in conductor (amperes) VD CM = Circular mil area of conductor

Motor Formulas
Calculating Motor Speed: A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for any length of time at speeds below those shown on the nameplate without danger of burning out. To calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula: S rpm = 120 x F P S rpm = synchronous revolutions per minute. 120 = constant F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec) P = number of motor winding poles Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60 Hz power supply? S rpm = 120 x F P S rpm = 120 x 60 4 S rpm = 7200 4 S rpm = 1800 rpm Calculating Braking Torque: Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a motor.

To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula: T = 5252 x HP rpm T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft) 5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252) HP = motor horsepower rpm = speed of motor shaft

Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725 rpm? T = 5252 x HP rpm T = 5252 x 60 1725 T = 315,120 1725 T = 182.7 lb-ft

Calculating Work: Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the position, motion, direction, or shape of an object. Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to hinder the movement of an object. If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is produced. To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula: W=FxD W = work (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically from street level to the 4th floor of a building 30' above street level? W=FxD W = 25 x 30 W = 750 -lb

Calculating Torque: Torque is the force that produces rotation. It causes an object to rotate. Torque consists of force acting on distance. Torque, like work, is measured is pound-feet (lb-ft). However, torque, unlike work, may exist even though no movement occurs. To calculate torque, apply this formula: T=FxD

T = torque (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: What is the torque produced by a 60 lb force pushing on a 3' lever arm? T=FxD T = 60 x 3 T = 180 lb ft

Calculating Full-load Torque: Full-load torque is the torque to produce the rated power at full speed of the motor. The amount of torque a motor produces at rated power and full speed can be found by using a horsepower-to-torque conversion chart. When using the conversion chart, place a straight edge along the two known quantities and read the unknown quantity on the third line. To calculate motor full-load torque, apply this formula: T = HP x 5252 rpm T = torque (in lb-ft) HP = horsepower 5252 = constant rpm = revolutions per minute Example: What is the FLT (Full-load torque) of a 30HP motor operating at 1725 rpm? T = HP x 5252 rpm T = 30 x 5252 1725 T = 157,560 1725 T = 91.34 lb-ft

Calculating Horsepower: Electrical power is rated in horsepower or watts. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or 33, 0000 lb-ft per minute (550 lb-ft per second). A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the 6

potential difference of 1 volt. It is 1/746 of 1 horsepower. The watt is the base unit of electrical power. Motor power is rated in horsepower and watts. Horsepower is used to measure the energy produced by an electric motor while doing work. To calculate the horsepower of a motor when current and efficiency, and voltage are known, apply this formula: HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = horsepower V = voltage I = current (amps) Eff. = efficiency Example: What is the horsepower of a 230v motor pulling 4 amps and having 82% efficiency? HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = 230 x 4 x .82 746 HP = 754.4 746 HP = 1 Hp Eff = efficiency / HP = horsepower / V = volts / A = amps / PF = power factor Horsepower Formulas To Find Use Formula Example Given Find Solution HP = 240V x 20A x 85% 746 HP=5.5 I = 10HP x 746 240V x 90% x 88% I = 39 A

HP

HP = I X E X Eff. 240V, 20A, 85% Eff. HP 746 I = HP x 746 E X Eff x PF 10HP, 240V, 90% Eff., 88% PF I

To calculate the horsepower of a motor when the speed and torque are known, apply this formula: HP = rpm x T(torque) 5252(constant) Example: What is the horsepower of a 1725 rpm motor with a FLT 3.1 lb-ft?

HP = rpm x T 5252 HP = 1725 x 3.1 5252 HP = 5347.5 5252 HP = 1 hp

Calculating Synchronous Speed: AC motors are considered constant speed motors. This is because the synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in the motor winding. Motor are designed for 60 Hz use have synchronous speeds of 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514, and 450 rpm.

To calculate synchronous speed of an induction motor, apply this formula: Rpm sync = 120 x f Np Rpm sync = synchronous speed (in rpm) f = supply frequency in (cycles/sec) Np = number of motor poles
Example: What is the synchronous speed of a four pole motor operating at 50 Hz? Rpm sync = 120 x f Np Rpm sync = 120 x 50 4 rpm sync = 6000 4 Rpm sync = 1500 rpm

Here are some transformer formulas that may be useful

To better understand the following formulas review the rule of transposition in equations. A multiplier may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a division

on the other side or a division may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a multiplier on the other side.

1. Voltage and Current: Primary (p) secondary (s)

Power(p) = power (s) or Ep x Ip = Es x Is

A. Ep =

Es x Is Es x Is B. Ip = Ip Ep

Ep x Ip Ep x Ip C. Is = Es D. Es = Is

2.

Voltage and Turns in Coil:

Voltage (p) x Turns (s) = Voltage (s) x Turns (p) or Ep x Ts = Es x Ip

A. Ep =

Es x Ip Es x Tp B. Ts = Ts Ep Ep x Ts Ep x Ts D. Es = Es Tp

C. Tp =

3. Amperes and Turns in Coil:

Amperes (p) x Turns (p) = Amperes (s) x Turns (s) or Ip x Tp = Is x Ts

A. Ip =

Is x Ts Is x Ts B. Tp = Tp Ip Ip x Tp Ip x Tp D. Is = Is Ts

C. Ts =

Rules Of Thumb"
At 575 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1 amp per horsepower. At 460 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1.27 amps per horsepower. At 230 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 2.5 amps per horsepower. At 230 volts, a single-phase motor draws 5 amps per horsepower. At 115 volts, a single phase motor draws 10 amps per horsepower.
* These above are approximations.

746 watts = 1 HP How to figure out what phase is a certain circuit number for 3 phases:
An easy way to figure what phase a circuit number is to divide it by 6. If it divides evenly it is always "C" phase. Lets say you have circuit number 27. Divide it by 6. Six will go into 27 four times with a remainder of 3. Normally panels are labeled with the odds on the left and the evens on the right (see Panel layout example below). So 3 is the second one down from the top on the odd side, so therefore it will be "B" phase. Let's try another one; Say your circuit number is 50. Divide it by 6. Six will go into 50 eight times with a remainder of 2. So the correct phase for circuit 50 will be "A" phase. This is taken in consideration if the the 3 phase system is phased A, B, C left to right, top to bottom. This is the normal phasing of a system.
Example of Panel Layout: A - ckt 1 A - ckt 2 B - ckt 3 B - ckt 4 C - ckt 5 C - ckt 6 A - ckt 7 A - ckt 8 B - ckt 9 B - ckt 10 C - ckt 11 C - ckt 12

10

Left Hand Generator Rule:

Can be used to determine the relationship of the motion of the conductor in a magnetic field to the direction of the induced current. To use the left hand rule, place the thumb, forefinger, and center finger at right angles to each other. The forefinger points in the direction of the field flux, assuming that magnetic lines of force are in a direction of north and south. The thumb points in the direction of thrust, or movement of the conductor, and the center finger shows the direction of the current induced into the armature. Here is an easier way to remember this: Thumb = Thrust Forefinger = Flux Center finger = Current

Right Hand Motor Rule:

Used to determine the rotation of the armature when the magnetic field polarity of the pole pieces and the direction of current flow through the armature is known. The thumb indicates the direction of thrust or movement of the armature. The forefinger indicates the direction of the field flux assuming that flux lines are in a direction of north to south, and the center finger indicates the direction of current flow through the armature. Here is a easier way to remember this: Thumb = Thrust (direction of armature rotation) Forefinger = Field (direction of magnetic field) Center finger = Current (direction of armature current)

11

"Three Phase Transformer Info"

This section will discuss three phase transformers and how to

calculate transformer over current protection.
Introduction:
Three phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of three phase voltage and current. Since three phase power is the most common way in which power is produced, transmitted, an used, an understanding of how three phase transformer connections are made is essential. In this section it will discuss different types of three phase transformers connections, and present examples of how values of voltage and current for these connections are computed. Three Phase Transformer Construction: A three phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase transformers on a single core. These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then filled with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions. Since it is a dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical insulation between the windings and the case. It is also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation of moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation.

Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

There are only 4 possible transformer combinations: 1. Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications 2. Delta to Wye - use : most common; commercial and industrial 3. Wye to Delta - use : high voltage transmissions 4. Wye to Wye - use: rare, don't use causes harmonics and balancing problems. Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wyedelta transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding connected in a delta (see figure 1-1). A delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding connected in a wye (see figure 1-2).

Figure 1-1: Wye-Delta connection

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Figure 1-2: Delta-Wye connection

Delta Connections: A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation. Only one voltage is available between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire delta system. The voltage would be the same between any two wires (see figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3:

Wye Connections:

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In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of voltage on a three phase system. However, the voltage between any one of the phase conductors (X1, X2, and X3) and the neutral (X0) will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is 208v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 120v. This is due to the square root of three phase power. In a wye system, the voltage between any two power conductors will always be 1.732 (which is the square root of 3) times the voltage between the neutral and any one of the power phase conductors. The phase-to-ground voltage can be found by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage by 1.732 (see figure 1-4).

Figure 1-4:

Connecting Single-Phase Transformers into a Three-Phase Bank:

If three phase transformation is need and a three phase transformer of the proper size and turns ratio is not available, three single phase transformers can be connected to form a three phase bank. When three single phase transformers are used to make a three phase transformer bank, their primary and secondary windings are connected in a wye or delta connection. The three transformer windings in figure 1-5 are labeled H1 and the other end is labeled H2. One end of each secondary lead is labeled X1 and the other end is labeled X2.

Figure 1-5:

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Figure 1-6 shows three single phase transformers labeled A, B, and C. The primary leads of each transformer are labeled H1 and H2 and the secondary leads are labeled X1 and X2. The schematic diagram of figure 1-5 will be used to connect the three single phase transformers into a three phase wye-delta connection as shown in figure 1-7.

Figure 1-6:

Figure 1-7:

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The primary winding will be tied into a wye connection first. The schematic in figure 1-5 shows, that the H2 leads of the three primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding is open for connection to the incoming power line. Notice in figure 1-7 that the H2 leads of the primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding has been connected to the incoming primary power line. Figure 1-5 shows that the X1 lead of the transformer A is connected to the X2 lead of transformer c. Notice that this same connection has been made in figure 1-7. The X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X1, lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X2 lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer C is connected to X2 lead of transformer B. The load is connected to the points of the delta connection.

Open Delta Connection:

The open delta transformer connection can be made with only two transformers instead of three (figure 1-8). This connection is often used when the amount of three phase power needed is not excessive, such as a small business. It should be noted that the output power of an open delta connection is only 87% of the rated power of the two transformers. For example, assume two transformers, each having a capacity of 25 kVA, are connected in an open delta connection. The total output power of this connection is 43.5 kVA (50 kVA x 0.87 = 43.5 kVA).

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Figure 1-8: Open Delta Connection

Another figure given for this calculation is 58%. This percentage assumes a closed delta bank containing 3 transformers. If three 25 kVA transformers were connected to form a closed delta connection, the total output would be 75 kVA (3 x 25 = 75 kVA). If one of these transformers were removed and the transformer bank operated as an open delta connection, the output power would be reduced to 58% of its original capacity of 75 kVA. The output capacity of the open delta bank is 43.5 kVA (75 kVA x .58% = 43.5 kVA). The voltage and current values of an open delta connection are computed in the same manner as a standard delta-delta connection when three transformers are employed. The voltage and current rules for a delta connection must be used when determining line and phase values of voltage current.

Closing a Delta:
When closing a delta system, connections should be checked for proper polarity before making the final connection and applying power. If the phase winding of one transformer is reversed, an extremely high current will flow when power is applied. Proper phasing can be checked with a voltmeter at delta opening. If power is applied to the transformer bank before the delta connection is closed, the voltmeter should indicate 0 volts. If one phase winding has been reversed, however, the voltmeter will indicate double the amount of voltage. It should be noted that a voltmeter is a high impedance device. It is not unusual for a voltmeter to indicate some amount of voltage before the delta is closed, especially if the primary has been connected as a wye and the secondary as a delta. When this is the case, the voltmeter will generally indicate close to the normal output voltage if the connection is correct and double the output voltage if the connection is incorrect.

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Over current Protection for the Primary:

Electrical Code Article 450-3(b) states that each transformer 600 volts, nominal or less, shall be protected by an individual over current device on the primary side, rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated primary current of the transformer. Where the primary current of a transformer is 9 amps or more and 125% of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or nonadjustable circuit breaker, the next higher standard rating shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than 9 amps, an over current device rated or set at not more than 167% of the primary current shall be permitted. Where the primary current is less than 2 amps, an over current device rated or set at not more than 300% shall be permitted.
Example #1: What size fuses is needed on the primary side to protect a 3 phase 480v to 208v 112.5 kVA transformer? * Important when dealing with 3 phase applications always use 1.732 (square root of 3). To solve: P / I x E 112.5 kVA X 1000 = 112500 VA 112500 VA divided by 831 (480 x 1.732) = 135.4 amps Since the transformer is more than 9 amps you have to use 125 %. 135.4 X 1.25 = 169 amps. Answer: 175 amps fuse (the next higher standard, Electrical Code 240-6). Example #2: What size breaker is needed on the primary side to protect a 3 phase 208v to 480v 3kVA transformer? To solve: P / I x E 3kVA X 1000 = 3000 VA 3000 VA divided by 360 (208 x 1.732) = 8.3 amps Since the transformer is 9 amps or less you have to use 167%. 8.3 X 1.67 = 13.8 amps 18

Answer: 15 amp breaker (preferably a 20 amp breaker) Electrical Code Article 450-3(b)(2) states if a transformer 600 v, nominal, or less, having a an over current device on the secondary side rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated secondary current of the transformer shall not be required to have an individual over current device on the primary side if the primary feeder over current device is rated or set at a current value not more than 250% of the rated primary current of the transformer.

Over current Protection for the Secondary:

Electrical Code Article 450-3(b)(2) states that a transformer 600 v, nominal, or less, shall be protected by an individual over current device on the secondary side, rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated secondary current of the transformer. Where the secondary current of a transformer is 9 amps or more and 125% of this current does not correspond to a standard rating of a fuse or nonadjustable circuit breaker, the next higher standard rating shall be permitted. Where the secondary current is less than 9 amps, an over current device rated or set at not more than 167% of the secondary current shall be permitted. Example:

What size breaker is needed on the secondary side to protect a 3 phase 480v/208v 112.5 kVA transformer?
To solve : P / I x E

112.5 kVA x 1000 = 112500 VA 112500 divided by 360 (208 x 1.732) = 312.5 amps 312.5 X 1.25 = 390.6 amps Answer: 400 amp breaker

Dry Type Transformer Data Charts:"

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Single Phase
KVA Rating 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 25 37.5 50 75 100 167 200 120V 8.33 12.5 16.66 25 41 62 83 124 208 312 416 624 830 1390 1660 Amperes 240V 4.16 6.24 8.33 12.5 21 31 42 62 104 156 208 312 415 695 833 480V 2.08 3.12 4.16 6.1 10.4 15.6 21 31 52 78 104 156 207 348 416

Three Phase
KVA Rating 208V 3 8.3 6 16.6 9 25.0 15 41.6 30 83.0 45 125 75 208 112.5 312 150 415 200 554 225 625 300 830 400 1110 500 1380 750 2080 Amperes 240V 480V 7.2 3.6 14.4 7.2 21.6 10.8 36 18 72 36 108 54 180 90 270 135 360 180 480 240 540 270 720 360 960 480 1200 600 1800 900 600V 2.9 5.8 8.7 14.4 28.8 43 72 108 144 192 216 288 384 487 720

20

"3 phase A.C. Motor Windings and Connections:"

Basic Motor Control Schematics

"Three Wire Stop-Start Station:"

21

Two Three Wire Stop-Start Stations:"

22

23

"Hand off Automatic Control:"

24

"Jogging With Control Relay:"

FLA Motor Chart Options:

25

DC Motors
Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 4.0 5.2 6.8 9.6 -----3.1 4.1 5.4 7.6 13.2 17 25 40 58 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.8 6.1 8.3 10.8 16 27 -1.6 2.0 2.7 3.8 4.7 6.6 8.5 12.2 20 29 -------------------

12.2 9.5

13.6 12.2

Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 10 15 20 25 30 40 ------76 -----------38 38 55 89 106 140 18 18 27 43 51 67 16 16 24 38 46 61

Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 ---------------------173 206 255 341 425 506 675 83 99 123 164 205 246 330 75 90 111 148 185 222 294

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AC Single Phase Motors

Horse115v 200v 208v 230v power Amperes 1/6 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 10 4.4 5.8 7.2 9.8 13.8 16 20 24 34 56 80 2.5 3.3 4.1 5.6 7.9 9.2 11.5 2.4 3.2 4.0 5.4 7.6 8.8 11 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.9 6.9 8.0 10 12 17 28 40 50

13.8 13.2 19.6 18.7 32.2 30.8 46 44 55

100 57.5

Horse115v 200v 208v 230v power

2 Phase (4 wire) AC Induction Type Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Horse115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 10 4.0 4.8 6.4 9.0 11.8 ---2.0 2.4 3.2 4.5 5.9 8.3 13.2 24 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.3 3.0 4.2 6.6 12 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.4 3.3 5.3 10 ---------

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15 20 25 30 40

------

36 47 59 69 90

18 23 29 35 45

14 19 24 28 36

------

Horse115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 -------113 133 166 218 270 312 416 56 67 83 109 135 156 208 45 53 66 87 108 125 167 -14 18 23 28 32 43

AC 3 Phase Induction Type Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Horse115V 200V 208V 230V 460V 575V 2300V power

Amperes 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 4.4 6.4 8.4 12.0 13.6 ---2.5 3.7 4.8 6.9 7.8 2.4 3.5 4.6 6.6 7.5 2.2 3.2 4.2 6.0 6.8 9.6 22 1.1 1.6 2.1 3.0 3.4 4.8 7.6 11 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.4 2.7 3.9 6.1 9 ---------

11.0 10.6 25.3 24.2

17.5 16.7 15.2

Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power 10 -32.2 30.8 28 14 11 --

28

15 20 25 30 40

------

48.3 46.2 62.1 59.4 78.2 74.8 92 120 88 114

42 54 68 80 104

21 27 34 40 52

17 22 27 32 41

------

Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 -------150 177 221 285 359 414 552 143 169 211 273 343 396 528 130 154 192 248 312 360 480 65 77 96 124 156 180 240 52 62 77 99 125 144 192 -16 20 26 31 37 49

Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 250 300 350 400 450 500 ------------------------302 361 414 477 515 590 242 289 336 382 412 472 60 72 83 95 103 118

AC 3 Phase Synchronous Type Unity Power Factor Horse230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 25 30 40 50 53 63 83 104 26 32 41 52 21 26 33 42 -----

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60 75 100 125 150 200

123 155 202 253 302 400

61 78 101 126 151 201

49 62 81 101 121 161

12 15 20 25 30 40

Horse230v 460v 575v 2300v power

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31

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O.S.H.A. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) was legislated to assure, so far as possible, every working man and woman in the Nation, safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources. The Act applies to business and industry with any number of employs. The requirements of the Electrical Code, National provide the basis of the safety provisions of the Act. Specific references to electrical installations and electrical wiring systems are made in the Electrical Subpart "S". The Act is "safety oriented", which closely parallels the quality design characteristics and industrial acceptance of product lines we carry. We believe that we have a responsibility to assist our customers to meet the intent of the Act. When and if changes are necessary to ensure the safety of your electrical systems, we will assist you with proper guidance and product application information.

O.S.H.A. Most Common Violations

01. Uncovered junction Boxes 02. Wiring showing at splices 03. Improper solvent grounding and bonding 04. Lighting swinging 05. Fire extinguisher not readily available 06. Fire extinguisher, not tested, no durable tag 07. Fire extinguisher, not mounted, not mounted properly 08. No first aid facilities 09. No toilet facilities with in 200 ft. 10. No washing facilities for personal cleanliness 11. Inadequate housekeeping 12. Misuse of compressed air for cleaning 13. No GFCI on temporary receptacles 14. No properly trained first aid personnel 15. Gas Cylinders not capped 16. Exits not identified, exit route not identified 17. Acetylene oxygen storage improper 18. Workers not guarded by shield or goggles 19. Inadequate ventilation 20. Inadequate Lighting 21. Occupational noise exposure 28. Failure to red tag 29. Aisles not designated 30. Aisles not cleared 31. Hand and portable power tools not grounded. 32. Improper stacking of materials 33. Absence of handrails 34. Unclean toilet facilities. 35. Grinder work rest not adjusted properly 36. Battery charging areas 37. Wheel chocks for trailers 38. Fans not guarded properly 39. Dockboards not in compliance 40. Absence of personal protective equipment 41. Machine guarding, fully enclosed 42. Lack of illumination in stairway 43. Deposit on sprinkler head 44. Broken Ladder 45. Unsecured ladder 46. Lack of signs requiring safety glasses 47. Lack of safety shoes, glasses, and hard hats 48. Dip tank, no fusible lid 49 No smoking signs, not posted 50. Ladder, no cage or wells 51. Rail Road derails not in use 52. Safety cables and stop buttons, red

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22. Failure to post job safety and health 53. Respirators not U.S. Bureau of mines approved. poster 54. Faulty cylinder storage 23. Misuse of electrical cords and cables 24. Walking and working surfaces 25. Guarding floor and wall openings and holes 26. Scaffolding, no guard rails 27. Inadequate recordkeeping

Some of these violations are really far fetched, but is is very possible that one your projects may be visited by an OSHA Inspector. If this happens do not get excited or upset, do not volunteer any information, but do answer truthfully any and all the questions asked of you by the inspector.

Your Employer's Rights and Requirements:

Make sure the area is clear of recognized hazards. Post OSHA regulations in appropriate locations. Employs may write down inspector's name, badge number, time and date of inspection, and area inspected. Names of persons questioned by the inspector. Take notes about what is inspected, the current conditions, and who is responsible for those conditions.

OSHA Inspector's Rights and Requirements:

Inspector has the right to enter and inspect any job site at will. May inspect OSHA records. Must present credentials. Must tell the general scope of the inspection. At the end of the inspection must advise you as to any and all violations.

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"Electrical Standards"
This is a list of a few standards in the trade.

PANELBOARDS
Single Phase - 3 Wire Systems 40A | 100A | 150A | 225A | 400A 70A | 125A | 200A | 300A | 600 A Three Phase - 4 Wire Systems 60A | 150A | 225A | 400A 125A | 200A | 300A | 600A

SWITCHBOARDS OR SWITCHGEARS
Single Phase 200 A 400 A 600 A 800 A 1200 A 1600 A 2000 A 2500 A 3000 A 4000 A Three Phase 400 A 600 A 800 A 1200 A 1600 A 2000 A 2500 A 3000 A 4000 A

CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FUSES

15 A 20 A 25 A 30 A 35 A 70 A 80 A 90 A 100 A 110 A 225 A 250 A 300 A 350 A 400 A 800 A 1000 A 1200 A 1600 A 2000 A

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40 A 45 A 50 A 60 A

2500 A 3000 A 4000 A 5000 A 6000 A For fuses only, additional standard sizes are 1, 3, 6, and 10. 125 A 150 A 175 A 200 A 450 A 500 A 600 A 700 A

GUTTERS AND WIREWAYS

2" x 2" 6" x 6" 10" x 10" 4" x 4" 8" x 8" These sizes are available in 12", 24", 36", 48", and 60" lengths.

Disconnects
30A 60A 100a 200A 400A 600A 800A 1200A 1400A 1600A 1800A

PULL BOXES AND JUNCTION BOXES

4" x 4" x 4" 6" x 4" x 4" 6" x 6" x 4" 6" x 6" x 6" 8" x 6" x 4" 8" x 6" x 6" 8" x 6" x 8" 8" x 8" x 4" 8" x 8" x 6" 8" x 8" x 8" 10" x 8" x 4" 10" x 8" x 6" 10" x 10" x 4" 10" x 10" x 6" 10" x 10" x 8" 12" x 8" x 4" 12" x 8" x 6" 12" x 10" x 4" 12" x 10" x 6" 12" x 12" x 4" 12" x 12" x 6" 12" x 12" x 8" 15" x 12" x 4" 15" x 12" x 6" 18" x 12" x 4" 18" x 12" x 6" 18" x 18" x 4" 18" x 18" x 6"

36

24" x 18" x 6" 24" x 24" x 6" 24" x 24" x 8"

BUSWAY OR BUSDUCT
Single Phase Three Phase 225 A 225 A 400 A 400 A 600 A 600 A 800 A 800 A 1000 A 1000 A 1200 A 1200 A 1350 A 1350 A 1600 A 1600 A 2000 A 2000 A 2500 A 2500 A 3000 A 3000 A 4000 A 4000 A 5000 A 5000 A

37

Running Overload Units

Kind of Motor 1 - Phase AC or DC 1 - Phase AC or DC 1 - Phase AC or DC 1 - Phase AC 2 - Phase AC 2 - Phase AC 2 - Phase AC 2 - Phase AC 3 - Phase AC Supply System 2-wire, 1-phase ac or dc, ungrounded 2-wire, 1-phase ac or dc, grounded neutral 3-wire, 1-phase ac or dc, grounded neutral any 3-phase 3-wire, 2-phase ac, ungrounded 3-wire, 2-phase ac, one conductor grounded 4-wire,2-phase ac, grounded or ungrounded 5-wire, 2 phase ac, grounded neutral or ungrounded any 3-phase Number & Location of Over-load Units, such as trip coils or relay 1 in either conductor 1 in ungrounded conductor 1 in either ungrounded conductor 1 in ungrounded conductor 2, one in each phase 2 ungrounded conductors 2, one per phase in ungrounded conductors 2, one per phase in any ungrounded phase wire 3, one each phase *

* Exception: Where protected by other approved means.

38

Motor Branch - Circuit Protective Devices Maximum Rating or Setting

Percent of Full-load current Nontime Delay Fuse** Type of Motor Single Phase AC polyphase other than wound rotor Squirrel Cage Other than Design E Design E Synchronous Wound Rotor Direct-Current (constant voltage) 300 Instantaneou Inverse Dual Time s Element (Time Delay) Trip Breaker Breaker Fuse** 175 800 250

300 300 300 150 150

175 175 175 150 150

800 1100 800 800 250

250 250 250 150 150

39

"Power Factor Improvement:"

When using power factor correction capacitors, the total KVAR on the load side of the motor controller should not exceed the value required to raise the no-load power factor to unity. Over corrective ness of this value may cause high transient voltages, currents, and torques that can increase safety hazards to personnel and possibly damage motor driven equipment. Never connect power factor correction capacitors at motor terminals on elevator motors, plugging or jogging applications, multi-speed motors or open transition, wye-delta, auto-transformer starting and some partwinding start motors. If possible, capacitors should be located at position 2 (see diagram). This does not change the current flowing through motor overload protectors. Connection of capacitors at position 3 requires a change of overload protectors. Capacitors should be located at position 1 for applications listed in paragraph 2 above. Be sure bus power factor is not increased above 95% under all loading conditions to avoid over excitation.

Diagram

Original Desired Power Factor Power Percent Factor Percent 100% 95% 90% 85%

80%

40

60% 62% 64% 66% 68% 70% 72% 74% 76% 78% 79% 80% 81% 82% 83% 84% 85% 86% 87% 89% 90% 91% 92% 93% 94% 95% 96% 97% 99%

1.333 1.004 0.849 0.713 0.583 1.266 0.937 0.782 0.646 0.516 1.201 0.872 0.717 0.581 0.451 1.138 0.809 0.654 0.518 0.388 1.078 0.749 0.594 0.458 0.328 1.020 0.691 0.536 0.400 0.270 0.964 0.635 0.480 0.344 0.214 0.909 0.580 0.425 0.289 0.159 0.855 0.526 0.371 0.235 0.105 0.802 0.473 0.318 0.182 0.052 0.776 0.447 0.292 0.156 0.026 0.750 0.421 0.266 0.130 0.724 0.395 0.240 0.104 0.698 0.369 0.214 0.078 0.672 0.343 0.188 0.052 0.646 0.317 0.162 0.206 0.620 0.291 0.136 0.593 0.264 0.109 0.567 0.238 0.083 0.512 0.183 0.028 0.484 0.155 0.456 0.127 0.426 0.097 0.395 0.066 0.363 0.034 0.329 0.292 0.251 0.143
Assume Total plant load is 100 KW at 60% power factor. Capacitor KVAR rating necessary to improve power factor to 80% is found by multiplying KW (100) by the multiplier in table (0.583) which gives KVAR (58.3), nearest standard rating (60 KVAR) should be used.

41

Electrical Formulas
I = amperes E = volts KW = Kilowatts KVA = kilovolt/amperes HP = horsepower % Eff. = percent efficiency PF = power factor
To Find AMPERES when KVA is known AMPERES when horsepower is known AMPERES when kilowatts are known KILOWATTS KILOVOLT/ AMPERES HORSEPOWER WATTS Single Phase KVA X 1000 E HP X 746 E X % Eff.X PF Three Phase KVA X 1000 E X 1.73 HP X 746 E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF Direct Current Not Applicable HP X 746 E X % Eff.

KW X 1000 E X PF I X E X PF 1000 IXE 1000 I X E X % Eff. X PF 746 E X I X PF

KW X 1000 E X 1.73 X PF I X E X 1.73 X PF 1000 I X E X 1.73 1000 I X E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF 746 E X I X 1.73 X PF

KW X 1000 E IXE 1000 Not Applicable I X E X % Eff. 746 EXI

Conduit Weight Comparison Table

(All weights are per 100 feet of conduit)
Size 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1 1/4" 1 1/2" Rigid Steel 80 108 160 208 254 IMC 60 82 116 150 182 Rigid Aluminum 28 37 55 72 89 EMT 29 45 65 96 111 PVC PVC PVC Coated* Sch 40 Sch 80 Rigid Steel 16 22 33 46 56 21 29 42 61 71 87 115 166 217 262

42

2" 2 1/2" 3" 3 1/2" 4" 5" 6"

344 550 710 855 1000 1335 1845

242 401 493 573 683 -------

119 188 246 296 350 479 630

141 215 260 365 390 -------

74 117 153 185 219 298 385

98 149 200 246 292 400 510

367 557 724 917 1056 1535

Electrical Metric Conversions

Metric Conversations 1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 centimeter = 0.39 inch 1 millimeter = 0.039 inch 1 inch = 0.025 meter 1 inch = 2.564 centimeters 1 inch = 25.641 millimeters Conduit Inside Diameters
Trade Size 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 5 6 Inches 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 3.548 4.026 5.047 6.065 Millimeters 15.8 20.9 26.6 35.0 40.9 52.5 62.7 77.9 90.1 102.3 128.2 154.1

43

Electrical Conductor Areas United States Size (AWG) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 Cir Mills (area) 1,620 2,580 4,110 6,530 10,380 16,510 26,240 41,740 52,620 66,360 83,690 105,600 133,100 167,800 211,600 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 500,000 Sq MM (area) 0.82 1.30 2.08 3.30 5.25 8.36 13.29 21.14 26.65 33.61 42.39 53.49 67.42 85.00 107.19 126.64 151.97 177.3 202.63 253.29

Closest European Sizes Size - Sq MM 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.50 4.00 6.00 10.0 16.0 25.0 ---35.0 50.0 ---70.0 95.0 120.0 150.0 ---185.0 Area - Cir Mils 1,480 1,974 2,961 4,935 7,896 11,844 19,740 31,584 49,350 ---69,090 98,700 ---138,180 187,530 236,880 296,100 ---365,190

44

240.0

473,760

Electrical formulas for determining amperes, horsepower, kilowatts and kilovolt-amperes

DESIRED DATA Amperes when kva is shown Amperes when kilowatts are shown Amperes when horsepower is shown KilovoltAmperes Kilowatts Horsepower ALTERNATING CURRENT Two-Phase* Single-Phase Three-Phase Four-Wire kva x 1000 kva x 1000 kva x 1000 E 2xE 1.73 x E kw x 1000 kw x 1000 kw x 1000 E x pf 2 x E x pf 1.73 x E x pf hp x 746 E x %Eff x pf hp x 746 2 x E x %Eff x pf hp x 746 1.73 x E x %Eff x pf DIRECT CURRENT kva x 1000 E kw x 1000 E hp x 746 E x %Eff

IxE IxEx2 I x E x 1.73 IxE 1000 1000 1000 1000 I x E x pf I x E x 2 pf I x E x 1.73 x pf IxE 1000 1000 1000 1000 I x E x %Eff x pf I x E x 2 x %Eff x pf I x E x 1.73 x %Eff x pf I x E x %Eff 746 746 746 746

RESISTOR COLOR CODES

45

The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) "band" is only used with the "4-band" code (3 colored bands + a blank "band").

Example #1

A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 k with a tolerance of +/- 5%.

Example #2

A resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver would be 5.2 with a tolerance of +/10%.

46

Example #3

A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see only three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4band code with a blank (20%) tolerance band.

Example #4

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 k with a tolerance of +/- 0.1%.

Example #5

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 with a tolerance of +/- 2%.

Example #6

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 with a tolerance of +/0.25%.

47

CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR TABLES

Copper wire gage table
Solid copper wire table:
Size Diameter Cross-sectional area Weight AWG inches cir. mils sq. inches lb/1000 ft ================================================================ 4/0 -------- 0.4600 ------- 211,600 ------ 0.1662 ------ 640.5 3/0 -------- 0.4096 ------- 167,800 ------ 0.1318 ------ 507.9 2/0 -------- 0.3648 ------- 133,100 ------ 0.1045 ------ 402.8 1/0 -------- 0.3249 ------- 105,500 ----- 0.08289 ------ 319.5 1 ---------- 0.2893 ------- 83,690 ------ 0.06573 ------ 253.5 2 ---------- 0.2576 ------- 66,370 ------ 0.05213 ------ 200.9 3 ---------- 0.2294 ------- 52,630 ------ 0.04134 ------ 159.3 4 ---------- 0.2043 ------- 41,740 ------ 0.03278 ------ 126.4 5 ---------- 0.1819 ------- 33,100 ------ 0.02600 ------ 100.2 6 ---------- 0.1620 ------- 26,250 ------ 0.02062 ------ 79.46 7 ---------- 0.1443 ------- 20,820 ------ 0.01635 ------ 63.02 8 ---------- 0.1285 ------- 16,510 ------ 0.01297 ------ 49.97 9 ---------- 0.1144 ------- 13,090 ------ 0.01028 ------ 39.63 10 --------- 0.1019 ------- 10,380 ------ 0.008155 ----- 31.43 11 --------- 0.09074 ------- 8,234 ------ 0.006467 ----- 24.92 12 --------- 0.08081 ------- 6,530 ------ 0.005129 ----- 19.77 13 --------- 0.07196 ------- 5,178 ------ 0.004067 ----- 15.68 14 --------- 0.06408 ------- 4,107 ------ 0.003225 ----- 12.43 15 --------- 0.05707 ------- 3,257 ------ 0.002558 ----- 9.858 16 --------- 0.05082 ------- 2,583 ------ 0.002028 ----- 7.818 17 --------- 0.04526 ------- 2,048 ------ 0.001609 ----- 6.200 18 --------- 0.04030 ------- 1,624 ------ 0.001276 ----- 4.917 19 --------- 0.03589 ------- 1,288 ------ 0.001012 ----- 3.899 20 --------- 0.03196 ------- 1,022 ----- 0.0008023 ----- 3.092 21 --------- 0.02846 ------- 810.1 ----- 0.0006363 ----- 2.452 22 --------- 0.02535 ------- 642.5 ----- 0.0005046 ----- 1.945 23 --------- 0.02257 ------- 509.5 ----- 0.0004001 ----- 1.542 24 --------- 0.02010 ------- 404.0 ----- 0.0003173 ----- 1.233 25 --------- 0.01790 ------- 320.4 ----- 0.0002517 ----- 0.9699 26 --------- 0.01594 ------- 254.1 ----- 0.0001996 ----- 0.7692 27 --------- 0.01420 ------- 201.5 ----- 0.0001583 ----- 0.6100 28 --------- 0.01264 ------- 159.8 ----- 0.0001255 ----- 0.4837 29 --------- 0.01126 ------- 126.7 ----- 0.00009954 ---- 0.3836 30 --------- 0.01003 ------- 100.5 ----- 0.00007894 ---- 0.3042 31 -------- 0.008928 ------- 79.70 ----- 0.00006260 ---- 0.2413 32 -------- 0.007950 ------- 63.21 ----- 0.00004964 ---- 0.1913 33 -------- 0.007080 ------- 50.13 ----- 0.00003937 ---- 0.1517 34 -------- 0.006305 ------- 39.75 ----- 0.00003122 ---- 0.1203 35 -------- 0.005615 ------- 31.52 ----- 0.00002476 --- 0.09542 36 -------- 0.005000 ------- 25.00 ----- 0.00001963 --- 0.07567 37 -------- 0.004453 ------- 19.83 ----- 0.00001557 --- 0.06001 38 -------- 0.003965 ------- 15.72 ----- 0.00001235 --- 0.04759 39 -------- 0.003531 ------- 12.47 ---- 0.000009793 --- 0.03774 40 -------- 0.003145 ------- 9.888 ---- 0.000007766 --- 0.02993 41 -------- 0.002800 ------- 7.842 ---- 0.000006159 --- 0.02374 42 -------- 0.002494 ------- 6.219 ---- 0.000004884 --- 0.01882 43 -------- 0.002221 ------- 4.932 ---- 0.000003873 --- 0.01493 44 -------- 0.001978 ------- 3.911 ---- 0.000003072 --- 0.01184

48

Copper wire ampacity table

Ampacities of copper wire, in free air at 30o C:
======================================================== | INSULATION TYPE: | | RUW, T THW, THWN FEP, FEPB | | TW RUH THHN, XHHW | ======================================================== Size Current Rating Current Rating Current Rating AWG @ 60 degrees C @ 75 degrees C @ 90 degrees C ======================================================== 20 -------- *9 ----------------------------- *12.5 18 -------- *13 ------------------------------ 18 16 -------- *18 ------------------------------ 24 14 --------- 25 ------------- 30 ------------- 35 12 --------- 30 ------------- 35 ------------- 40 10 --------- 40 ------------- 50 ------------- 55 8 ---------- 60 ------------- 70 ------------- 80 6 ---------- 80 ------------- 95 ------------ 105 4 --------- 105 ------------ 125 ------------ 140 2 --------- 140 ------------ 170 ------------ 190 1 --------- 165 ------------ 195 ------------ 220 1/0 ------- 195 ------------ 230 ------------ 260 2/0 ------- 225 ------------ 265 ------------ 300 3/0 ------- 260 ------------ 310 ------------ 350 4/0 ------- 300 ------------ 360 ------------ 405

* = estimated values; normally, wire gages this small are not manufactured with these

insulation types.

Coefficients of specific resistance

Specific resistance at 20o C:
Material Element/Alloy (ohm-cmil/ft) (ohm-cm) ==================================================================== Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 675 ------------- 112.2-6 Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 650 ------------- 108.1-6 Manganin ------- Alloy ---------------- 290 ------------- 48.21-6 Constantan ----- Alloy ---------------- 272.97 ---------- 45.38-6 Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 100 ------------- 16.62-6 Platinum ------ Element --------------- 63.16 ----------- 10.5-6 Iron ---------- Element --------------- 57.81 ----------- 9.61-6 Nickel -------- Element --------------- 41.69 ----------- 6.93-6 Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 35.49 ----------- 5.90-6 Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 32.12 ----------- 5.34-6 Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 31.76 ----------- 5.28-6 Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 15.94 ----------- 2.650-6 Gold ---------- Element --------------- 13.32 ----------- 2.214-6 Copper -------- Element --------------- 10.09 ----------- 1.678-6

49

Silver -------- Element --------------- 9.546 ----------- 1.587-6

* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon.

Temperature coefficients of resistance

Temperature coefficient () per degree C:
Material Element/Alloy Temp. Coefficient ===================================================== Nickel -------- Element --------------- 0.005866 Iron ---------- Element --------------- 0.005671 Molybdenum ---- Element --------------- 0.004579 Tungsten ------ Element --------------- 0.004403 Aluminum ------ Element --------------- 0.004308 Copper -------- Element --------------- 0.004041 Silver -------- Element --------------- 0.003819 Platinum ------ Element --------------- 0.003729 Gold ---------- Element --------------- 0.003715 Zinc ---------- Element --------------- 0.003847 Steel* --------- Alloy ---------------- 0.003 Nichrome ------- Alloy ---------------- 0.00017 Nichrome V ----- Alloy ---------------- 0.00013 Manganin ------- Alloy ------------ +/- 0.000015 Constantan ----- Alloy --------------- -0.000074

* = Steel alloy at 99.5 percent iron, 0.5 percent carbon

Critical temperatures for superconductors

Critical temperatures given in degrees Kelvin:
Material Element/Alloy Critical temperature ====================================================== Aluminum -------- Element --------------- 1.20 Cadmium --------- Element --------------- 0.56 Lead ------------ Element --------------- 7.2 Mercury --------- Element --------------- 4.16 Niobium --------- Element --------------- 8.70 Thorium --------- Element --------------- 1.37 Tin ------------- Element --------------- 3.72 Titanium -------- Element --------------- 0.39 Uranium --------- Element --------------- 1.0 Zinc ------------ Element --------------- 0.91 Niobium/Tin ------ Alloy ---------------- 18.1 Cupric sulphide - Compound -------------- 1.6

Note: all critical temperatures given at zero magnetic field strength. 50

Dielectric strengths for insulators

Dielectric strength in kilovolts per inch (kV/in):
Material* Dielectric strength ========================================= Vacuum --------------------- 20 Air ------------------------ 20 to 75 Porcelain ------------------ 40 to 200 Paraffin Wax --------------- 200 to 300 Transformer Oil ------------ 400 Bakelite ------------------- 300 to 550 Rubber --------------------- 450 to 700 Shellac -------------------- 900 Paper ---------------------- 1250 Teflon --------------------- 1500 Glass ---------------------- 2000 to 3000 Mica ----------------------- 5000

* = Materials listed are specially prepared for electrical use

Data
Tables of specific resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance for elemental materials (not alloys) were derived from figures found in the 78th edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Superconductivity data from Collier's Encyclopedia (volume 21, 1968, page 640).

51

Motor users and installers get concerned when they detect unbalanced phase currents on a 3phase motor. The question is frequently asked: Is there something wrong with the motor? The other question is: How much current unbalance can be tolerated? This paper will attempt to answer those questions. HISTORY In the Good Old Days about the only sources of unbalanced phase currents was either a problem in the motor, such as an unbalanced number of turns in the windings, an uneven air gap or unbalanced phase voltages. Winding or air gap problems are definitely motor related. On the other hand unbalanced phase voltages are a power system problem. Unbalanced voltages will generally produce unbalanced currents that are many times greater than the percentage of voltage unbalance. The ratio used is close to 8:1. In other words, a voltage unbalance of 1% could create unbalanced phase currents of as much as 8%. A very unscientific way of looking at the problem is as follows: Suppose a motor has a nameplate full load current of 10 amps. At full load the amps on each leg of the 3 phases added together would be 10 + 10 + 10 or 30. However, if the load is the same but the phase currents are unbalanced, the total of the 3 legs added together will always be more than the total of the balanced currents. In this case the currents might be 10.5, 11.3 and 12.1 for a total of 33.9. This is a very unscientific way of looking at it, but it is accurate in describing the effect. What this means is that high current on one leg doesnt mean that the other two legs will be reduced by an equal amount. It can be said that unbalanced currents always result in higher operating temperature, shortened motor life and efficiency reduction. The next question is What creates unbalanced currents? In years past, if the motor was not the problem the source of unbalanced currents was unbalanced phase voltages. When measuring line to line voltages from phase A to B, B to C, and C to A, detectable differences in the voltages would show up. The voltage differences would account for the unbalanced currents. In todays world there are other problems that are frequently not detectable with simple voltage tests. One problem of growing concern, is voltage distortion caused by harmonics in the

HOW MUCH UNBALANCE CAN BE TOLERATED? In general, this depends on the conditions that are found. If the motor is driving the load and the highest amperage of the three legs is below the nameplate Full Load rating, then generally it is safe to operate. If the high leg is above the nameplate rating, but within the normal service factor amps (for a motor with a service factor, normally 1.15) then it is probably still safe to operate the motor. Also, it is not unusual to find currents more unbalanced at no load than they will be under load, so the loaded amps should be used. Finally, in general, if the high leg is not more than 10% above the average of the three legs, determined as shown in the example, it is probably safe to operate the motor. EXAMPLE Motor Nameplate FLA = 10.0 Service Factor 1.15 Phase Loaded Amps A 10.6 B 9.8 C 10.2 Determine the Average (10.6 + 9.8 + 10.2)/3 = 10.2 amps Determine the % Difference (Highest Phase Average)/Average x 100 (10.6 10.2)/10.2 x 100 = (.4/10.2) x 100 = .039 x 100 = 3.9% The following table shows some of the sources of unbalanced voltages and currents along with possible remedies. TABLE 1 SOLUTION Search, find and replace blown fuse. Locate single phase loads and distribute them more evenly on the 3 phase circuit. If the incoming voltages are

PROBLEM Blown fuse on a power factor correction capacitor bank Uneven single phase loading of the 3 phase system Utility unbalanced

52

power system currents. This can happen if there are loads in the general area that draw non-linear (harmonic rich) currents from the power system, they can create voltage distortion in the normal voltage sine-wave that, in turn, can cause unbalanced currents in motors even when phase voltage differences are not detectable with a voltmeter. For example, if you were to detect unbalanced motor currents and took measurements with a digital voltmeter on the three phases, they might be very close to one another. The natural tendency under these conditions would be to blame the motor for the problem. When this happens it is necessary to go a step further to identify or dismiss the motor as the source of the problem. The test is to rotate all 3 phases. If the power phases are labeled A, B and C and the motor leads connected to them are labeled 1, 2, and 3, motor lead #1 might be reconnected to power supply lead B; motor lead #2 would be reconnected to power supply lead C, motor lead #3 would be reconnected to power supply lead A. Moving all three legs will keep the motor rotating in the same direction. The currents are recorded on each power line leg before and after the connections are changed. If the high current leg stays with the power line phase (for example, B), then the problem is a power supply problem rather than a motor problem. If, however, it moves with the motor leg, then it is a motor problem. This test will pinpoint the problem to be either power supply or motor.

voltages

Harmonic distortion

substantially unbalanced, especially at lightly loaded or no load periods, contact the utility company and ask them to correct the problem. Locate the sources of the harmonics and use harmonic filters to control or reduce harmonics. Install line reactors on existing and new variable frequency controls.

SUMMARY Unbalanced currents on 3 phase motors are undesirable but a small amount can generally be tolerated. Excessive unbalanced currents can shorten motor life and increase energy consumption.

53

STAR DELTA START UP PRINCIPLES Important that the pause between star contactor switch off and Delta contactor switch is on correct. This is because Star contactor must be reliably quenched before Delta contactor is activated. It is also important that the switch over pause is not too long. For 415v Star Connection voltage is effectively reduced to 58% or 240v. The equivalent of 33% that is obtained with Direct Online (DOL) starting.

If Star connection has sufficient torque to run up to 75% or %80 of full load speed, then the motor can be connected in Delta mode. When connected to Delta configuration the phase voltage increases by a ration of V3 or 173%. The phase currents increase by the same ratio. The line current increases three times its value in star connection. During transition period of switchover the motor must be free running with little deceleration. While this is happening "Coasting" it may generate a voltage of its own, and on connection to the supply this voltage can randomly add to or subtract from the applied line voltage. This is known as transient current. Only lasting a few milliseconds it causes voltage surges and spikes. Known as a changeover transient.

54

Electric Motor Wire Connections

Single Phase Connections:

Single Voltage: Rotation L1 L2 CCW CW 1,8 4,5 1,5 4,8

(Three Phase--see below)

Dual Voltage: (Main Winding Only) Voltage Rotation L1 High Low CCW CW CCW CW 1 1 L2 Join

4,5 2&3&8 4,8 2&3&5

1,3,8 2,4,5 ------1,3,5 2,4,8 -------

Dual Voltage: (Main & Auxiliary Winding) Voltage Rotation High CCW CW Low CCW CW L1 L2 Join

1,8 1,5

4,5 4,8

2&3,6&7 2&3,6&7

1,3,6,8 2,4,5,7 --------1,3,5,7 2,4,6,8 ---------

Single Phase Terminal Markings Identified By Color: (NEMA Standards)

1-Blue 2-White 3-Orange 4-Yellow 5-Black 6-No color assigned 7-No color assigned 8-Red P1-No color assigned P2-Brown

Three Phase Connections:

Part Winding Start: 6 Leads NEMA Nomenclature: WYE or Delta Connected

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 55

Motor Leads

9 Leads NEMA Nomenclature WYE Connected (low voltage only)

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 Motor Leads 1 2 3 7 8 9

Together 4&5&6

12 Leads NEMA & IEC Nomenclature Single Voltage or Low Voltage of Dual-Voltage Motors

T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 NEMA IEC Three Phase Motors-Single Speed Nema Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Single Voltage--External WYE Connection

1,6 2,4 3,5 7,12 8,10 9,11 1 2 3 7 8 9

L1 L2 1 2

L3 Join 3 4&5&6

Single Voltage--External Delta Connection

L1 L2 L3 1,6 2,4 3,5

Single Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Operating mode Connection L1 L2 L3 Join

Start Run

WYE Delta

3 4&5&6

1,6 2,4 3,5 -------

Dual Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Voltage Connection L1 L2 L3 Join

High Low

WYE Delta

3 4&5&6

1,6 2,4 3,5 -------

56

NEMA Nomenclature--9 Leads:

Dual Voltage WYE-Connected Voltage

L1 1 1,7

L2 2 2,8

L3 3 3,9

Join 4&7, 5&8, 6&9 4&5&6

High Low

Dual Voltage Delta-Connected Voltage

L1 1

L2 2

L3 3 3,5,9

Join 4&7, 5&8,6&9 ------------

High Low

1,6,7 2,4,8

NEMA Nomenclature--12 Leads:

Dual Voltage--External WYE Connection Voltage

L1 L2 1 1,7 2 2,8

L3 3 3,9

Join 4&7, 5&8, 6&9, 10&11&12 4&5&6, 10&11&12

High Low

Dual Voltage WYE-Connected Start Delta-Connected Run

Voltage Conn. L1 High WYE Delta Low WYE 1 1,12 1,7

L2 2 2,10 2,8

L3 3 3,11 3,9

Join 4&7, 5&8, 6&9, 10&11&12 4&7, 5&8, 6&9 4&5&6, 10&11&12 -----------

Delta 1,6,7,12 2,4,8,10 3,5,9,11 IEC Nomenclature--6 & 12 Leads:

Single Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Delta Connections

Single Voltage WYE-

oper- Conn. L1

L2

L3

Join

57

mode Start WYE U1 V1 W1 U2&V2&W2 -------------Run Delta U1,W2 V1,U2 W1,V2

Dual Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Volt High Low Conn. L1 WYE U 1 L2 V1 L3 W1 Join U2&V2&W2 --------------

Delta U1,W2 V1,U2 W1,V2

Dual Voltage WYE-Connected Start Delta-Connected Run Volt Conn. L1 High WYE U 1 L2 V1 L3 W1 Join U2&U5,V2&V5, W2&W5,U6&V6&W6 U2&U5,V2&V5, W2&W6 U2&V2&W2, U6&V6&W6

Delta U1,W6 V1,U6 W1,V6 LOW WYE U1,U5 V1,V5 W1,W5 Delta

U1,U5, V1,V5 W1,W5 -------------------------W2,W6 U2,U6 V2,V6 ---

NEMA Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Constant Torque Connection (Low-speed HP is half of high-speed HP) Speed L1 L2 L3 Typical Connection

High 6 Low 1

4 2

5 1&2&3Join 3 4-5-6 Open

2 WYE 1 Delta

Variable Torque Connection Speed L1 L2 L3

(Low-speed HP is 1/4 of high-speed HP)

Typical Connection

High 6 Low 1

4 2

5 1&2&3Join 3 4-5-6 Open

2 WYE 1 WYE

Constant Horsepower Connection (HP is the same at both speeds)

58

Speed L1 L2 L3

Typical Connection

High 6 Low 1

4 2

5 1-2-3 Open

1 Delta

3 4&5&6-Join 2 WYE

IEC Nomenclature--6 Leads:

Constant Torque Connection Speed Typical Connection

L1 L2 L3 2W 2U 2V 1U&1V&1W-JOIN

High Low

2 WYE

1U 1V 1W 2U-2V-2W OPEN 1 Delta

Variable Torque Connection

Speed

L1 L2 L3 2W 2U 2V 1U&1V&1W-JOIN

Typical Connection

High Low

2 WYE

1U 1V 1W 2U-2V-2W OPEN 1 WYE

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Considerations for the Use of AC Induction Motors on Variable Frequency Controllers in High Performance Applications
| Introduction | High Performance Drives | Definite Purpose Motors | Starting Characteristics | | Peak Currents | Motor Heating | Motor Cooling | Disadvantages of Oversizing Motors | | Effect of Fast Power Transistors | Motor Flux Level | Measurements in a PWM Environment | | Noise | Mechanical Flexibility | Conclusions | Reference | Abstract

Until recently the majority of AC variable speed drives have been applied to variable torque, pump and fan applications. Advances in drive technology have led to the use of induction motors in high performance applications that exceed the capability of motors designed for operation on sine wave power. These applications, which have traditionally been served by DC systems, have created the need for definite purpose AC induction motors designed specifically for operation on adjustable frequency controllers. This paper will discuss many of the considerations for a successful application and will highlight the limitations of standard motor designs.

Introduction

The reasons for operating industrial motors over a range of speeds are as varied as the industries served. The need for variable speed prime movers is widespread energy savings on fan drives, constant surface speed cutting on machine tool spindles, wind and unwind operations of a bridle drive, etc. Improved performance of these variable-speed drive systems has always been a key means for achieving increased factory productivity. While various methods have historically been used to achieve these speed ranges, advances in technology are making one of the options more attractive than ever. The low cost and ruggedness of the AC squirrel cage induction motor are benefits which have increased the desire to use it as the electromechanical energy
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conversion means. Today's control schemes are obtaining higher levels of performance from these AC motors as well. However, a common limiting characteristic of AC induction motors' performance (on adjustable frequency controls) has not been a technological limitation. Rather, it has been a limitation imposed by the nature of the standardization of industrial AC motors for generalpurpose, constant-frequency use. Throughout this highly refined standardization process there has been little consideration for operation on variable frequency power. Until recently the majority of high performance industrial applications have been satisfied using DC motors and controls. This technology has well defined standards and has been dominated by a limited number of manufacturers where the control supplier assumes responsibility for the performance of the control/motor system. The rapid development of adjustable frequency AC technology has encouraged a large number of new control manufacturers to enter the market. As would be expected, their primary experience is in electronics and not variable speed system application. Also few of these control manufacturers produce motors. The majority of AC motor manufacturers have limited variable speed experience as their products have traditionally operated at a fixed frequency and speed. Due to the large number of possible control and motor design combinations in the market place, it is impractical to assume all combinations have been tested extensively. In this environment the machine builder and user accept greater responsibility for the total system's performance and greater knowledge of the components design considerations and limits are needed.

High Performance Drives

When the "drive" (motor and control) performance requirements are minimal, a standard industrial AC induction motor can often be successfully applied to adjustable-frequency power, variable-speed applications. Indeed, some applications can be converted from constant speed to variable speed while utilizing an existing induction motor. However, when the performance level required is more demanding, a definite-purpose motor design is appropriate. This is usually the case when maximum process productivity is the goal. While the definition of a high performance application is not precise, these applications will typically have one or more of the following characteristics:

Continuous constant torque required below 50% of base speed Continuous constant horsepower required above 150% of base speed High starting loads or overloads High dynamic performance
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A process (driven machine) that cannot be started or run without a variable speed control

The vast majority of adjustable frequency AC controls applied to date have been on low performance applications such as pumps, fans and mixers. Only recently have significant numbers been applied to applications such as extruders, winders and coordinated web processes that meet the criteria above. As improvements in control technology make these applications commonplace there is a need for definite purpose motors designed specifically to optimize the performance of the drive.

DEFINITE PURPOSE MOTORS FOR HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES General Considerations

The first task is to design a basic motor configuration which is matched to the general needs of adjustable frequency power and variable speed operation. Second, the design must be adaptable to match the specific needs of many different drive applications. Third, by relaxing inappropriate constraints associated with fixed frequency, fixed voltage, fixed speed applications the design can be tailored to meet the performance objectives by making typical design tradeoffs as outlined in Table 1. Also, when the controller design is known, more subtle techniques which include the controller can be used. An example is the use of a lower than usual voltage at the low speed end of a region of constant horsepower, so that the flux level (hence, peak load capability) at the highest speeds can be maximized to produce sufficient torque without having to oversize the motor. Of course, this must be weighed against the increased current required of the controller at the low speed.
Table 1 - Changing Motor Parameters to Meet Performance Objectives Objective
Wide Constant-HP Speed Range Higher Peak Torque

Parameter Change
Increase peak torque at base speed Oversize motor Decrease stator and rotor inductances Decrease stator resistance Increase stator resistance Decrease inductances Increase stator coil turns Decrease stator wire/slot size Decrease stator coil turns Increase flux densities Change slot shapes

Lower Primary Time Constant Higher Stator Resistance Lower Inductances

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Lower Flux Density Lower Magnetic Noise Level

Increase volume of core Increase stator coil turns Decrease slot sizes Decrease flux density Alter shape/volume of material Decrease stator resistance Decrease rotor resistance Reduce flux density

Higher Efficiency

As can be seen from Table 1, there are many design compromises that can be made within the motor to provide optimum performance for a given application. The following paragraphs will discuss issues that are commonly raised in discussions of variable frequency applications.

Starting Characteristics

Since adjustable frequency controllers typically accelerate a motor and load by slewing the motor voltage and frequency in such a way as to remain in a region of operation above "breakdown RPM" (as illustrated in Figure 1), the usual constraints of fixed voltage, fixed frequency starting and acceleration do not apply. Starting torque and current are no longer functions of the 1.0 per unit slip characteristics of the motor but are limited by the overload capability of the control. Thus, the controller can be matched to the motor in such a manner as to produce the appropriate starting torque based on a torque/amp ratio equal to that under full load conditions. By evaluating the drive as a motor and control "package", the motor designer can take advantage of this to enhance the level of starting torque as well as overload torque per amp as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1 Fixed Voltage and Frequency Speed Torque Curve

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Figure 2 Overload Torque Per Amp

Peak Currents

In addition to the RMS current level, an important rating point for a transistor (typically used in adjustable frequency controllers) is the peak current capability. The high frequency transient current which results from the electronic switching of the control output voltage is inversely proportional to the leakage inductance of the motor. As noted in Table 1 the leakage inductances can be increased by altering the design of the windings and the magnetic cores in the motor. The use of an electromagnetic design specifically for adjustable frequency power can significantly reduce the peak current required for a given level of power output (see Figure 3). This will not only improve the reliability of the drive, but often can prevent costly over sizing of the AC controller and provide the most cost effective solution.

Adjustable-Frequency Definite-Purpose Design Figure 3 Typical PWM Current Waveforms

Standard Motor Design

Definite-purpose, adjustable frequency design reduces peak as well as RMS current required from the controller for a given horsepower.

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Motor Heating

One of the more obvious sources of increased stress on an induction motor insulation system is higher operating temperature when run on variable frequency controllers. The higher operating temperatures are the result of increased motor losses and often reduced heat transfer as well. As a result, many standard efficient, fixed frequency design motors will not achieve their nameplate rating when operated on an adjustable frequency control at 60 Hz while remaining within temperature limits. While these elevated temperatures may not lead to an immediate insulation failure they will result in a significantly shorter life. In most modern insulation systems, a 10 degree Celsius increase in operating temperature will result in a 50% reduction in expected life. This is one of the reasons why "High Efficient" designs, which have inherently greater thermal reserves, are often recommended for operation on adjustable frequency controls. When an induction motor is run with voltage and current waveforms as seen in Figures 4a through 4d, the deviation from the ideal sinusoidal wave shapes create additional losses without contributing to steady state torque production. The higher frequency components in the voltage waveform do not increase the fundamental air gap flux rotating at synchronous speed. They do, however, create secondary "hysteresis loops" in the magnetic steel, which along with high frequency eddy currents produce additional core losses and raise the effective saturation level in the lamination material. As another consequence of these higher frequency flux variations there are higher frequency currents induced in the rotor bars which generate additional losses. Appropriate electromagnetic design, including rotor bar shape can minimize these added losses. The higher frequency components of the current waveform also do not contribute to the steady state torque. They do, however, increase the total RMS current resulting in added I R losses in the stator winding. In addition to higher frequency current components there can also be low frequency "instabilities" in the currents seen by the AC motors on variable frequency controllers. These asynchronous components of current again cause added losses without contributing to the steady state torque production. Motor designs which help minimize harmonic currents lead to lower I R losses.

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Typical Waveforms from Adjustable Frequency Controllers

Figure 4A Voltage at 50% of Base Speed

Figure 4B Current at 50% of Base Speed

Figure 4C Voltage Near Base Speed

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Figure 4D Current Near Base Speed

Motor Cooling As has been well documented in the literature, when AC motors are run across a wide speed range their heat transfer effectiveness will vary a great deal. Cooling fans whose rotation is directly supplied by the motor are subject to high windage losses and noise at high speeds. Modern AC controllers are capable of operating across a very wide frequency range, often up to several hundred hertz. While this provides great flexibility in the control, it places the motor cooling fan well above its fixed frequency design operating point which often leads to inefficient air flow and objectionable noise. In low speed operation the fan's effectiveness falls off with the motor's speed. Figure 5 shows typical cooling curves for a family of totally enclosed fan cooled motors. In variable torque applications this reduction in cooling air often stays in balance with the reduction in motor losses as the load is reduced with speed. However, in constant torque applications the motor's temperature limits will likely be exceeded. An independently powered blower can provide an essentially constant heat transfer rate. Although not a standard fixed frequency motor feature, depending on the load/speed profile required by the application, this can be a very effective choice and is often specified for high performance applications. In addition to fan speed, the operating temperature of the motor is determined by how effectively the heat generated in the motor can be conducted to surfaces which are in contact with the cooling medium (generally air) and the ability to transfer this heat via convection to the cooling medium. In a conventional totally enclosed fan cooled motor the heat must be transferred from the laminated steel stator core to the cast iron frame and finally to the air. Since the fan is located opposite the drive end of the motor, there is generally greater air flow and heat transfer at one end of the motor than the other. Square laminated frame AC motors have been offered by a variety of manufacturers as a method to improve heat transfer. The laminated frame design eliminates the stator-to-frame interface and provides a more direct and effective heat transfer path to the cooling air while integral cooling ducts trap the air in contact with the frame along the motor's length. This laminated frame construction has been common in variable speed DC motors for over twenty years.
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An offshoot of motor cooling is the need to protect the motor should the motor cooling system fail. While thermostats and thermistors are not common in fixed frequency AC motors they should be required for variable speed applications. A standard AC motor operates at a fixed speed on a well-defined power supply which allows the shaft driven fan to provide adequate cooling air in all normal circumstances. By design a variable frequency control will allow the motor to operate at very low speeds where little or no cooling is provided. This might occur during maintenance, jog, or threading operation for example. On the other hand, if a separately powered blower is provided the drive motor must be protected from a potential blower failure. As is the case with DC motors, over temperature protection is recommended.

Figure 5 Cooling Curves for TEFC Motors

Disadvantages of over sizing (Derating) Motors

In applying variable frequency controllers attempts are often made to use either "in place" AC motors, or standard sine wave power designs. To do this, and operate across a speed range the motor is often oversized relative to the rating required by the application. This can sometimes be done successfully, but there are a number of potential pitfalls. These can range from something as basic as a motor insulation system which is fine on sine wave power, but inadequate for the voltage and current wave shapes on the controller, to drive system instability due to a lack of damping. The oversized motor will have correspondingly higher rotor inertia, which could lengthen acceleration and deceleration times and reduce process productivity. Also, since no load current tends to be a fairly constant percentage of full load current within a motor product line, the higher no load current of a derated motor could result in lower power factor and higher current at the load point required by the application. This current may exceed the capability of the variable frequency controller requiring a costly over sizing of the controller as well. A derated motor will have a lower nominal slip at the application load than a matched motor, which can cause problems either with load sharing in the case of multi-motor drives or with IET trips whenever the load changes quickly. While it often appears to be economic to oversize a standard motor to achieve a greater
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speed range, this course of action should be approached cautiously while weighing all factors of the desired performance of the drive.

The Effect of Fast Power Transistors As power transistor technology has evolved, there has been a proliferation of variable frequency controllers operating at an AC input voltage of 460 V, using these transistors as the power-switching device. As the transistor manufacturers have continued to push toward devices with lower losses and the capability of the higher switching rates, a result has been very rapid transition times between the "off" and "on" states. This is the case for both bipolar (BJT) as well as insulated gate (IGBT) transistors. The combination of fast transitions (turn-on time) and the DC bus voltages of 460 VAC (input) controllers results in the high "dV/dt" levels as seen in Figure 6. What is typically referred to as dV/dt is the time derivative of the voltage, or the slope of the voltage versus time curve.

Figure 6

Typical Transistors Transistion Voltage

Increasing the dV/dt levels at the variable frequency controller output (and motor input) can have effects which need to be considered in the design of motors for such applications. The significance of these effects can be shown by the following equation: I = C x dV/dt As can be seen from this equation, as dV/dt increases, the capacitively coupled current increases linearly with it. While items such as lead wires and motors are not usually thought of in terms of capacitance, three phases AC motor windings have a capacitance to ground as well as between phases. The leads between the controller and motor also exhibit similar effects. While these capacitance values are normally considered negligible, given enough dV/dt, it does not take much "C" to get quite a bit of "I". A second way of viewing the high dV/dt levels is to use transmission line theory to compute the voltage distribution due to the propagation of the steep wave front.

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This involves careful modeling of the leads and motor windings as well as transition points such as conduit box connections. Reflected as well as incident wave fronts must be computed and combined. This type of analysis will not be described in this paper. Analyses done by this methodology are susceptible to errors due to many things including the choice of appropriate complex impedance models for circuit components. Generally, the results of this type of analysis have indicated that the first length of wire in a motor will see higher voltages than will subsequent parts of the winding. This type of modeling is typically used for the analysis of high voltage surges incident on the terminals of very large machinery. Another result of the very fast transition time of today's transistors is that the voltage at the inverter output and the motor terminals is not the same. The voltage wave shapes in Figures 7 and 8 demonstrate typical differences. Using the transmission line model mentioned above, the two major differences in these wave shapes can be explained as follows. The impedance of the leads results in the voltage wave front being distributed to some extent across those leads, softening the wave front to a lower dV/dt level at the motor terminals. Secondly, the termination of the transmission line (leads) at the motor results in a reflected wave, producing the overshoot and dampened oscillation seen in Figure 8. This waveform could also be modeled as the response of an L, R, C, circuit to an impulse input.

Figure 7 Voltage Wave front at Inverter Output

Figure 8 Voltage Wave front at Motor Terminals

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The end result of these wave shapes being applied to the motor terminals is increased stress on the insulation system. Since these wave shapes do not exist in sine wave applications it is clear that their effect has not been considered in standard AC motor insulation systems. The motor insulation system must be capable of withstanding the increased thermal stress as well as the capacitively coupled currents and voltage stresses. Appropriate selection of individual materials, properly integrated into a motor insulation system is needed to withstand the demands of operation on variable frequency controllers.

Motor Flux Level

The fundamental frequency component of the voltage output of a variable frequency controller can be as high as the AC input to the controller. However, this is often not achieved. In order to maintain PWM modulation for example, the output voltage may be limited to 90-95% of the incoming AC voltage. As long as this situation is recognized, and appropriate design choices made, it does not usually present a problem. When an existing motor design (expecting 460 V at 60 Hz, for example) is applied to a controller which delivers only 420V, there can be problems. While NEMA standards for fixed speed AC motors allow for a 10% voltage variation from nominal, it is important to recognize that at 10% lower than nominal flux, performance including the nominal HP rating will vary. For example, it may require 10% more current than nominal to deliver rated HP. While this additional current is almost always available from the incoming line it may not be available from the variable frequency controller. Users that are familiar with static DC drives and their characteristics in low line conditions may be unpleasantly surprised to find that AC variable frequency controllers often do not provide the same rating capability at low line conditions. Operation of an AC motor at lower than nominal flux levels will result in increased slip and rotor heating which is self compounding and may lead to a thermal runaway condition. High efficiency AC motors designed for sine wave operation are often particularly susceptible to poor performance when the controller output voltage is low, since they usually employ low flux density designs at nominal terminal conditions.

Measurements in a PWM Environment

Another effect of the rapid-rise-time pulses which today's variable frequency controllers can apply to motors is to challenge existing measurement tools and techniques. The high dV/dt voltage pulses are themselves not trivial to measure. Typically, an oscilloscope with a single shot bandwidth greater than 10 MHz, plus a high voltage probe with high frequency capability (carefully impedance

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matched) is required. Since voltage isolators typically cannot faithfully reproduce these wave shapes, the scope must be "floated" unless the variable frequency controller is operating on a floating power system. This then requires appropriate care to avoid electrical shock to the operator. Not only is measuring the voltage pulses difficult, all other measurements on the equipment are exposed to this high dV/dt environment. This requires the use of equipment which has high noise immunity and excellent rejection of common mode voltages. Common devices such as thermocouple and tachometer readouts often "misbehave" and provide unreliable readings if they are not capable of faithful operation in these high dV/dt conditions. This effect makes activities such as drive start-up and troubleshooting difficult as specialized equipment is required to take even basic measurements.

Noise

Operation of standard industrial AC induction motors on adjustable frequency power over a speed range often results in unacceptable sound power levels as well as an annoying tonal quality. While the actual sound power level has proven to be unpredictable due to the large number of possible motor and controller designs, the increase in sound level is typically in the range of 7 to 10 db. There has been some success in reducing these sound levels by pushing the variable frequency controller's carrier frequency above the motor structure natural frequency spectral band. However, there are also motor design considerations which will improve sound levels. As discussed earlier, one source of acoustic noise is the air noise caused by running shaft driven fans above their design speed to achieve a wider speed range. A separately powered, unidirectional, constant speed cooling fan will provide a consistent level of air noise independent of motor speed and eliminates annoying sound level changes as the motor accelerates and decelerates. A second source is the magnetic noise from flux harmonics which are driving the magnetic core steel into a saturated condition. A well planned design will use lower than nominal flux levels with particular emphasis on avoiding localized regions of higher flux density or "pinch points". Air gap length and rotor slot bridge thickness, which reduce saturation in localized areas are two contributing areas where additional reductions in sound power level can be achieved. Electro-magnetic-mechanical noise from parasitic forces which are caused by flux and current harmonic interactions produce mechanical vibrations within the motor and contribute to an overall increase in sound power levels. This mechanism will usually become a problem when amplified by mechanical resonances in the motor or driven machine. To offset this source rotor and stator slots can be designed to
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reduce harmonic flux that contributes to parasitic torques. Also, the use of a laminated frame construction eliminates a separate frame and stator structure which simplifies the mechanical system and reduces the richness of possible noise producing natural frequencies and modes of vibration. If a square frame configuration is used it will tend to suppress odd ordered modes of vibration which are present round bodied configurations. This is illustrated in Figure 9.

Third-order mode of vibration in a round-bodied shell configuration Figure 9

Square configuration tends to suppress odd modes

In summary, there are many factors that combine and ultimately result in noise at the motor. The motor and controller must be considered as a system to insure the desired results.

Mechanical Flexibility

A motor designed for operation on a high performance variable frequency drive must have considerable flexibility inherent in its construction to accomplish the variety of tasks it will be called upon to perform. A comparison of the standardized NEMA enclosures for fixed frequency AC motors to the wide variety of DC motor constructions available demonstrates the difference in the fundamental design approach. Since high performance variable frequency drives will typically be used in "DC like" applications as opposed to converting fixed frequency AC (pumps and fans, etc.) to variable speed, it can be assumed that more DC like construction will be required in definite purpose AC motors. One consideration is to achieve the maximum output from the smallest possible motor. High performance adjustable frequency drives are often incorporated as part of specialized machinery or processes where machine real estate is at a premium. The standardization of NEMA fixed frequency dimensions creates unnecessarily large motors and offers few alternatives. The practice of over sizing the rating in order to achieve a speed range aggravates the problem. The replacement of the inactive frame material of conventional AC induction motors

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with active materials (conductors and magnetic steel) in a laminated frame construction allows a larger air gap diameter and increased power density (Figure 10). Often up to two frame diameters can be reduced by using this technique.

Optimized space utilization of square, laminated configuration allows increased active materials and higher power density Figure 10

Also, to take full advantage of the variable frequency controller the motor must be capable of operating above its fixed frequency design speed at 60 Hz. The standard motor design considers only acceleration up to and operation near its synchronous speed. As a result few of these designs are expected to operate above 3600 RPM. The conventional AC motor rotor support to ground system (via bolted joints to the frame, etc.) can give rise to a low stiffness-to-ground and to second order modes of vibration (two level dynamic systems, as shown in Figure 11), which tend to reduce the value of the lowest critical speed. While all elements of a high speed motor system (bearings, rotor balance and strength, etc.) must be evaluated for suitability, the use of integral feet on the end brackets provides increased stiffness to ground by eliminating one of the joints. This can result in increased values of the lowest critical speed and permit operation at higher speeds.

Figure 11 Standard feet-on-frame design can result in a two level dynamic system with lower operating speed capability.

Finally, the motor design must be capable of accepting a variety of accessory devices that are typically mounted on the motor. This includes not only a motor

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mounting flange but also combinations of brakes, speed feedback devices, and a variety of cooling airflow methods and directions. The design must allow for these devices to be accessed, removed and replaced in service with little difficulty. Providing these features results in a design approach very similar to DC designs and conflicts with much of the standardization in standard AC motors.

Motor Synchronous Speeds (RPM)

Frequency 60-cycles 50-cycles Number Of Poles 2 3600 3000 4 1800 1500 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 1200 900 720 600 514 450 400 1000 750 600 500 428 375 334

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