A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ON TEACHING SPEAKING OF RECOUNT TEXT BASED ON SCHOOL LEVEL-BASED CURRICULUM AT THE EIGHT YEAR OF SMP N 6 WONOGIRI

IN 2009/2010 ACA Abstract FAJARWATI, ARIEFIKA (2010)

This research paper aims at describing the implementation of study on teaching speaking of recount text and identifying the problems faced by the teacher and the students on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 WONOGIRI. This research belongs qualitative research, which does not use statistic data. The research was conducted at SMP N 6 Wonogiri and the writer used four ways to collect the data, namely: library study, observation, interview, and document analysis. The data of this research are interview script, field notes, lesson plan and the sources of the data, namely: event, respondents, and documents. The results of the study show that: 1) The goals on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year in SMP N 6 WONOGIRI are to develop the students courage to speak English in front of the audience, to improve speaking skill, especially for the students in recount text lesson, and to make the students understand recount text in English lesson, especially in English speaking. 2) The strategies in speaking activity of recount text applied by the teacher are using the group work, making a careful choice of topic and giving tasks to stimulate interest, giving some instructions or training in discussion skills, and keeping students to speak the target language. 3) The syllabus of English lesson is designed and is arranged by the teacher. The teacher does not only use text book as the source of material but also uses a work sheet to make the students understand the material more. 4) The classroom activities on teaching speaking of recount text are describing picture and interviewing. 5) To guarantee the effectiveness of students achievement in performing the speaking, the teacher takes four steps, namely: BKOF (Building Knowledge of Field), MOT (Modeling of Text), JCOT (Joint Construction of Text), and ICOT (Individual Construction of Text). 6) The problems faced by the teacher on teaching speaking are classroom management, limited time, different capability in receiving the materials each student, and differences of the parents economic and educational background of the students. 7) The

problems faced by the students on teaching speaking of recount text are limited vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, the performance, and nervousness.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study One of the ways to express ideas, feelings, experiences and knowledge is by using language, either in written or spoken from, formal or informal situation. Human beings as a social and individual people always communicate with the others. For communicating, someone uses and needs language. Moreover, communication is needed in human daily activities, because without communication, human will not be able to interact each other. They also will not be able to share their hopes, opinions, ideas and etc. Speaking is an important aspect in language learning. By speaking, we can convey information and ideas, and maintain social relationship by communicating with others. Lacking the ability to communicate orally, people cannot be successful in school or society. That is why the main purpose of language learning is to develop proficiency in speaking and communicative efficiency. They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire and asses their progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication. As we know that speaking is one of the important and essential skills that people must practice. In education world, there are many kinds of subjects in teaching learning process, one of the basic language skills is speaking. Speaking English becomes very important in using English for comunication. By speaking with other, the students are able to know what kinds of situation are in the world. People know that language is habit. Language is not only taught and learnt, but it is used as habit. So, students of English class must be able to speak English well because people identify the English mastery by their speaking English well. In other words, the students are expected to be competent users of English in communicating with others. For example, in teaching speaking, they are expected to be able to do and realize the speech (speech act, speech function, language function) in developing the competency. Students are instructed to do the speech, such as opening conversation, defending the conversation, closing the conversation, asking for help, etc, which are realized on the form of language rule (grammar) and vocabulary. In her research, the writers reason in choosing SMP N 6 WONOGIRI is because SMP N 6

WONOGIRI has been applying KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) or School Levelbased Curriculum. The school emphasizes speaking skill as the way of improving the students language capability. This is aimed at developing oral skill of the students in learning English. On the other side, there are some difficulties in English speaking teaching-learning process. The difficulty is usually faced by the teacher. They must find out some methods to teach English in order to make students not bored. The last, the difficulty is also faced by the students. They do not realize that English is important for them. The students tend to study vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and pronunciation to improve the students speaking capability. Meanwhile, the writer chooses a recount text because it is important thing for the students and it is one of genre, which is taught for students in eight year based on syllabus. From the reasons above, the writer is interested in conducting the research entitled A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY ON TEACHING SPEAKING OF RECOUNT TEXT BASED ON SCHOOL LEVELBASED CURRICULUM AT THE EIGHT YEAR OF SMP N 6 WONOGIRI IN 2009/2010 ACADEMIC YEAR. The writer hopes that this writing is useful for the readers. B. Problem of the Study Based on the research background, the writer states the research problems as follows: 1. How is the implementation of study on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 WONOGIRI? 2. What problems are faced by the teacher and the students on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 WONOGIRI? C. Limitation of the Study In this research, the writer limits the research only on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 Wonogiri in 2009/2010 academic year because in SMP N 6 WONOGIRI has been applying KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) or School Level-based Curriculum. Here, the school emphasizes speaking skill as the way of improving the students language capability. D. Objective of the Study Based on the problem statements, the objectives of this research are as follows: 1. To describe the implementation of study on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 WONOGIRI.

2. To describe the problems faced by the teacher and the students on teaching speaking of recount text based on school level-based curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 WONOGIRI. E. Benefit of the Study There are two benefits of this study, practical benefit and theoretical benefit. 1. The practical benefits are: a. For the writer herself She can get larger knowledge about a descriptive study on teaching speaking recount text based on school level-based curriculum. b. For the readers They will get larger knowledge and information about a descriptive study on teaching speaking recount text based on school level-based curriculum. c. For the teacher and the learner The result of this study will help the English teacher and the learners to solve the problem in teaching and learning English especially in teaching and learning speaking. 2. The theoretical benefits are: a. The result of the research can be useful for the English teacher in giving additional input in English speaking class. b. The writer hopes that this research can be reference for other researcher who will conduct the same object with different perspective. F. Research Paper Organization In order to make the research easy to follow, the writer organizes the research paper as follows: Chapter I is introduction, which consists of background of the study, problem of the study, limitation of the study, objective of the study, benefit of the study, and research paper organization. Chapter II is review of related literature, which elaborates of previous study, notion of speaking, teaching speaking, elements of speaking, recount text, and school level-based curriculum. Chapter III is research method, which presents of type of the research, place and time of research, subject and object of the research, data and data source, method of collecting data, and technique for analyzing data. Chapter IV is research finding and discussion. It focuses on the data analysis and discussion of the finding. Chapter V is conclusion and suggestion.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Previous Study In accomplishing her research, the writer uses the previous research dealing with the topic of her study as her guidance. The first research was done by Suhartini (UMS, 2007). She conducted a research paper entitled The Discussion Technique in Teaching Speaking Based on School LevelBased Curriculum in the Second Year of SMP N 3 Kartasura. She finds many problems faced by the teacher and students. The problems of the teacher are the limited capability of students and the mentality. In other side the students problem are the performance or readiness, nervousness, vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. So, they do not use English language but use Indonesia language when they interact with their friend in their discussion. The second research was done by Castinah (2006, UMS). She conducted a research paper entitled Collaborative Learning Model in Teaching Speaking Using Role Play Based on KTSP Curriculum to the First Year of SMA N 1 Pemalang in the 2006/2007 Academic Year. In her research, she concludes that there are some strengths and weaknesses of collaborative learning model in teaching speaking using role play. Using collaborative learning model through role play in teaching speaking is effective in students performance, but the students who have low capability in speaking will be difficult in joining the teaching learning process although using this method. In this research, although the writer uses the same object in speaking, but the writer uses different method in analyzing the data. The writer describes the implementation and problems faced by the teacher and the students on teaching speaking of recount text based on school levelbased curriculum at the eight year of SMP N 6 Wonogiri in 2009/2010 academic year. B. The Notion of Speaking According to Tarigan (1990: 3) speaking is language skill that is developed in child life, which is processed by listening skill, and at that period the speaking skill is learned. It means that speaking as the basis of language. O Malley (1990: 66-67) says that speaking is an example of a complex cognitive skill that can be differentiated into various hierarchical sub-skills, some of which require controlled processing while others could be processed automatically. Based on Harmer (2002: 12-104) generally there are five elements in speech process. Those elements are: a. Pronunciation Pronunciation is the students way to utter English well.

b. Vocabulary Vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is used in conversation. c. Grammar Grammar concerns with how to arrange a correct sentence in conversation. d. Gesture and Mimics Gesture is a form of non verbal communication made with a part of the body. e. Fluency and Accuracy Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately suited with professional necessity. Basically, being fluent means being able to keep the language coming. (Frederick & Klippel, 1984 www.TeachingEnglish.org.uk/speak/speaking_skills). It means that speaking is more than talking. So it involve some abilities such as thinking, sensitively in listening, accuracy in the adjustment of speech organs, a critical attitude towards self and expressing skill. C. Teaching Speaking In language teaching, especially teaching speaking, the teachers help their students develop their knowledge by providing authentic practice that prepares students for real life communication situations. They help their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts and acceptable (that is, comprehensible) pronunciation. Teaching speaking means use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. (Nunan, 2003 in http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kayi-TeachingSpeking.html) According to Nunan (1991: 54-56), there are five principles of teaching speaking, as follows: a. Be aware of the differences between second language and foreign language learning contexts. b. Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy. c. Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work, and limiting teacher talk. d. Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning. e. Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and interaction speaking. It means that in teaching speaking skill, teacher should recognize the difficulties faced by his/ her students. The teachers help their students develop their knowledge by providing authentic

practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. D. Elements of Speaking According to Harmer (2002: 260-271) there are two elements of speaking, those elements as follows: 1. Language Features a. Connected speech: effective speaker of English need to be able not only to produce the individual phonemes of English but also to use fluent connected speech. b. Expressive devices: the use of these devices contributes to the ability to convey meanings. c. Lexis and grammar: spontaneous speech is marked by the use of number common lexical phrases, especially in the performance of certain language functions. d. Negotiation Language: effective speaking benefits from the negotiator language we use to seek clarification and show the structure of what we are saying. 2. Mental/ Social processing a. Language processing: language processing involves the retrieval of words and phrases from memory and their assembly into syntactically and propositionally appropriate sequences. b. Interacting with others: most speaking involves interaction with one or more participants. c. (On the spot) Information processing: quite apart from our response to others feelings, we also need to be able to process the information they tell us the moment we get it. Here, both of them have important function to increasing speaking skill. Learners can compensate their insufficient knowledge of language elements by using language features, and mental/ social processing. E. Recount Text Recount text is a text written to retell for information or entertainment. A fictional narrative recount may consist of scene-setting, a starting point, a problem, account and a conclusion. The language is descriptive, and there may be dialogue. Characters are defined and often named. A non-fiction recount may begin with a scene-setting introduction, and time of story. (Rasyid, 2010. http://www.rasyid14.wordpress.com.) The text structure of a recount starts with an orientation. This part tells the readers the main idea of the story being discussed in the text. This part gives a setting of the story, so that readers are aware of the story about. Again, it gives an orientation. The next part is the series of events. In this part, the story starts from the very early stages. That is to say, the story develops based on the sequence of the events. Finally, after all

events are presented, the writer wraps story up with a re-orientation. In this part, the writer summarizes the story and tells his/her impression of the experience that what has been elaborated. It means that the social function of Recount Text is to record events for the purpose of informing schematic structure and there are significant grammatical patterns, such us focus on specific participants, using past tense, and verbs of action. F. School Level-based Curriculum There is a lot of curriculum definition used in education. Nunan (1998: 14) states that curriculum is usually used to refer a particular program of study. It refers to all aspects of planning and managing education program. The existence of the curriculum is very important in education because it is a guide to the teaching-learning process conformed to the plan arranged before. While Olivia (1992) in Joko (2007: 80) states that: curriculum is that which is taught in school, is a set of subject, is content, is a program of studies, is a set of materials, is a course of study, is a sequence of course, is a set of performance objective, is everything that goes on within the school, including extra class activities, guidance, and inter personal relationship, is that which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school, is everything that is planned by school personal, is a series of experiences undergone by learners in school and is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling. It means that curriculum is a very general concept, which contributes to the planning of an educational program. School Level-based Curriculum is the strategy in developing curriculum to create the school which are effectiveness productiveness an achievement. It is new education paradigm in developing curriculum, which gives the wide autonomy to each educational unit, and societies involved in making effectiveness in school teaching. Mulyasa (2007: 21) tries to provide some idea about the definiton of School Level-based Curriulum. He says that School Level-based Curriculum is an idea about the curriculum development which put on the near position with teaching-learning process, that are: school and educational unit. School Level-based Curriculum is one of education reform that gives the autonomy to the school and educational unit to develop curriculum based on the each potency, demand, and needs. According to Depdiknas (2007: 5) School Level-based Curriculum is an operational curriculum which is arranged and done by each institution of educational unit level. There are principles in developing and components of School Level-based Curriculum, such as: 1. The Principles in Developing School Level-based Curriculum.

This curriculum is developed based on the principles as follows: a. Stress on learners potency, developing, needs, and learners environments interest. b. Various and integrated. c. Must be perspective with the developing of science and technology. d. Relevance with the lifes needs. e. Comprehensive and continuously. f. Learn long life. g. Match between national and region interest. 2. Components of School Level Based Curriculum. a. The purpose of grade school basic curriculum is formulated to the general education purposes. b. The operational reference in arranging the grade of educational unit curriculum. c. Raising the faith and pious to be character. d. Raising the potency, intelligence, and want which appropriate with the developing level and capability of the learners. e. Demands for reconstruction of the region and national. f. Development of science, technology and art. It means that School Level-based Curriculum components is held based on the aim and School Level-based Curriculum principles. So, School Level-based Curriculum components are said good if have appropriate with that School Level-based Curriculum principles. http://kki-skripsi.blogspot.com/search/label/BAHASA%20INGGRIS

IMPROVING STUDENTS SPEAKING ABILITY IN CONVEYING INTERPERSONAL AND TRANSACTIONAL SPEECH USING THIN-PAIRSSHARE STRATEGY FOR THE FIFTH YEAR OF SD MUH.
Abstract GUNAWAN, BENI (2010) This research aimed at describing the implementation, clarifying the effectiveness, and describing the students response taught by using think-pairs-share. The data of this research were the field note, interview script, the lesson plan, the score of pre-test and post test. The data are taken from the informants, the event, and the documents. The technique of analyzing data were organizing, summarizing, and interpreting which proposed by Ary, Lucy, and Asghar (2002). In organizing all of the data the writer written down in readable form and then the data are categorized. In summarizing all of the data the writer examined the same code and the

categories were merged into pattern by finding the connection among the categories. In interpreting, the researcher elaborated the important finding and what could be learned from it. The result of the research shows that, firstly the implementation was conducted in three cycles and there was improvement of students speaking ability in each cycle. Secondly, teaching speaking was effective. It was indicated by the improvement of the average score of students speaking ability after the researcher gave the action in pre-test 51,42% and past-test 63,97%. And the third, the students response after being taught by using think-pairs-share was good. It was indicated by the improvement of motivation the students in speaking activities.

CONTOH PROPOSAL SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS 1

THE QUALIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AT KECAMATAN BATU MANDI BALANGAN SOUTH KALIMANTAN PROPOSAL By Siti Ariani NPM 306.07.12.299

I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study As a foreign language, English language is important to master, since it is used as a means of international communication. In Indonesia, it has been taught as compulsory subject at junior and senior high schools. However, the result of teaching English has not been satisfactory yet (Kasbolah, 2001:7). It can be seen from the condition around us which shows that most SMU graduates, who have studied English for approximately six years, are still lack of English competence. They cannot even read English textbooks or English references when they are in the university. The condition above makes the government realizes the importance of English and tries to develop the human resources who have capability in communication using English as a foreign language by legalizing the teaching of English in the elementary schools through the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture of Indonesia No. 060/U/1993 dated February 25 1993. It is stated that English can be taught at elementary schools as a local content. In relation to the Decree mentioned above, the national education office of Kabupaten Balangan has also recommended all elementary schools in this regency to include English as the local content. As a result, some of the elementary schools include English as one of the subjects taught starting from grade four. One of the sub-districts of Balangan is Kecamatan Batu mandi. In this sub-district, all the elementary schools include English as a local content. However, the result of the teaching English has not been satisfactory yet. One of the problems is the low qualification of the English

teachers. Many teachers are only graduated from senior high school, and most of them have never joined English teaching training. So, it is difficult for them to make effective teaching and learning. In reference to the description above, the researcher is interested to conduct a research with the title: The Qualifications of the English Teachers of Elementary Schools at Kecamatan Batu Mandi Balangan 1.2 Identification of the Problems There are some problems faced by the English teachers at elementary schools, they are among others: Teachers qualification Teaching preparation Classroom management English textbooks Instructional media The problems can influence the success of teaching and learning process. The problem of this research is limited only in finding the qualifications of the English teachers. 1.3 Research Problem In reference to the problem identification above, this research tries to answer the following question: What are the qualifications of the English teachers of elementary schools at Kecamatan Batu Mandi Balangan?

1.4 Objective of the Study In line with the problems above, the study is aimed at describing the qualification of the English teachers of elementary schools at Kecamatan Batu Mandi Balangan.

1.5 Significance of the Study It is expected that the research finding can give information to the national office of education of Balangan. By knowing the condition, the national office of education of Balangan can improve the quality of the English teachers at elementary schools Balangan, for example, giving them scholarship to continue their study at English Department, or holding seminar or workshop for teaching English.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Teaching English at Elementary Schools Teaching at elementary schools is unique. It means that the teaching of English at elemenatry schools is different from the teaching of English at secondary schools. Kasbolah (1995:58) suggests four requirements that have to be taken into consideration to the implementation of English teaching at elementary school, namely: (1) the qualification of teachers, (2) materials, (3) media, and (4) syllabus. The teachers have very important roles in teaching and learning English. They are the key success or failure in language learning. Furthermore, the teaching and learning will run smoothly if the teachers know exactly what roles that she should perform in the classroom. 2.1.1 Teachers Qualification Since a teacher plays a very important role in the teaching process and affects the success in the classroom, a teacher should be competent and qualified. As an English teacher for elementary school, he/she should meet the qualification of a good English teacher for young learners. Kasbollah (1993) states that the teacher is one of the most important elements. She further states some requirements that should be obtained by a teacher. They are as follows: A teacher should be a good facilitator for the students. He/she should help the students if they need it. He/she should arouse the students response by asking some questions. A teacher should be able to present the teaching materials appropriately. A teacher should be able to become a good model for his/her students A teacher should have sufficient knowledge about linguistics and culture of the target language. A teacher should be creative in choosing the methods and techniques for teaching. Halliwel (1992:116) suggests that a teacher ideally have and do the following aspects, namely: loudness of teachers voice which should cover the whole classroom, clarity of teachers explanation, willingness to repeat the explanation, english homework to improve students competence, and the discussion of the homework.

METHOD OF RESEARCH 3.1 Research Design The design of the study is descriptive quantitative. It is conducted to describe some problems faced by the teachers who taught English in Elementary schools, especially, in the use of textbooks and instructional media. The kind of research is survey. The researcher collected the data from the teachers who taught English in some elementary schools in Kecamatan Batu Mandi, Kabupaten Balangan. 3.2 Population and Sample

The population of the research is the English teachers of Elementary schools in Kecamatan Lampihong Kabupaten Balangan. There are twenty two elementary schools in Kecamatan Batu Mandi, and all the schools include English as a local content. So, all the English teachers of the elementary schools are taken as the sample of research. In other words, this research uses total sampling. According to Sugiyono (2009), total sampling is used to get accurate generalization. 3.3 Research Instrument The instrument used to collect the data is questionnaire. The questionnaire is given to the English teachers of elementary schools. The questionnaire is intended to know the qualifications of the English teachers of elementary schools Kecamatan Batu Mandi Kabupaten Balangan. The questionnaire asking the problems investigated, that is the qualification of the English teachers which include teachers status, level of the teachers education, teachers teaching experience, teachers background education, English teaching development, and teaching loads.

3.4 Data Analysis The datagained through the questionnaire are analyzed using percentage. The formula used is simple percentage. The formula is: f/N x 100%=percentage In which f is the frequency (number of respondents fulfilling the questionnaire), and N is the total number of respondents. The data analysis by using percentage above is a form of identifying the qualification of the English teachers. It is used to scale or criteria as follows: NO Percentage Criteria 1 100% All of them 2 80-99% Most of them 3 60%-79% Many of them 4 40%-59% Some of them 5 21%-39% Few of them 6 1%-20% Very few of them 7 0% None of them Table 3.4 Data Analysis adopted from Krohns Kriteria

References Altis, et al. The Second Language Classroom: New York: Oxford University Press. Haliwell, S. 1992. Teaching English in the Primary School. New York: Longman Harmer, J. 1985. The Practice of English Language Teaching. New York Longman Kasbolah, K. and Sulistyo, G. 1998. The Role of English in Era of Global Information: Ideas on improving Higher Education Instruction. Jurnal bahasa dan Seni Diposkan oleh SYAIFULLAH EDUCATION INFORMATION CENTER di 06:17

http://syaifullaheducationinformationcenter.blogspot.com/2011/10/contoh-proposal-skripsibahasa-inggris_17.html DOKUMEN Nomor Kelas : Penulis Utama : Penulis Tambahan : 1. Nim : Tahun : Badan Corporate : Judul : Judul Seragam : Judul Seri : Edisi : Imprint : Kolasi : Sumber : Subyek : Jenis Dokumen : Abstrak : UNS-Pascasarjana Prodi. Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris-S.890906112008 STUDENTS SPEAKING Tesis ABSTRAK The aim of the research is to improve the students speaking ability through Communicative Language Teaching. The researcher used Communicative Language Teaching because this approach is appropriate with the condition of the students and suitable for the adult students. The research was carried out from September 2007 to April 2008, for the students of Economics Department of Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta in 2006/2007 academic year. The subject of the research was 40 students, consisting of 21 male and 19 female. This classroom action research was conducted in two cycles. Each cycle consists of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. In the first cycle the researcher used Communicative Language teaching to overcome the students problem in speaking, because there were still problems, so the researcher continues to the second cycle. In the second cycle the researcher used Communicative Language Teaching, discussion and presentation to overcome the rest of students problem in speaking. Surakarta - Pascasarjana - 2008 Improving the students speaking ability through communicative language teaching S.89090611 2008 Smb i 2008 S. M. Budiyanto

The data were obtained by using several techniques including test, interview, and observation,. To analyze the quantitative data the researcher used non independent t-test, to compare the score before and after giving treatment whether there is significant improvement or not in the students speaking ability. He also used descriptive statistic including highest, average, and lowest scores. To analyze the qualitative data, the researcher used flow model of analysis. The research finding both on the first and second cycle showed that there is significant improvement on the students speaking ability through Communicative Language Teaching. The hypothesis stating that Communicative Language Teaching and discussion can improve the students speaking ability proved correct and significant. Therefore, he can draw the conclusion that Communicative language Teaching is a good and accurate approach for improving the Students Speaking Ability for Economics Department of Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta in 2006/2007 Academic Year. Since there is no best method/approach in the world, so the teachers are demanded to be creative and innovative in selecting an appropriate method or approach for their students and the lesson. The research showed that Communicative Language Teaching is an appropriate and accurate approach for teaching speaking for adult students. File Dokumen : Status Pembimbing : File tidak dipublish Non Public 1. Dr. Ngadiso, M.Pd 2. Drs. Abdul Asib, M.Pd 3. 4. 5. Pascasarjana Hadiah
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41.1 What Is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect. The type of question asked by the researcher will ultimately determine the type of approach necessary to complete an accurate assessment of the topic at hand. Descriptive studies, primarily concerned with finding out "what is," might be applied to investigate the following questions: Do teachers hold favorable attitudes toward using computers in schools? What kinds of activities that involve technology occur in sixth-grade classrooms and how frequently do they occur? What have been the reactions of school administrators to technological innovations in teaching the social sciences? How have high school computing courses changed over the last 10 years? How do the new multimediated textbooks compare to the print-based textbooks? How are decisions being made about using Channel One in schools, and for those schools that choose to use it, how is Channel One being implemented? What is the best way to provide access to computer equipment in schools? How should instructional designers improve software design to make the software more appealing to students? To what degree are special-education teachers well versed concerning assistive technology? Is there a relationship between experience with multimedia computers and problem-solving skills? How successful is a certain satellite-delivered Spanish course in terms of motivational value and academic achievement? Do teachers actually implement technology in the way they perceive? How many people use the AECT gopher server, and what do they use if for? Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It can involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a person chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind cannot extract the full import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are very important in reducing the data to manageable form. When in-depth, narrative descriptions of small numbers of cases are involved, the research uses description as a tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during analysis. Those patterns aid the mind in comprehending a qualitative study and its implications. Most quantitative research falls into two areas: studies that describe events and studies aimed at discovering inferences or causal relationships. Descriptive studies are aimed at finding out "what is," so observational and survey methods are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg & Gall, 1989). Studies of this type might describe the current state of multimedia usage in schools or patterns of activity resulting from group work at the

computer. An example of this is Cochenour, Hakes, and Neal's (1994) study of trends in compressed video applications with education and the private sector. Descriptive studies report summary data such as measures of central tendency including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean, variation, percentage, and correlation between variables. Survey research commonly includes that type of measurement, but often goes beyond the descriptive statistics in order to draw inferences. See, for example, Signer's (1991) survey of computer-assisted instruction and at-risk students, or Nolan, McKinnon, and Soler's (1992) research on achieving equitable access to school computers. Thick, rich descriptions of phenomena can also emerge from qualitative studies, case studies, observational studies, interviews, and portfolio assessments. Robinson's (1994) case study of a televised news program in classrooms and Lee's (1994) case study about identifying values concerning school restructuring are excellent examples of case studies. Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of research, descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it requires only one variable (Borg & Gall, 1989). For example, a descriptive study might employ methods of analyzing correlations between multiple variables by using tests such as Pearson's Product Moment correlation, regression, or multiple regression analysis. Good examples of this are the Knupfer and Hayes (1994) study about the effects of the Channel One broadcast on knowledge of current events, Manaev's (1991) study about mass media effectiveness, McKenna's (1993) study of the relationship between attributes of a radio program and it's appeal to listeners, Orey and Nelson's (1994) examination of learner interactions with hypermedia environments, and Shapiro's (1991) study of memory and decision processes. On the other hand, descriptive research might simply report the percentage summary on a single variable. Examples of this are the tally of reference citations in selected instructional design and technology journals by Anglin and Towers (1992); Barry's (1994) investigation of the controversy surrounding advertising and Channel One; Lu, Morlan, Lerchlorlarn, Lee, and Dike's (1993) investigation of the international utilization of media in education (1993); and Pettersson, Metallinos, Muffoletto, Shaw, and Takakuwa's (1993) analysis of the use of verbo-visual information in teaching geography in various countries. Descriptive statistics utilize data collection and analysis techniques that yield reports concerning the measures of central tendency, variation, and correlation. The combination of its characteristic summary and correlational statistics, along with its focus on specific types of research questions, methods, and outcomes is what distinguishes descriptive research from other research types. Three main purposes of research are to describe, explain, and validate findings. Description emerges following creative exploration, and serves to organize the findings in order to fit them with explanations, and then test or validate those explanations (Krathwohl, 1993). Many research studies call for the description of natural or manmade phenomena such as their form, structure, activity, change over time, relation to

other phenomena, and so on. The description often illuminates knowledge that we might not otherwise notice or even encounter. Several important scientific discoveries as well as anthropological information about events outside of our common experiences have resulted from making such descriptions. For example, astronomers use their telescopes to develop descriptions of different parts of the universe, anthropologists describe life events of socially atypical situations or cultures uniquely different from our own, and educational researchers describe activities within classrooms concerning the implementation of technology. This process sometimes results in the discovery of stars and stellar events, new knowledge about value systems or practices of other cultures, or even the reality of classroom life as new technologies are implemented within schools. Educational researchers might use observational, survey, and interview techniques to collect data about group dynamics during computer-based activities. These data could then be used to recommend specific strategies for implementing computers or improving teaching strategies. Two excellent studies concerning the role of collaborative groups were conducted by Webb (1982), and Rysavy and Sales (1991). Noreen Webb's landmark study used descriptive research techniques to investigate collaborative groups as they worked within classrooms. Rysavy and Sales also apply a descriptive approach to study the role of group collaboration for working at computers. The Rysavy and Sales approach did not observe students in classrooms, but reported certain common findings that emerged through a literature search. Descriptive studies have an important role in educational research. They have greatly increased our knowledge about what happens in schools. Some of the important books in education have reported studies of this type: Life in Classrooms, by Philip Jackson; The Good High School, by Sara Lawrence Lightfoot; Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920, by Larry Cuban; A Place Called School, by John Goodlad; Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Learning, by D. M. Moore and Dwyer; Computers in Education: Social, Political, and Historical Perspectives, by Muffoletto and Knupfer; and Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education, by M. G. Moore. Henry J. Becker's (1986) series of survey reports concerning the implementation of computers into schools across the United States as well as Nancy Nelson Knupfer's (1988) reports about teacher's opinions and patterns of computer usage also fit partially within the realm of descriptive research. Both studies describe categories of data and use statistical analysis to examine correlations between specific variables. Both also go beyond the bounds of descriptive research and conduct further statistical procedures appropriate to their research questions, thus enabling them to make further recommendations about implementing computing technology in ways to support grassroots change and equitable practices within the schools. Finally, Knupfer's study extended the analysis and conclusions in order to yield suggestions for instructional designers involved with educational computing. am amazed how often we hear qualitative researchers applying their standards to quantitative research or quantitative researchers applying their standards to qualitative research. Each functions within different assumptions. Finding fault with one approach with the standards of

another does little to promote understanding. Each approach should be judges on its theoretical basis.

The Assumptions of Qualitative Designs

1. Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. 2. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaninghow people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. 3. The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines. 4. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. 5. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. 6. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details. .....Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. .....Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Arguments Supporting Qualitative Inquiry

Human behavior is significantly influenced by the setting in which it occurs; thus one must study that behavior in situations. The physical settinge.g., schedules, space, pay, and rewardsand the internalized notions of norms, traditions, roles, and values are crucial contextual variables. Research must be conducted in the setting where all the contextual variables are operating. Past researchers have not been able to derive meaning...from experimental research. The research techniques themselves, in experimental research, [can]...affect the findings. The lab, the questionnaire, and so on, [can]...become artifacts. Subjects [can become]...either suspicious and wary, or they [can become]...aware of what the researchers want and try to please them. Additionally, subjects sometimes do not know their feelings, interactions, and behaviors, so they cannot articulate them to respond to a questionnaire. One cannot understand human behavior without understanding the framework within which subjects interpret their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Researchers need to

understand the framework. In fact, the "objective " scientist, by coding and standardizing, may destroy valuable data while imposing her world on the subjects. Field study research can explore the processes and meanings of events.

.....Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. (1980). Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Predispositions of Quantitative and Qualitative Modes of Inquiry

Quantitative Mode
Assumptions

Qualitative mode
Assumptions

Social facts have an objective reality Primacy of method Variables can be identified and relationships measured Etic (outside's point of view)

Reality is socially constructed Primacy of subject matter Variables are complex, interwoven, and difficult to measure Emic (insider's point of view)

Purpose

Purpose

Generalizability Prediction Causal explanations

Contextualization Interpretation Understanding actors' perspectives

Approach

Approach

Begins with hypotheses and theories Manipulation and control Uses formal instruments Experimentation Deductive Component analysis Seeks consensus, the norm Reduces data to numerical indices Abstract language in write-up

Ends with hypotheses and grounded theory Emergence and portrayal Researcher as instrument Naturalistic Inductive Searches for patterns Seeks pluralism, complexity Makes minor use of numerical indices Descriptive write-up

Researcher Role

Researcher Role

Detachment and impartiality Objective portrayal

Personal involvement and partiality Empathic understanding

Although some social science researchers (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Schwandt, 1989) perceive qualitative and quantitative approaches as incompatible, others (Patton, 1990; Reichardt & Cook, 1979) believe that the skilled researcher can successfully combine approaches. The argument usually becomes muddled because one party argues from the underlying philosophical nature of each paradigm, and the other focuses on the apparent compatibility of the research methods, enjoying the rewards of both numbers and words. Because the positivist and the interpretivist paradigms rest on different assumptions about the nature of the world, they require different instruments and procedures to find the type of data desired. This does not mean, however, that the positivist never uses interviews nor that the interpretivist never uses a survey. They may, but such methods are supplementary, not dominant....Different approaches allow us to know and understand different things about the world....Nonetheless, people tend to adhere to the methodology that is most consonant with their socialized worldview. (p. 9) .....Glesne, C., & Peshkin, A. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. White Plains, NY: Longman.

Contrasting Positivist and Naturalist Axioms (Beliefs and Assumptions)

Axioms About The nature of reality Positivist Paradigm (Quantitative) Reality is single, tangible, and fragmentable. Naturalist Paradigm (Qualitative) Realities are multiple, constructed, and holistic. Knower and known are interactive, inseparable. Only time- and context-bound working hypotheses (idiographic statements) are possible. All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping, so that it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects. Inquiry is value-bound.

The relationship of Knower and known are knower to the known independent, a dualism. The possibility of generalization The possibility of causal linkages The role of values Time- and context-free generalizations (nomothetic statements) are possible. There are real causes, temporally precedent to or simultaneous with their effects. Inquiry is value-free.

.....Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Research with Subjects (Quantitative)

1. What do I know about a problem that will allow me to formulate and test a hypothesis? 2. What concepts can I use to test this hypothesis? 3. How can I operationally define these concepts? 4. What scientific theory can explain the data? 5. How can I interpret the results and report them in the language of my colleagues?

Research with Informants (Qualitative)

1. What do my informants know about their culture that I can discover? 2. What concepts do my informants use to classify their experiences? 3. How do my informants define these concepts? 4. What folk theory do my informants use to explain their experience? 5. How can I translate the cultural knowledge of my informants into a cultural description my colleagues will understand?

.....Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.