4266

the ASI report it has been mentioned that bones had been
found at the excavation site. (E.T,C.)
i i ; -i i n rl i i i
r| l i r `
-n | ri | ( sso)
Question- You have not studied the bones discovered
from the excavation site?
Answer- Yes. (E.T.C.)
- i r ri r l -i -i i rl i l-| i|,
- lin rl i n| ii | i| ii ii |
i| , li - i ,ii iii r| ini r , -ni, nii, ,
- -, n il| ; i - ii i ri r `
-n -inii i i -n r| r |
-ini i ; i - | i ; lii li - r| | r ,
l- r -iln ri , l i - l,i lrni lini ,ii
si ni r | - rl i i - i i ri r , r ooi; o
| li - - l~lin r | s - l i - i i | l i
r i | | i n| i | i i i | | i n| r | i i ,
i , - n i l | l | i n| r |
| i| nii i| -li l-i i i | i - - i i ;
lii r| r , . . . . . .- ; i - i ; li i r|
li r | ( sszsss)
Question- According to me, most of the bones found at the
excavation site were of wild animals or such animals,
which are not eaten by human beings such as dog, donkey,
pig, frog, python etc. What you have to say in this behalf?
Answer- The excavators do not think so.
The excavators have not given any particular report
in this behalf so as to prove the question as put up by the
learned counsel for the cross-examiner. The statement
being given by me about the bones, is mentioned in ASIs
4267
report. Animals were sacrificed in few temples even in
past and today as well. Buffalo bull, he goat, cock etc.
were sacrificed.
I have not made any special study about the
followers of Kabir and Raidasi temple. . . . . . . . . I have not
made any special study in this behalf. (E.T.C.)
3963. PW-29 (Jaya Menon) on the question of bones,
stated:
I may not be an expert but it is possible to identify
different species except in the case of sheep and goat by
seeing the bone. My statement in paragraph-9 of the
affidavit regarding bones found in Trench No. F/3, F/4, F/5
is on the basis of daily register which was prepared at the
site by the ASI Team. . . . .in the swearing para this
paragraph is shown as based on my knowledge. It is true
that the daily register does not mention species of animals.
. . . . . .I am not an expert nor I have studied the bones
found during the excavation at the disputed site. . . . . .
.Species of bone can be identified even if it is too old by
visual examination. Palaeobotany is a subject dealing with
ancient plants and I am not an expert of that. . . . . . .I do
not agree with the suggestion that the bones recovered
during excavation at the site in question were kept or were
brought by scavengers because such large quantity of
bones could not have been brought by scavengers. By large
quantity I mean that during excavation every day bags
full of bones were recovered from the site in question. I
do not remember the exact number of bones recovered
during excavation. Size of those bags were different."
4268
(Page 37-38)
"The witness replied that she had not complained to
any about the excavated soil being thrown away without
any sorting nor I had complained about the bones of
human skeleton being mostly thrown. (Page 42)
"According to me one of the significant aspects
neglected by ASI in the disputed site is the study of
animal bones. Animal bones are part of the evidence and
should have been studied in the case of present excavation.
If there was a temple at disputed site then the area of the
construction of the temple should have been cleaned of
animal bones." (Page 67)
"Question:- If bone is found under constructed area of
temple then whether that construction can be considered as
temple in that case also?
Answer:- I have no idea about this fact. (Page 68)
In para 8A of my affidavit I have said that bones
from a human skeleton too were mostly thrown away. These
bones were recovered from trench ZHI. The human skeleton
was mostly intact. Trench ZHI lies towards North to the
makeshift structure. Bones can be dated. Chemical change
in the bones is possible only if the bones have been buried
for a long period of time." (Page 74)
Bones of humans and animals and plant remains
are also important for the study of the past." (Page 77)
By stating in paragraph 8A that the collection of
artefacts was not made in scientific manner, I mean that the
bones of human skeleton recovered in a particular trench
were not collected but were thrown away. I was although
4269
present at the time of excavation but I did not raise any
objection to the throwing of the bones. The excavators did
not collect the bones. During excavation at the site the
excavator collected bones found in northern and southern
trenches but the bones found in the trench ZH-1 were not
collected, rather they were thrown away. So far as I know,
no one made any objection to this conduct of the
excavators in throwing away the bones found in trench ZH-
1." (Page 229)
3964. PW 30 (Dr.R.C.Thakran) on the question of bones,
said:
- n ; in i ni r l r n i -i ii -
rl i l- | lil n | in| r| r | iri -
i ir i (-n i), --i (-n i), -riri (-n
i) il r | i n i| nr i , nin i ;irii -
r | - i n nri -i ii -lin li -i i
i r | -lin li - si| n; i| | i| li - ;irii
llni i| iin| ;lnri i- ln in-
liin ,ii ilin r ; i| , i- - n i r| r | . . i|
ri r| - -n i| ilin r ; r, l- i n n|i -iii
-lin li - i l r | - n -n, i
ii i i- i r| r | ( ss)
I have the knowledge that discoveries of bones in so
many excavations have continued to be recorded; for
instance Sarai Nahar Rai ( Uttar Pradesh), Damdama
(Uttar Pradesh), Mahadaha (Uttat Pradesh), etc.. All the
afore-said places are in Jaunpur, Pratapgarh and
Allahabad. I have certainly gone through the reports
concerning excavations at the afore-said places.
Concerned reports were published. All these reports were
4270
published by the Cultural and Archaeological wing of the
Ancient Indian History Department of University of
Allahabad. I do not remember the names of the magazines
in which the afore-said reports were published. . . . A book
has also been recently published which speaks of the
reports relating to the afore-said three places. I do not
remember the name of the book, its writer and
publisher.(E.T.C.)
i i; ii - ri ii, ri i rl i l- r|
i| , --i i i rl i i | i| (n|,
-i -|, n, - il) li i r ri i ni r l r
rl i n ii | r | ( s)
The bones which were being discovered when I was
there in course of the excavation, had cut marks and they
were of several types (thin, thick, hard, soft, etc.) seeing
which it can be said as to which animals these bones
belong to. (E.T.C.)
- n ; -i - ii| r| r l r n - li
-i - |- i i n ii r| | - li | i i; |
li - - |- i i i i - i r | - li
i - l| ; nir i -l- i i ; li r| ii| -li
-i - , ri |- i i; n; , - i i - r|
li l n -ii |- i i i|| i ri ln r|
ri ni l - i|ni lrn - nni| li r | ( s)
I do not know whether or not animal bones were
discovered in the excavation of several temples. I have in
excavation reports of the temples read about animal bones
having been found. In regard to such temples, there was no
dispute as to there being any Eidgah or mosque. In the
excavation of those temples where animal bones were
4271
found, I did not try to know there were animal bones at the
said places. It will not be proper to say that I have given
wrong statement in favour of the plaintiffs. (E.T.C.)
- ii - s -n r | | i; - i lr
; ~ |- - | i| ni - lii r , r - | | i
r i ;i i ni l - i i i i | r | ; i - l|
- n i | i| i | i|| r - i i l i r |
- ri l - ; nr inil- i ii i | ni ri r
- | rl i li - | r| li r i l i;lnri
- i- i i |, ; i i i i r| - i ,ii i i
li ii ii ni i | inii | ln l ;
i i ii i -i i n ri ni ri r li -ii lli
-ii | i i;i ii l-ni ri r | ( r)
The words 'which in bulk seems to be sheep and
goat' written in the 11
th
line of para-5 on page-3 of my
Affidavit, represent my opinion and also have
archaeological basis. In this behalf, none had given me
any advice or information. It is my own finding. (Himself
stated) I have been dealing with this type of archaeological
remains. I have not dealt with pig bones, because the
primitive history for the first time saw the rearing only of
two animals, sheep and goat, by men and these two
animals have continued to be in use on a large scale for
fulfilment of the latter's needs. It has been in evidence
during excavations at several sites. (E.T.C.)
3965. PW 32 (Dr. Supriya Verma) on the question of
bone, said:
The bones which were referred to by me in para 11
of the affidavit were seen by me. Only by looking to the
bones, I cannot identify as to which animal species the
4272
bone belongs because I am not a Zoo-Archaeologist. The
above bones could be of any animal including dog. (Page
43)
Merely by looking at a skeleton, one cannot say that
whether the skeleton was of Hindu or of Muslim
person.(Page 45)
Bones that have been found in N.B.P.W. Gupta and
post Gupta periods have been mentioned on the basis of
ASI report because it says that bones have been found at all
level. Bones have no relation with civilization. Bones are
not associated with any particular community. Bones tell us
about food habits of societies. Bones tell us about food
habit of human society.(Page 50)
When archaeologists come across animal bones
which can be of domestic as well as of wild animals the
inference that is made relate to the food habit of that
society or one can get an idea about the fauna that might
have existed at that time around that site. When
archaeologists excavate and find archaeological material
which can include pottery and bones inference and
interpretation are made by archaeologists on the basis of
the context in which these finds are exposed. (Page 50-51)
While studying bones to ascertain the contest is
important and the second step is to have the bones
identified by Zoo-archaeologist. (Page 51)
The archaeological sites that have been found in
India reveal that from Palaeolithic time on wards animals
have been consumed. Finding of bones has to be related to
the context and the quantification of bones has also to be
4273
kept in mind.(Page 51-52)
One bone can come by chance but hundreds of
bones don't come by chance. (Page 52)
Animals bones are part of archaeological evidence
and have to be understood in the context in which they are
being found.(Page 53)
Q. Whether bones are found in the mosque or kept
in it?
A. I have seen some ruined Mosques and I have
visited once in my life Jama-Masjid in Delhi and I can not
know whether bones can be found in mosque or not.(Page
53)
Identification of bones is the subject of Zoo
Archaeologist I am not a Zoo Archaeologist. I can say that
bones were found during excavations but I can not identify
the species to which they belong. Since I have not examined
the bone I am not in a position to say whether they have cut
marks or not. (Page 154)
It is not correct to say that bones recovered during
excavation at disputed site were only form dumped
material; rather they were found in all levels including fill
deposits. (Page 163)
It do not agree that bones found in excavation are
not a decisive piece of evidence. (Page 163)
I completely disagree with the suggestion that
animal bones are not a decisive are not a decisive piece of
evidence. (Page 163)
3966. Sri M.M.Pandey arguing on this aspect submitted:
"Study of bones is important only on prehistoric sites
4274
where not much information is available regarding the
food habit, faunal profile of the region or area and
seasonality of settlement. But in this case where most of
the bones have come from secondary deposits and belong
to the period for which most of the information regarding
species and food habit of populace is known through texts
and other sources. Hence no study was felt necessary.
Even if the cut marks prove that animal was eaten
and it may also report the species of animal eaten, the
knowledge would have proved of no use in this context as
the bones do not belong to primary context and were
brought from some other place where meat-eaters were
settled.
Meat eating also is not restricted to any religion or
creed. Presence of animal bones in any quantity does not
prove habitation on the site. As has been said that the
context of the find is important and the case of bones is no
different from any other find from these levels (Period IV
to Period IX). There has been regular raising of ground by
laying of earth removed from some other place (which
could have been a habitation area).
No other habitational material has been found in situ
in excavation, e.g., no houses, no hearths, no baths, no
latrine, not even definite house-hold pottery the so-called
table ware, to make it a regular habitation site.
The objection of the plaintiffs that bones are coming
from all periods and levels. Post Gupta levels onwards are
not residential in nature but attest to levels with temples
and these levels are supposedly stratified. Why the bones
4275
were found even from the central part of the alleged
temple. If stratum VII contained a structure so radically
different, from mosque in VIII above, why were there
finds not kept separate? Hukka and chillum can we expect
such finds in a temple?
3967. In any archaeological excavation, finds of animal
bones are as important as other antiquities as bones tell about
nature of fauna, environment and possibly food habits of a
section of the society at that given period of time from where
the bones have been recovered. But this all can be achieved
provided the bones have been recovered from the regular layers.
In this case as they have been recovered from a pit, dump or
filling, they lose significance and importance.
3968. In the excavation at the disputed site, the entire
collection of animal bones was recovered from the fills of
different periods. Evidently, these fills were brought from the
neighbouring areas to level the ground from time to time. It is
but natural that fills which were brought from habitational
deposits contained animal bones, hence their examination will
throw light only about the area of their origin. They have no
bearing on the nature of the layers of the excavated site.
3969. Moreover, it is a well known fact that in certain
Hindu temples animal sacrifices are made and flesh is eaten as
Prasad while bones are deposited below the floor at the site
itself. Even Dr. Supriya Verma, the learned witness (P.W. 32) in
her submission, stated on Page 50 Bones have no relation with
civilization. Bones are not associated with any particular
community. Bones tell us about the food habits of the
society. Another witness Dr Jaya Menon (P.W. 29) admitted
4276
that It is true that in certain kind of temples animals are
sacrificed (Page 37). She clearly admitted that bones can be
found at temple sites also.
Mandiron ki khudai ki reports mein animal bones paaye
jaane ke baare mein padhaa hai. Aisey Mandiron ke
sambandh mein kisi Idgah ya Masjid ka koi vivaad nahin
tha R.C. Thakran (P.W. 30) Page 191
3970. One thing more we intend to notice in respect to the
bones. It is not the case of the plaintiffs (Suit-4) or other
witnesses that bones in such abundance could have been found
in Islamic religious place i.e. Mosque, Idgah etc. The Islamic
scriptures clearly show place of worship cannot be used for
residence purpose or for eating, sleeping etc. It is prohibited. If
that be so, the existence of bones could have been of some
importance had there found some other material to suggest that
it could have been a residential place if there would have been a
dispute about the nature of habitation. One thing from all the
evidence is clear that whatsoever the justification or submission
has come, the attempt is on the part of Experts witnesses of
plaintiffs (Suit-4) to show that under the disputed structure,
there could be an Islamic religious place i.e. Mosque, Idgah. It
show that they are also aware that the underneath structure was
not a non religious one. In this way of the matter also we find no
substance against the complaint of the inference drawn by ASI
and not paying much attention to the alleged bones which
according to them were found from deposits and pits hence they
are of no consequence, particularly in view of the other material
suffice for them to draw a correct inference.
3971. Then come next serious objection about the "Glazed
4277
Wares and Glazed Tiles", the level at which they were found,
and their interpretation. Para 10 (10.1 to 10.5) of the objections
says:
10. GLAZED WARES AND GLAZED TILES:-
10.1. That the glazed ware, often called "Muslim" glazed
ware, constitutes an equally definite piece of evidence,
which militates against the presence or construction of a
temple, since such galzed ware was n to at all used in
temples. The ware is all pervasive till much below the level
of "Floor No. 4", which floor is falsely ascribed in the
Report to the "huge" structure of a temple allegedly built
in the 11
th
- 12
th
centuries. The Report tells us that the
glazed ware sherds only "make their appearance" "in the
last phase of the period VII" (p. 270). Here we directly
encounter the play with the names of periods. On page
270, Period VII is called "Medieval Sultanate", dated to
12
th
- 16
th
century A.D. But on p. 40 " Medieval-Sultanate"
is the name used for Period VI, dated to 10
th
and 11
th
centuries. In Chapter V (Pottery), there is no statement
made to the effect that the galzed ware appears in "the last
phase of Period VII" as is asserted in the Summary. Rather,
it is three definitely stated " the pottery of Medieval-
Sultanate, Mughal and Late-and-Post Mughal period
(Periods VII to IX)...indicates that there is not much
difference in pottery wares and shapes" and that "the
distinctive pottery of the periods is glazed ware: (p. 108).
The placing of the appearance of Glazed ware in the "last
phase" of Period VII is thus a last-minute invention in the
Report, to keep its "massive" temple, allegedly built in
4278
Period VII, clear of Glazed-Ware by a sleight of hand,
because otherwise it would militate against a temple being
built in that period. All this gross manipulation has been
because the items of galzed pottery have not been
attributed to their trench and stratum even in the select list
of 21 items of glazed ware (out of hundreds of items
actually obtained) on pages 109-111. Seeing the
importance of glazed ware as a factor for elementary
dating (pre or post-Muslim habitation at the site), and in
view also of the Hon'ble High Court's order dated
10.4.2003 about the need for recording of glazed ware, a
tabulation of all recorded galzed-ware sherds according to
trench and stratum was essential. That this has been
entirely disregarded shows that, owing to the glazed-ware
evidence being totally incompatible with any alleged
temple construction activity in Period VI, the A.S.I. has
resorted to the most unprofessional act of ignoring and
manipulating the archaeological finds.
10.2. That Going by the Pottery Section of the Report (p.
108), not by its "Summary", the presence of Glazed Ware
throughout Period VII (Medieval, 12
th
-16
th
centuries) rules
out what is asserted on page 41, that a "column-based
structure"__ (on the alleged pillar bases)___ was built in
this period. How could Muslims have been using glazed
ware inside a temple? (To say that glazed ware was found
at Multan and Tulamba before the 13
th
century, is hardly
germaine to the issue, since, obviously these were towns
under Arab rule with Muslim settlements since 714 AD
onwards, and so the use of glazed ware over there can be
4279
expected.) The whole point is that glazed ware is an
indicator of Muslim habitation, and is not found in
medieval Hindu temples.
10.3. That the question whether particular sorts of glazed
ware made by Muslim potters, could have been used in any
medieval Hindu temple was dealt with by S.K. Mirmira, in
Indian Pottery (Chanda: Gramodyaya Sangh, 1973) who
states (pp. 5-7):-
"India was invaded and ruled by the Moslem
dynasties since 1000 AD for a few centuries and
along with them they had brought certain arts and
crafts. Decorative pottery was one of them. In the 12
th
century AD Muslim rulers had encouraged many
potters from their homelands to come and settle in
India. These potters especially from Persia, knew
how to superimpose bluish green glaze on red clay
wares.....As a result of this, the potters near Delhi
have become famous for their bluish
decorations.....An enthusiastic Maharaja of
Rajasthan near Jodhpur brought some potters from
Arab countries......
It is presumed that the reason for not adopting
the glazing technique of Muslim craftsmen is
religious; the orthodox Hindu potters did not relish
the idea of learning the new technique from those
who eat beef. In Khurja near Delhi there are still a
few Muslim potters, descendants of the Persian
settlers, who still use this technique of glazing."
Concerning porcelain wares the author writes,
4280
"Indians because of religious prejudices did not like
these, as they thought that bones were used in the clay for
whitening the wares. Even in this day, in rural parts
people call whitewares as 'farangi' ..Therefore, nobody
even tried to adopt these techniques."
10.4. The story of Glazed Tiles is very similar. These too
are in index of Muslim habitation. Yet 2 Glazed Tiles are
found in layers of Period VI which means that the layers
are wrongly assigned and must be dated to Period VII
(Sultanate period). There could be no remains of any "huge
temple" in these layers then.
10.5. That On p. 163, it is mentioned that glazed tiles
"mainly come from debris and dump of the disputed
structure. However, some of the glazed tile pieces have
also been recovered from the depth which is lower than the
disputed structure but from the levels of Period VIII and IX
only." These are completely false statements and show the
level of inaccuracy in the Report. First of all, the glazed
tiles do not come from the debris and dump of the disputed
structure. The debris and dump was removed from
Trenches E2, F2, G2, G5, F6, E6, D6, F3 and F4/F5 out of
the excavated trenches. Glazed tiles that have been found
from these trenches come from levels below the Babri
Masjid floor and not from the debris of dump lying above
it. Some of the debris that had rolled down the western
slope, was recovered from the B and C series of trenches.
Glazed tiles from this debris add up to a total of 14.
Second, of the 155 pieces of glazed tiles in the tables
provided by the A.S.I., 96 come form pits or fill in various
4281
trenches. Of the remaining 45, 29 come from period VIII
but 14 are from Medieval levels (Periods VII) and 2 from
the Early Medieval level (Period VI). This has been
gleaned from the table provided by the A.S.I. on pp. 164-
72. Thus, the A.S.I.'s own information falsifies their claim
that the glazed title pieces mainly come from Period VIII
and IX.
3972. PW 16 (Surajbhan) on the question of Glazed Ware
said:
- l-- i i ii r| i ;i - r i
ri ri i -iiln li, li i - ~ni i , ln
ii l iin - ; - ii i i i n ~nn i - iln
r i| r ~nn |l zoc o|o rzc o|o | -ii
ini r | ( z)
The Muslim glazed ware for the first time emerged
in those areas where they established their reign such as
Sindh and Multan regions. But in modern India the art of
casting pots spread in the Sultanate period. This Sultanate
period is taken to be spanning between 1206AD and 1526
AD. (E.T.C.)
; - l-- - i li ri n i , l-
i li;, li - l- li; nii li; i
l il ll li; i| ri n i | ; i -
i lii nii ii l i; i r| ri n i | ( zr)
This Muslim glazed ware had new type of designs,
which included floral designs, geometric designs, sun-like
designs and designs of Arabic script etc.. This type of
glazed ware often did not have designs of animals and
birds. (E.T.C.)
r ri nn r l i i n iini -
4282
r i i ri ni ii| i i i i - s
;-i ni - l - r i r i | n i i
r| r - n i r| r | r | - -- i
|l-n -ii - ri n r n nn i - n i i
i -i; i| n r i ;i --i; i| n r |
--i;, -i; i - i n r n ; nn n n i ii
(i ), | i-, l-- -| il i| i| in| r | -|l i
- | l-- -| i ;-n -i r i r nii l lli
ni i i ;-n -i r i r r -- ; i i ii
i n ni r i ;- | in r| r| |
( srssco)
It is wrong to say that the use of glazed ware started
in India from the Harappan period. Few glazed ware have
been found in buildings of Kushana period, but I do not
remember whether they were green and blue in colour.
Green and blue glazed ware can be in limited quantity in
pre-Muslim period. However, the type and style of the
glazed ware of Sultanate and Mughal period are different.
The style is main part of type, but the shape, make, earth
etc. are also considered in it. The type of earth used in the
glazed ware of medieval period and the different colours &
glaze used on it, certainly distinguishes the glazed ware of
both these periods and there is no confusion in it. (E.T.C.)
| ill - n nni r l ii ii r i
r | l,ii i ri r l | - nin roo ; o r|
i l-i i ri ni ii| ( sco)
I feel that the glazed ware probably originated from
China. The scholars claim that the production of glazed
ware started in China prior to 1500 AD. (E.T.C.)
;i ni - r r l ;-i - -n i l l
r| n| i ri ni i i | . . .i-n
4283
- ; - l-- ;l ri ni r i l -i - r
n| ;-il- ii - i ni ln ri n|, ;i
i i r| iin ii | n i| r i| ( sc)
It implies that the glazed ware technique was in
place prior to origin of Islam faith. . .Actually it has been
called Muslim glazed ware only in view of the fact that in
the medieval period this technique was widely prevalent in
the Islamic countries and it expanded from there towards
countries like India. (E.T.C.)
-r- i r r l -n iin - - l-- iii
i ii ii n nn i - i ni ii| ri r
i li i i lii ln ni r | ( sc)
The important fact is that the glazed ware widely
entered northern India along with the advent of Muslim
rulers or from the Sultanate period. The glazed ware here
determines a particular period. (E.T.C.)
- || i| r i n i i- i r | - n r i i |
r| r l r i n | i i ni n - - n i i n
- i i | sn - l i | sn - -i ; ~ n ri |
i n r| r i r| - iii i - i ; i r|
i i lr - li - l-i ri | ( scz)
I have heard about Chinese traveller Hiun-Tsiang. I
have no knowledge whether in his memoirs, Hiun-
Tsiang has mentioned about use of tiles in the roofs of
buildings & temples in north India, or not. I have not
read about any glazed ware of the Kushana period, which
has been found in Hindu temples.(E.T.C.)
3973. PW-29 (Jaya Menon) on this aspect said:
I do not agree with ASI report that glazed tiles were
used for the first time from Kushan period in India. I do not
4284
agree with the opinion f the ASI recited in para 2 at page
163 which reads as follows:
Although, use of glazed tiles in India can be
traced back to the early centuries of Christian era when
the Kushans introduced them, the tiles, under study at
present, most probably belong to the original construction
of the disputed structure. (Page 225)
3974. PW 30 (Dr. R.C.Thakran) on this aspect said:
- ii -n c - - l-- ri ni r |
; ;l ri ni r l l r - l--i ii r|
iini - ii ii| i ri r| r| r l - ii i |
i iini r| i r ; i|, ii n r iini | r| i r |
iini - n i | i i i r ; , r i|n- r| r ;
r ii - i| n i | i in ri | i|| r-i
i | i ; ii| r| r l l iii r ri i
l iin - n i | i i i-i i r ri i
ii| ( z)
Para 6 of my Affidavit speaks of the Muslim glazed ware.
It is so termed because this glazed ware came to India only
along with Muslims. It is not true to say that the art of
making pottery originated only from India, that is to say, it
is an art only of India. The art of making utensils which
began in India, is not oldest. Before it the art of making
utensils had begun in other countries. I do not have any
knowledge enabling me to say that the art of making
utensils had begun in India before Arabian
countries."(E.T.C.)
Glazed tiles
- ii -n s | | i; -
-i; ~ i - ri r | r ii nr | -i; ~ r | i li i
4285
n| i| in| r | ; n| i iin - - -ii
i ii r| r i r | -i; ~, i i r| ri ni ii, l~ |
l-- -| | i| in| r i l| ii n| li
ini r i n -i; ~ i l ii i i li
i ni - |i -i -i; ~ r| ri i ni| ( zc)
I have referred to glazed tiles in the second line of
para-8 to my Affidavit. These are tiles of a particular type
and are made with a particular technique. The prevalence
of this technique in India began with the advent of the
Muslims. Tiles were not 'Khapda' (earthen tiles); rather,
they are made of baked earth and are glazed with a
particular technique. If the tiles are only baked but not
glazed they will only be called terracotta tiles." (E.T.C.)
3975. PW- 32 ( Dr. Supriya Verma) said:
I agree that the glazed wares have been found in
Kushan period but the glazed ware of Kushan period are
different from the glazed ware associated with later period.
It differs both in terms of chemical and physical
composition and appearance. (Page 164)
I cannot say as to whether glazed tiles are used in
Hindu building in Gwalior Fort. I am also not aware that
in Gwalior Fort, Hindu deities are depicted in such glazed
titles. I am not aware whether pre-Islamic Persina people
were using glazed tiles and glazed wares or not. (Page
164)
Q. There is no contemporary sources to throw light
on the production technique of glazed tiles and glazed
wares?
A. I am not expert of Arabic and Persian and
therefore, I have not examined the sources and therefore, I
4286
am not in a position to say as to whether any description of
production technique is there or not. (Page 164)
3976. Sri Pandey on the contrary in his written argument
submitted:
The objection of the plaintiffs that the glazed pottery
often called "Muslim" glazed ware militates against the
presence or construction of a temple. A tabulation of
recorded glazed ware sherds according to trench and
stratum was essential.... which has been entirely
disregarded. How could Muslims have been using glazed
ware inside a temple.
The tradition of glazing of pottery dates back to
Harappan culture (2500 1500 B.C.) and since then it was
known. During Kushan period it was a very popular ware.
Gradually the tradition of glazing was lost from India but
soon its imports were coming from Persia and Iran and
China, where this ware has found favour. This ware is
known as Indo-Sassanian Glazed ware, as it was in vogue
during the Sassanian rule and later the muslims adopted it
(K. K. Mohamad; "Glaze Ware in India" published in
Puratattva No. 15 p. 105-110).
Pottery of any kind is neither Hindu nor Buddhist
nor even muslim except some ritual pots which are used in
rituals of particular religion. To demarcate pottery ware on
religious lines speaks volumes about the oriented mindset
only.
A tabulation of glazed ware is maintained in the day-
to-day basis according to trench and stratum in the day-to-
day register.
4287
Glazed ware has been found mainly from the
secondary deposits and not from primary context. The
record of the glazed ware in the Day-to-Day register
mentions their primary occurrence and tentative layer and
depth. The layer identification on day-to-day basis is never
final and is liable to change as the identification of pits
and disturbances could not be finalized on the very day,
but the records could not be changed.
Secondly, a ware has no religion and it transgresses
the religious boundary.
The objection of the plaintiffs that Glazed tile are
also similarly a index of Muslim habitation. 29 tiles come
from Period VIII and 14 from Period VII. One decisive
piece of evidence, which entirely negates the possibility of
a temple, is that of bones. The statement that the site was
not a habitation site from the Period IV onwards upto
Period IX stands belied and negated by the animal bone
evidence.
In this connection it may be submitted that at Shah-
ji-Dheri, the Buddhist structure used even glazed tiles.
Huein T'sang had seen may places in north India where
coloured tiles were used in the roof.
It appears that the Objector has not cared to read the
table from pages 164 to 172 in the context of Chapter III
"Stratigraphy and Chronology" specially from pages 45 to
47, wherein the disturbances in stratigraphy has been
elaborately dealt with. Not a single tile is from confirmed
primary context.
3977. For our purposes we do not find that this aspect can
4288
have any material impact on the question which was required to
be reported by ASI and it has returned the same in the form of
its report. One thing is very clear that the disputed structure was
not raised on a vacant or unoccupied or a virgin land but the
land in question was in frequent use for several centuries
continuously having structures relating to different periods. As
we have already discussed, attempt on the part of the Expert
(Archaeologist) witnesses of plaintiffs (Suit-4) who described
the underneath structure as a Idgah or Kanati mosque makes it
very clear that the structure underneath is non religious one but
it was a place connected with religious purposes. This is suffice
to draw inference that there was a structure over land in question
where disputed structure was constructed and that structure
related to religious purposes and not non-religious purposes.
Then only thing which was to be seen, whether it could be a
temple or not. By the process of elimination since it was never a
case of Muslim parties that there existed any Islamic religious
structure at the place in dispute before construction of the
disputed structure or that there existed a religious structure other
than Hundus, leads to an inference as suggested by ASI and
mere titbits and minor infirmities in it, even it exist, in our view,
are of no consequence, if any.
3978. Then there are some objections with respect to
"Pottery", "Inscriptions" and under the general heading of
"Other Contradictions and Discrepancies" as under:
12. POTTERY
12.1 That in Chapter V on Pottery, it is highly significant
that the pottery of Periods VII, VIII and IX is all described
together (see pp. 108-120). If stratum VII contained a
4289
structure so radically different from the mosque in VIII
above, why were their finds not kept seperate ?
12.2. That moreover, it is stated (p. 108) that the pottery of
Periods VII, VIII and IX is combined together because
"there is not much difference" in either wares or shapes.
Thus the pottery of an insinuated "temple" structure is said
to be of the same types as that of a mosque! Incidentally,
chillium and hukka pieces are also recorded in this
combined batch of pottery (p. 115). Can we expect such
finds in a temple?
13. INSCRIPTIONS :-
13.1. That the short report on Inscriptions(on pages 204-
06), one of which is in Nagari, and two are in Arabic, show
how casual and preconceived in its notions was the A.S.I.
The first is not to be dated with any certitude to the 11
th
century: its time range could be 7
th
-12
th
centuries; and it
could be a Pala record of a Buddhist provenance--- a piece
of evidence negativing the presence of a Hindu temple. On
purely palaeographic grounds, the Arabic inscriptions can
be dated to the 13
th
century with as much reason as to the
16
th
century.
13.2. That the so- called "Nagari" inscription has only five
letters whose right- ward sloping limes in their lower
portion proclaim their affinity to the Siddhamatrika script,
7
th
-12
th
centuries, out of which the Devanagari script has
originated. Five letter are not sufficient to declare the
letters as belonging to the 11
th
century(where the A.S.I.
places construction of the "huge" temple. (See for the
Sidhamatrika script and characters __ Richard Salomon,
4290
Indian Epigraphy, New Delhi, 1998,pp.32, 39-41). Thus the
time -range of the inscription should be 7
th
-12
th
centuries.
The decipherment is also hasty. The reading of the
character next to la is ja(With a as in "jar"), not simple Ja
with 'a' as 'u' in "judge" . Further the A.S.I. should have
asked itself about the suffix pala, which suggests a possible
reference to one of the Pala rulers of Bengal and Bihar(8
th
-11
th
centuries)who also held eastern U.P. (as shown by an
inscription at Sarnath),and used the Siddhamatrika Script.
Their well-known patronage of Buddhism seems to be sole
reason why the A.S.I. has avoided any further enquiry into
the name -Pala found in this inscription.
13.3. That the bias of the A.S.I. is again manifest in how
the two Arabic inscriptions found in the debris of the
Mosque, are dealt with in the Report, (pages 205-6), with
Plates 91 and 92. The A.S.I. epigraphist dates them both to
the early sixteenth century, alleged on the basis of the
naksh characters employed. He gives no reason why the
writing cannot be dated earlier, or placed within a larger
range, say 13
th
- 18
th
century. In this respect reference may
be given to the inscriptions on fronts of the Qutub Minar
and the tomb of Iltutamish, both belonging to the first half
of the 13
th
century(given in Tatsuro yanamoto, et al.,
Delhi:Architectural Remains of the Delhi Sultanate
Period,Tokyo, 1967,Plates 2b,6b). It will be seen that the
naskh is of the same style. Clearly, the A.S.I. epigraphist
has not even considered the possibility of an earlier date,
because he know he was expected to hold that all mosque
materials must be dated to 1528, so that there be no
4291
thought that anything could belong to an earlier
mosque/Eidgah on the site.
13.4. That the floral design of the stone slab in which the
word "Allah" has been carved(Plate 92) should show to
everyone how absurd it is to take a floral motif as a sure
sign of a temple!
14. Other Contradictions and Discrepancies :-
14.1. That there appears to be considerable confusion on
the point as to when structural activity first began at the
site. For example, on p.37 it is mentioned that, "the site
had seen successive structural activities which began from
the middle of the Kushan level(Period III)." On p.38 in the
section on the Period II (Sunga level) it is mentioned that,
"it is this period that the site witnessed first structural
activity in stone and brick, as noticed in J3."
14.2. That the descriptive term used for certain periods
changes from one chapter to another. For example, in
Chapter III (Stratigraphy and Chronology), Period VI is
described as the Medieval-Sultanate level. In the same
chapter, the tentative periodization and schematic cross-
section of the mound describes the period as Early
Medieval-Sulanate. However, in Chapter V(Pottery) and
Chapter X(Summary of Results) this same period is
described as Early Medieval. In Chapter X, this period also
described as Early Medieval -Rajput. Period VII in
Chapter III is described as Medieval but in Chapter V and
Chapter X, it is described as Medieval Sultanate.
14.3. That on p.44,it is stated that, "no deposit
contemporary to Mughal period exist on the mound
4292
presently." The next page (45) it points out that the last two
periods (Mughal and Late Post Mughal) are only
represented by structural activities. Further, on p.271,the
Report points out that, "there is an increase in
contemporary archaeological material including pottery in
the Mughal period.
14.4. That on page 41, it is mentioned that the earliest floor
extended in the eastern area up to the H series of trenches
in sub-period VIIA. In sub -period VIIB, the next floor
extended up to trenches J4-J5-J6. On p.42, it is indicated
that in sub-period VIIC, the floor associated with the
"pillar bases" is the most extensive on the mound. In
Fig.23A, however, Floor 4(the said earliest floor) is shown
as extending all over the mound while Floor 3 and 2 are
more restricted providing a complete contradictory picture.
14.5. That In Chapter III, on p.42, Period VII is described
thus:"Total deposit of this period is approximately 50 to 60
cm thick which includes layers 1 and 2 in almost all the
trenches except those in the eastern area where the deposit
was disturbed by the construction in the later periods and
in the northern area where the floor of the Period VIIC
remained exposed and under use till late." However,
according to the tentative periodization and schematic
cross-section in the southern area layer 1 is shown to be
clearly belonging to the Mughal period. So does layer 1 in
the southern area belong to Period VII or VIII?
14.6. That on p. 44, while discussing Period IX (Late and
Post Mughal level), it is mentioned that first a partition
wall was added and later an enclosure wall was built for
4293
the complex. However, it is well known that the Babri
Masjid was built with an enclusure wall and around the
mid-19
th
century, the area of the Babri Masjid was
partitioned with a wall.
14.7. That on the same page (p.44) and on pp. 70 and 270
it is mentioned that there were burials in the late and post
Mughal period (Period IX) in the north and south that have
cut the top floors and were sealed by layer 1. According to
the A.S.I.'s own admission,on p.42, layer 1 in the southern
area is supposed to be of the medieval period while in the
schematic cross-section and tentative periodization, layer 1
is of the Mughal period. Therefore, if these burials are
sealed by layer 1, then either they belong to the medieval
period (Period VII-12
th
to 16
th
centuries) or to the Mughal
period (period VIII). It may be pointed out that it is in the
former period that the alleged temple supposedly stood
here.
14.8. That the tabulation of the "pillar bases" from pp. 56-
67 mentions the floors on which they rest and in some cases
to which they are contemporary. However, the floor
numbers do not tally with the information provided in
Appendix IV at the end of the text. For example, "pillar
base" 22 on pp. 60-61 is indicated as resting on Floor 4
but on p.6 of the appendix, there is no Floor 4 in Trench
F2. This discrepancy has been found in 21 cases out of 50.
14.9. That the tabulation of stone architectural fragments,
in Chapter VI, also includes non-architectural members
like S.No. 3(saddle), S.No. 20(bowl), S.No.48(pestle),
S.No.51(pestle), S.No.76 (diya), S.No.78(pestle), S.No.81
4294
(elephant), S.No.90(muller) and S.No. 145(dish). These, if
of stone, should have been described in Chapter IX, on
miscellaneous objects."
3979. The report of the Archaeological Survey of India,
which is a report of an expert in excavation, contains all the
details including details of stratigraphy, artifacts, periodisation
as well as details of structures and walls. The pillar bases
mentioned in the report establishes beyond all doubt the
existence of a huge structure. In addition to above, existence of
circular shrine, stone slabs in walls with Hindu motifs and more
particularly sign of Makar Pranal in wall No. 5 (wall of disputed
structure), divine couple and other temple materials, etc.,
conclusively proves the existence of a hindu religious structure
beneath the disputed structure. It is generally admitted by the
witnesses that the excavation was conducted as per settled
norms of archaeology in presence of parties, experts and
observers and three dimensional recording, photography,
videography of each and every trench, structure, artifacts, were
done by the ASI during excavation in presence of all concerned.
Day-to-day register, supervisor's diary and antiquity register
were being regularly maintained.
3980. There are some more objection which we find not
much of worth for the reason that the experts of Muslim parties
ultimately, realizing that structure existed underneath the
disputed building hence they made out a new case in their
statement. However, a new stand which is not the case of the
plaintiff, not pleaded is not permissible.
3981. In Ram Sarup Gupta Vs. Bishun Narain Inter
College & others AIR 1987 SC 1242, it was held:
4295
"It is well settled that in the absence of pleading, evidence,
if any, produced by the parties cannot be considered. It is
also equally settled that no party should be permitted to
travel beyond its pleading and that all necessary and
material facts should be pleaded by the party in support of
the case set up by it. The object and purpose of pleading is
to enable the adversary party to know the case it has to
meet. In order to have a fair trial it is imperative that the
party should state the essential material facts so that other
party may not be taken by surprise. The pleadings however
should receive a liberal construction, no pedantic approach
should be adopted to defeat justice on hair splitting
technicalities. Sometimes, pleadings are expressed in words
which may not expressly make out a case in accordance
with strict interpretation of law, in such a case it is the duty
of the Court to ascertain the substance of the pleadings to
determine the question. It is not desirable to place undue
emphasis on form, instead the substance of the pleadings
should be considered. Whenever the question about lack
of pleading is raised the enquiry should not be so much
about the form of the pleadings, instead; the court must
find out whether in substance the parties knew the case
and the issues upon which they went to trial. Once it is
found that in spite of deficiency in the pleadings parties
knew the case and they proceeded to trial on those issues
by producing evidence, in that event it would not be open to
a party to raise the question of absence of pleadings in
appeal."
3982. PW-16 (Surajbhan) formed his opinion in advance
4296
before the receipt of the ASI report and sought to explain that
underneath the disputed building there appears to be an Islamic
structure existing like Idgah and Kanati mosque. His statement
on page 446, 521 and 527 is as under:
r r| r l s ; - li ooi; o
| li - ii - -n n ri r | ii| iii
li li i li n l | ( c)
It is true that my conclusions and views on certain
issues are based on my knowledge existing prior to the
submission of ASIs report in court. (E.T.C.)
ooi; o | ; -i- - li - i in - nii
i o ;i r| r in i l liln -i -l
i i l- r , r n li ii l liln -i | i|
-l- i ; nir i i l- r l -l | n r
i i n i ri ni l liln -i -l i i l- r , ni
- n i o ; i r| i i n n | ini r|
i|| ( rz)
Consequent to submission of ASIs report in the
matter and the claim that remains of temple were found at
the disputed site, I and Prof. Irfan Habib had given this
statement that remains of old mosque or Eidgah had been
found beneath the disputed site and not of any temple. If
this propaganda that remains of temple were found at the
disputed site, had not taken place, there would have been
no occasion for me and Prof. Irfan Habib to give the above
statement. (E.T.C.)
- i li r l liln i | i -- i o c
i o / lin i ~nn i i i l| ;-il-
-- r ri n , ; nir i in| -l ilil|.. . . .r
i i |i l| lr i | -i - r| ri n| i| , l~ ~nn
4297
|l l| - l-- i | r| ri n|| ( rz/)
In my view the buildings related to wall nos. 16 &
17, the two structure beneath the disputed structure, were
of the Sultanate period and must have been some Islamic
structures such as Eidgah or Kanati mosque etc.. . . . . . . . .
Both these walls do not appear to be of some Hindu
building and instead must have been of some Muslim
building of the Sultanate period. (E.T.C.)
3983. Similarly, PW-29 (Jaya Menon) on page 157 said:
It was Dr. Supriya Varma and myself, who, for the
first time, said that there was an Idgah under the disputed
structure. I did not know that the plaintiffs of OOS no. 4 of
1989 had not claimed any Idgah under the disputed
structure." (Page 157)
3984. PW-30 (Dr. R.C.Thakaran) on page 169 said:
liln -i -; zoos - i i; i i - n r
nin r i l liln -i | -l-,; nir i|| i i;
i i |i i i nii ooi; o | li - i - n
i ni l i| -l- i | -l-,; nir i -
i - -|l i n - ii ni r, r r| ii i
;-n -i li ni r | ( cs)
In 2003, in course of excavation at the disputed site,
I came to know that there was a mosque/Eidgah beneath
the disputed site. Seeing the wall in course of the
excavation and going through the ASI report, it seemed to
me that the materials reused in the construction of the
Babri masjid or its prior mosque/Eidgah, had been brought
from somewhere nearby and then used. (E.T.C.)
3985. It is true that all these experts were representing, in
fact, a particular party, they were all, in one or the other manner
4298
connected with each other. The statement of PW-32 (Dr. Supriya
Varma) is:
I have done my Ph. D. under Prof. Shereen
Ratnagar. (Page 72)
All these chapters on archaeology were written by
me and Dr. Jaya Menon. (Page 73)
Both Dr. Jaya Menon and myself are archaeologist
by specialization. Dr. Jaya Menon and I are equally
competent. (Page 74)
(Note: Shereen Ratnagar is PW-27)
3986. Normally, it does not happen but we are surprised to
see in the zeal of helping their clients or the parties in whose
favour they were appearing, these witnesses went ahead than
what was not even the case of the party concerned and wrote
totally a new story. Evidence in support of a fact which has
never been pleaded and was not the case of the party concerned
is impermissible in law. Suffice it to mention at this stage that
even this stand of these experts make it clear that the disputed
structure stood over a piece of land which had a structure earlier
and that was of religious nature. Minor mistakes and
irregularities in ASI report, if any, do not shake the basic finding
that the disputed structure claimed was not raised on a virgin
land or unoccupied land but there existed a structure using some
part thereof either in the form of foundation or using the
material thereof, the disputed structure was created. Whether
lime molter or lime plaster from a particular period or not,
whether glazed ware were Islamic or available in Hindustan
earlier are all subsidiary questions when this much at least came
to be admitted by the experts of the objectionists parties i.e. the
4299
plaintiffs (Suit-4) that there existed a structure, walls etc. used as
foundation walls in construction of the building in dispute and
underneath at least four floors at different levels were found
with lots of several other structures.
3987. In these circumstances, now it would be appropriate
to refer to the finding of ASI in Chapter 10 under the heading
"Summary of Results":
"Excavation at the disputed site of Rama
Janmabhumi - Babri Masjid was carried out by the
Archaeological Survey of India from 12 March 2003 to 7
August 2003. During this period, as per the directions of
the Hon'ble High Court, Lucknow, 82 trenches were
excavated to verify the anomalies mentioned in the report
of the Ground Penetrating Radar Survey which was
conducted at the site prior to taking up the excavations. A
total number of 82 trenches along with some of their baulks
were checked for anomalies and anomaly alignments. The
anomalies were confirmed in the trenches in the form of
pillar bases, structures, floors and foundation though no
such remains were noticed in some of them at the stipulated
depths and spots. Besides the 82 trenches, a few more
making a total of 90 finally were also excavated keeping in
view the objective fixed by the Hon'ble High Court to
confirm the structures.
The results of the excavation are summarized as here
under:
The northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) using
people were the first to occupy the disputed site at
Ayodhya. During the first millennium B.C. although no
4300
structural activities were encountered in the limited area
probed, the material culture is represented by terracotta
figurines of female deities showing archaic features, beads
of terracotta and glass, wheels and fragments of votive
tanks etc. The ceramic industry has the collection of
NBPW, the main diagnostic trait of the period besides the
grey, black slipped and red wares. A round signet with
legend in Asokan Brahmi is another important find of this
level. On the basis of material equipment and 14 C dates,
this period may be assigned to circa 1000 B.C. to 300 B.C.
The Sunga horizon (second-first century B.C.) comes
next in the order of the cultural occupation at the site. The
typical terracotta mother goddess, human and animal
figurines, beads, hairpin, engraver etc. represent the
cultural matrix of this level. The pottery collection includes
black slipped, red and grey wares etc. The stone and brick
structure found from this level mark the beginning of the
structural activity at the site.
The Kushan period (first to third century A.D.)
followed the Sunga occupation. Terracotta human and
animal figurines, fragments of votive tanks, beads,
antimony rod, hair pin, bangle fragments and ceramic
industry comprising red ware represent the typical Kushan
occupation at the site. Another important feature of this
period is the creation of large sized structures as witnesses
by the massive structure running into twenty-two courses.
The advent of Guptas (fourth to sixth century A.D.)
did not bring any qualitative change in building activity
although the period is known for its Classical artistic
4301
elements. However, this aspect is represented by the typical
terracotta figurines and a copper coin with the legend Sri
Chandra (Gupta) and illustrative potsherds.
During the Post-Gupta-Rajput period (seventh to
tenth century A.D.), too the site has witnessed structural
activity mainly constructed of burnt bricks. However,
among the exposed structures, there stands a circular brick
shrine which speaks of its functional utility for the first
time. To recapitulate quickly, exteriorly on plan, it is
circular whereas internally squarish with an entrance from
the east. Though the structure is damaged, the northern
wall still retains a provision for pranala, i.e., waterchute
which is a distinct feature of contemporary temples already
known from the Ganga-Yamuna plain.
Subsequently, during the early medieval period
(eleventh - twelfth century A.D.) a huge structure, nearly 50
m in north-south orientation was constructed which seems
to have been short lived, as only four of the fifty pillar
bases exposed during the excavation belong to this level
with a brick crush floor. On the remains of the above
structure was constructed a massive structure with at least
three structural phases and three successive floors attached
with it. The architectural members of the earlier short lived
massive structure with stencil cut foliage pattern. And other
decorative motifs were reused in the construction of the
monumental structure having a huge pillared hall (or two
halls) which is different from residential structures,
providing sufficient evidence of a construction of public
usage which remained under existence for a long time
4302
during the period VII (Medieval-Sultanate level - twelfth to
sixteenth century A.D.) It was over the top of this
construction during the early sixteenth century, the
disputed structure was constructed directly resting over it.
There is sufficient proof of existence of a massive and
monumental structure having a minimum dimension of
50x30 m in north-south and east-west directions
respectively just below the disputed structure. In course of
present excavations nearly 50 pillar bases with brick bat
foundation, below calcrete blocks topped by sandstone
blocks were found. The pillar bases exposed during the
present excavation in northern and southern areas also
give an idea of the length of the massive wall of the earlier
construction with which they are associated and which
might have been originally around 60 m (of which the 50 m
length is available at present). The centre of the central
chamber of the disputed structure falls just over the central
point of the length of the massive wall of the preceding
period which could not be excavated due to presence of
Ram Lala at the spot in the make-shift structure. This area
is roughly 15x15 m on the raised platform. Towards east of
this central point a circular depression with projection on
the west, cut into the large sized brick pavement, signify the
place where some important object was placed. Terracotta
lamps from the various trenches and found in a group in
the levels of Periods VII in trench G2 are associated with
the structural phase.
In the last phase of the period VII glazed ware sherds
make their appearance and continue in the succeeding
4303
levels of the next periods where they are accompanied by
glazed tiles which were probably used in the original
construction of the disputed structure. Similarly is the case
of celadon and porcelain sherds recovered in a very less
quantity they come from the secondary context. Animal
bones have been recovered from various levels of different
periods, but skeletal remains noticed in the trenches in
northern and southern areas belong to the Period IX as the
grave pits have been found cut into the deposition coeval
with the late disputed structures and are sealed by the top
deposit.
It is worthwhile to observe that the various structures
exposed right from the Sunga to Gupta period do not speak
either about their nature or functional utility as no
evidence has come to approbate them. Another noteworthy
feature is that it was only during and after Period IV
(Gupta level) onwards upto Period IX (late and post
Mughal level) that the regular habitational deposits
disappear in the concerned levels and the structural phases
are associated with either structural debris or filling
material taken out from the adjoining area to the level the
ground for construction purpose. As a result of which much
of the earlier material in the form of pottery, terracottas
and other objects of preceding periods, particularly of
Period I (NBPW level) and Period III (Kushan level) are
found in the deposits of later periods mixed along with
their contemporary material. The area below the disputed
site thus, remained a place for public use for a long time
till the Period VIII (Mughal level) when the disputed
4304
structure was built which was confined to a limited area
and population settled around it as evidenced by the
increase in contemporary archaeological material
including pottery. The same is further attested by the
conspicuous absence of habitational structures such as
house-complexes, soakage pits, soakage jars, ring wells,
drains, wells, hearths, kilns or furnaces etc. from Period IV
(Gupta level) onwards and in particular from Period VI
(Early Medieval-Rajput level) and Period VII (Medieval-
Sultanate level).
The site has also proved to be significant for taking
back its antiquarian remains for the first time to the middle
of the thirteenth century B.C. (1250130 B.C.) on the
analogy of the C14 dates. The lowest deposit above the
natural soil represents the NBPW period and therefore the
earliest remains may belong to the thirteenth century B.C.
which is confirmed by two more consistent C14 dates from
the NBPW level (Period I), viz. (910100 B.C.) These dates
are from trench G7. Four more dates from the upper
deposit though showing presence of NPBW and associated
pottery are determined by Radio-Carbon dating as 78080
B.C., 53070 B.C. And 32080 B.C.. In the light of the
above dates in association with the Northern Black
Polished Ware (NBPW) which is generally accepted to be
between circa 600 B.C. to 300 B.C. it can be pushed back
to circa 1000 B.C. and even if a solitary date, three
centuries earlier is not associated with NBPW, the human
activity at the site dates back to circa thirteenth century
B.C. on the basis of the scientific dating method providing
4305
the only archaeological evidence of such an early date of
the occupation of the site.
The Hon'ble High Court, in order to get sufficient
archaeological evidence on the issue involved "whether
there was any temple/structure which was demolished and
mosque was constructed on the disputed site "as stated on
page 1 and further on p.5 of their order dated 5 march
2003, had given directions to the Archaeological Survey of
India to excavate at the disputed site where the GPR
Survey has suggested evidence of anomalies which could
be structure, pillars, foundation walls, slab flooring etc.
which could be confirmed by excavation. Now, viewing in
totality and taking into account the archaeological
evidence of a massive structure just below the disputed
structure and evidence of continuity in structural phases
from the tenth century onwards upto the construction of the
disputed structure alongwith the yield of stone and
decorated bricks as well as mutilated sculpture of divine
couple and carved architectural members including foliage
patterns, amalaka, kapotapali doorjamb with semi-circular
pilaster, broken octagonal shaft of black schist pillar, lotus
motif, circular shrine having pranala (waterchute) in the
north, fifty pillar bases in association of the huge structure,
are indicative of remains which are distinctive features
found associated with the temples of north India."
3988. It is contented that the ASI report does not answer
the question framed by this Court, inasmuch as, neither it clearly
says whether there was any demolition of the earlier structure if
existed and whether that structure was a temple or not.
4306
3989. In our view, the conclusion drawn by the ASI in the
project accomplished within an extra-ordinary brief period and
with such an excellence precision and perfection deserve
commendation and appreciation instead of condemnation. It
normally happens when an expert body tender an opinion, the
party, who finds such opinion adverse to its interest, feels
otherwise and try to rid of such opinion by taking recourse to all
such measures as permissible but in the present case we hoped a
better response particularly when the expert body involved is a
pioneer and premier archaeological body of this country having
International repute. We are satisfied that the report of ASI not
only deserve to be accepted but it really help this Court in
forming its opinion on an important issue in this regard. All the
objections against ASI, therefore, are rejected.
3990. ASI, in our view, has rightly refrain from recording
a categorical finding whether there was any demolition or not
for the reason when a building is constructed over another and
that too hundreds of years back, it may sometimes difficult to
ascertain as to in what circumstances building was raised and
whether the earlier building collapsed on its own or due to
natural forces or for the reason attributable to some persons
interested for its damage. Sufficient indication has been given
by ASI that the building in dispute did not have its own
foundation but it was raised on the existing walls. If a building
would not have been existing before construction of the
subsequent building, the builder might not have been able to use
foundation of the erstwhile building without knowing its
strength and capacity of bearing the load of new structure. The
floor of the disputed building was just over the floor of earlier
4307
building. The existence of several pillar bases all show another
earlier existence of a sufficiently bigger structure, if not bigger
than the disputed structure then not lessor than that also.
3991. Learned counsel for the plaintiffs (Suit-5)
vehemently contended that the disputed structure (hereinafter
referred to as "DS") was raised after demolishing a Hindu
temple at the site in dispute, which was believed to be a
birthplace of Lord Rama in the light of the various evidence
collectively taken into consideration as under:
I. The existence of Hindu Temple at the site of DS is
indicated in Historical Sketch of Faizabad, 1870, by P.
Carnegy Commissioner/Settlement Officer Oudh (paper no
3 of Ramlala's Documents, Ext. OOS 5: 49) which
mentions 3 important Hindu Shrines 'at the time of
Mohammedan conquest', namely Janmasthan, Swargadwar
& Treta-ka-Thakur and that at Janmasthan Emperor Babar
built the Mosque (page 21). Mention of Janmasthan to be a
Shrine indicates pre-existence of a Hindu Temple at the site
of DS. Oudh Gazetteer of 1877 (Ext. OOS 5: 7), Millet's
Report of 1888 (Ext. OOS 5: 8), Archaeological Survey of
NWP and Oudh of 1889 (OOS 5: Paper 107C1/31-32),
Fuhrer's account of 1891 (Ext. OOS 5: 9) and Imperial
Gazetteer of 1901 (Ext. OOS 5:10), all mention pre-
existence of a Hindu Temple at the site of DA.
II. Further recovery of the large Stone-Slab, 115 cm X
55 cm (vide Report dated 3.2.2002 Ext. OOS 5-2, of OTW
10) containing a 20 line Inscription of a Vishnu-Hari
Temple. Recovery of the Stone-Slab was proved by OPW 8
Ashok Chatterji. Contents of this Inscription were proved
4308
by OPW 10 Dr. K.V.Ramesh, Director Epigraphy of Govt.
of India/Joint Director Archaeological Survey of India. The
Inscription describes construction of Vishnu-Hari Temple
by Anay Chand a Governor of King Govind Chand of
Gahadwal Dynasty and Dr. K.V.Ramesh proved that the
period of the inscription must be around 12th Century AD.
Govind Chand was the ruler of Gahadwal dynasty from
1110 to 1156 (vide Dr. Bishan Bahadur DW 13/1-3). The
recovery of this stone slab is reminiscent of recovery of
another stone slab from the ruins of a mosque erected by
Aurangzeb known as Treta-ka-Thakur Masjid at the site of
Treta-ka-Thakur Mandir in Ayodhya; the inscription on
that stone slab is dated Samvat 1241 (=1184 AD) of the
times of King Jai Chand of Kannauj and records praises
of Jai Chand for erecting a Vaishnav Temple (See paper
nos 6 and 7 of 1889 & 1891 - of Ramlala's documents
Ext. OOS 5: 8 & 9). The significance is that the stone slab
affixed to Treta-ka-Thakur Mandir was used in the
structure of Masjid erected in place of the Mandir. It is
quite probable that Stone-Slab recovered from DS belonged
to Hari-Vishnu Temple that stood at the site of DS hence
was made use of in constructing DS; after all the builder
would have needed big stones and this Stone-Slab, 115
cm X 55 cm could easily be one. Further, admittedly 14
Kasauti Pillars bearing carved figures of Hindu gods &
goddesses, standing/supporting portions of Babri Masjid
structure were seen by Faizabad Civil Court Commissioner,
Shiv Shanker Lal, on inspection in April 1950.
III. The findings of ASI Report must be appreciated in the
4309
light of a most important factual & legal angle of the
Parties' Case. This litigation commenced in 1950. From the
very beginning, it has been the case of Hindu Parties that
at the spot of Babri Masjid, there had existed a Temple and
that the Masjid was erected at the site of the Temple after
demolishing it, while it has been the case of Muslim Parties
that the site was a barren vacant piece of land which came
to be vested in Babar as Emperor/Sovereign who had
conquered the Delhi throne. ASI excavation revealed pre-
existence of 'massive structure' underneath DS. The Muslim
Parties did not amend their Pleadings to take any
alternative plea to meet the discovery of the massive
structure beneath DS; legally, they cannot be heard to say
that there had existed some Muslim religious structure at
the site in whose place Babri Masjid was erected.
IV. Without prejudice to detailed submissions on ASI
Report elsewhere, suffice it to mention here that the
Western Wall (W5) of DS stands directly over Western
Wall (W16) of the Temple without any layer of earth or
other strata between the two walls which should have
existed at the top if there was no structure on spot when
construction of Babri Masjid commenced. W5 standing
directly over W16, proves that Babri Masjid was erected
over and with full knowledge of pre-existence of a
structure. ASI found 50 pillar bases of pillars which could
support a roof (some of them inside the baulk between
trenches), a Subsidiary Shrine of Lord Shiva (in the
Southern portion of the disputed area), a number of walls
attached to Temple's old Wall (W16), several walls running
4310
East-West as well as North-South showing 'Massive
Structure' below DS, mutilated Uma-Maheshwara Divine
Couple stone sculpture (a typical feature of Iconoclastic
behaviour) and a number of 'finds' which would typically
belong to a Hindu Temple.
V. It was argued on behalf of Sunni Board that Wall 16
could be a Kanati Mosque or Eid-gah or some other
Muslim religious structure. This contention is not
acceptable for want of Pleading (indeed against their
Pleading); it also fails structurally and does not explain
several other walls found attached to Wall 16. The
existence of a 'Mandir Janmasthan Ram Chandra at
Birthpalce of Ram since ancient times with Idols of Ram
Chandra ji & others installed therein' is admitted in para
27 of joint WS dt. 2.12.1950 of 5 Muslim Defendants (D1 to
D5) in OOS 1 of 1989 (filed by Gopal Singh Visharad). The
said Defendants had vaguely pleaded that that Temple
'existed in Ayodhya' the exact spot was not specified.
Plaintiff Gopal Singh Visharad explained in para 27 of his
Replication that that Temple was situated within
boundaries described by him which sets its location to be
close towards North of East-West Rasta which runs
abutting on the North side of disputed area. This situation
is admitted by Sunni Board in para 32 of their written
statement dated 24.2'89 to Visharad's suit (see para 5
above). The significance of this set of pleadings is that as
early as 1950, Muslims had admitted existence of a
(i)Temple of Ram Chandra (ii) at birthplace of Ram (iii)
since ancient times. It cannot be argued that the 'admission'
4311
by the 5 Muslim Defendants must be accepted or rejected
'as a whole', because the pleading is designedly half-truth
and it is open to Court to 'separate the grain from the
chaff'. The existence of such a temple does not find mention
in the earliest independent account of the locality by
Tieffenthaler in 1786 although other tell-tale details were
recorded as indicated in para 17 above; it would have
found mention if it was reputed as a Janmasthan temple.
The important aspect of these Pleadings must be
appreciated. Besides the above admissions in para 27 of
joint WS of the 5 Muslim Defendants, an oral pleading was
made by their Lawyer under Order X CPC that Babar
erected Babri Masjid on entirely barren/open land over or
under which there never existed any structure of any sort.
Two of these Defendants are also Co-Plaintiffs in Sunni
Board's Plaint filed 10 years later; consequently the
admissions made by the Muslim Defendants in OOS 1 of
1989 (written or oral) are legally binding upon Sunni
Board in OOS 4 of 1989, and they cannot take a case of
Kanati Masjid, Eid-gah or other Muslim religious structure
underneath DS.
VI Certain nomenclatures which have figured from time
to time could call for elucidation. 'Masjid Janmasthan',
prima-facie indicates a Masjid which exists at Janmasthan,
otherwise it could have been named as 'Masjid Ramkot'.
'Chabutra Janmasthan', which Tieffenthaler mentioned to
be indicative of place of birth of Ram and his 3 brothers
cannot signify exactly the spot where the 4 brothers could
have been born. Dashrath had 3 queens each of whom had
4312
her own palace. Carnegy's account (1870) mentions that
Ramkot, the Fort had 8 royal mansions where dwelt
Dashrath and his wives. Obviously, the Chabutra alone
could not be the place where Dashrath, his 3 wives could
live and give birth to 4 children. That is why Mahant
Raghubar Das mentioned in his plaint (1885) that in
Ayodhya there was Bhumi Janmasthan containing
Chabutra Janmasthan, that he was Mahant of Bhumi
Janmasthan and was in possession of Chabutra
Janmasthan with a small Temple on it. 'Bhumi
Janmasthan' could be the entire Palace situated at Ramkot
including the site of DS while for reasons of caution and
wisdom, 'Chabutra Janmasthan' could be called as
birthplace of Ram. In any case, the entire area within the
parameter of Parikrama was treated by the devotees as
hallowed by divinity, hence worshipped as Bhumi
Janmasthan, viz., the disputed area. Indeed, both the
Courts in Mahant Raghubar Das' case were persuaded to
reject the prayer for erecting a Temple on Chabutra
Janmasthan because a Temple could not be allowed to exist
in immediate vicinity of Masjid otherwise it could lead to
perpetual bloodshed. That is why Hindu devotees/Mahant
etc content themselves with calling the Chabutra as
Janmasthan while continuing to extend their possession in
the Campus and perform worship also inside DS.
VII The Archeological Survey of India on the basis of
excavation conducted under the orders of the court within
the stipulated period in presence of the parties and judge
observers submitted its report in accordance with the
4313
settled norms confirming existence of Hindu religious
structures underneath of the disputed structures and
existence of divine couple in addition to various finds
relating to temple including broken pieces of divine couple.
It also found structural activities during post Gupta Rajput
period from 7
th
to 10
th
Century A.D. as well as construction
of massive structure and walls during 10
th
to 12
th
Century.
Some of the walls were seen extending beyond the area
excavated by ASI. In addition to existence of 50 pillar
bases out of which 4 associated with the earlier structure
belonging to Period IV of 11
th
and 12
th
Century A. D. were
also reported. The Archeological Survey of India expressed
its views that on the basis of excavation conducted on spot
and finds of excavation proves existence of massive
structure with 3 structural phases and 3 successive floors
attached to them is proved. The pillar bases with brick bat
foundation below calcrete block also establish the
existence of load bearing pillar at the disputed site. It is
pertinent to mention here that according to basic principle
of civil engineering, the load is distributed on brackets put
over the top of the pillar. The disputed structure had no
foundation of its own which was constructed on and pre
existing structure/ wall i.e. wall no. 16 ( 12
th
Century A.
D. ) which too rests over wall No. 17 ( 11
th
to 12
th
Century
A. D. ). During excavation by the Archeological Survey of
India no feature of habitational activity was found right
from Gupta period to early Rajput period. The
periodization was done on the basis of archaeological
principles which was also confirmed by scientific
4314
investigation like carbon dating of various sites. The kind
of excavation is indicative of remains of North Indian
Temples.
VIII The contention of plaintiffs that use of lime motors
was started by Muslim Emperors is baseless. It is well
established that Choona Surkhi (lime mortars were used by
the builder of the disputed structure right from 600 B. C.
The excavations at Kausambi Mathura, Karwan (Gujarat)
Bhitri (Ghajipur) Nalanda Taxila Ganwaria etc. proves
that Choona and Surkhi with lime plaster where commonly
used. R.S. Sharma in his book "Perspectives in Social and
Economic History of Early India" has expressed similar
opinion. Prof. Sharma in his book referring about use of
Choona Surkhi at page 181 mentions as under:-
IX "No background study of trends in the economic
history of Mathura can be complete without some idea of
the technological factors operating in this Period. There is
little doubt that unbanism reached its climax in northern
and western India in this period. Several factors
contributed to it. One such factor was the change in
building methods. At Mathura and Ganwaria in Basti
district in north-eastern Uttar Pradesh the flooring was
made of brick concrete mixed with lime. This indicates the
use of Surkhi which contributed to the stability of
structures. Further, baked, tiles for roofing appear in the
period at several places in both the Satavahana and
Kusana zones including Mathura. These innovations added
to the solidity and longevity of urban structures in the early
centuries of the Christian era."
4315
X. Dr. H.C. Bhardwaj Ex-Professor of History of
Technology of B.H.U., in his article titled "Town planning,
building and building materials" also expressed similar
view and while referring to mortars and plaster expressed
his opinion that the earliest use of lime and gypsum comes
from Indus civilization.
XI. Lime mortars have been used at Kausambi from 600
B.C. to A.D. 100. But it may be emphasized that by and
large only mud mortar and plaster were used. The results
of the chemical analysis (Table 2 and 3) show that the
content of sand in the mortar was slightly higher than that
in plasters. The average ratio of sand : lime Ca(OH)
2
is
about 1:1, whereas in the case of mortars the average is
2:1. For mortars, probably 2 parts of sand were mixed with
one part of slaked lime.
XII. Lime Plaster from Karwan (Dt. Vadodara, Gujrat)
from pre-Gupta levels : From the analysis (Table 4) it is
clear that two types of plaster was used. Samples 1 to 4
represent the upper coat of the plaster and 5 to 8 represent
lower rough plaster. The former has higher content of lime
as compared to the latter. Fine layer was laid and
burnished to make it smooth and elegant.
XIII Lime plaster from Bhitari (Dt. Gazipur, U.P.)
(Gupta Period) : shows low grade lime plaster (Table 5)
was used at the brick temple of Gupta period. It has sand
and lime ratio of 6:1. The red colour of the plaster/mortar
is due to the use of ferruginous kankar for preparation of
lime.
XIV. Lime plaster from excavations at Nalanda (7
th
-10
th
4316
century A.D.) (Table 6) shows 3 parts of lime (calcium
carbonate) and 2 parts of sand. Some of the monasteries
are thickly plastered. Jars with dried up mortar and a cell
used as a cistern in monastery No. 11 are indicative of the
preparation of concrete.
XV. Lime plaster from Lingaraj temple at
Bhubhaneshwar (Orissa-10
th
century A.D.) (Table 7) shows
that lime : silica ratio was 3:1.
XVI At Arikamedu lime mortar is reported from historical
period. Use of lime is also attested from Hullas Khera (Dt.
Lucknow) from Kusan-Gupta levels and from Banagrah
(Dt. Dinajpur) where use of time and Surkhi is known from
Gupta and Pala Levels. At Purana Quila lime plastered
gutter connected with house drains is reported from levels
datable to 8
th
9
th
century A.D.
XVII. In addition to above excavations at Arikmedu
in Pandicherry proves use of like model from early
historical period of 1
st
Century A.D. Use of lime is also
proved from excavations at Hulaskhera District Lucknow
from Kushan Gupta levels.
XVIII. It is thus fully established that lime mortar,
lime plaster, Surkhi choona were in use in India
continuously much before the arrival of Muslims in India.
It is well established that lime and surkhi was used prior to
1
st
century B.C. and was in continuous use as such the
objection of Sunni Central Waqf Board and others Muslim
parties to the effect that lime surkhi made appearance from
Islamic period is without any basis and mearly an
objection for the shake of objection only.
4317
XIX. Moreover, on the contrary, there is not a single
evidence to prove it otherwise. The objectors have used
phrases 'Muslim construction' several times. What is a
'muslim construction'? Islamic architecture or Indo-Islamic
architecture are better generic terms. Then the objector
says "muslim built domed circular buildings" as an
alternative explanation, but it gets self-negated by their
own arguments in the next para of their objections.
XX. The report of ASI was challenged by the plaintiffs on
the grounds that of the other architectural fragments,
majority of these come from the dump or fill and were in
many cases part of the Babari Masjid (Disputed Structure)
walls; only 40 came from stratified contexts. None of which
were specific to a temple and are of no significance. It is
also stated that the Srivatsa is of Jainism, and Lotus design
could be Buddhist but not of Islamic architecture. In this
connection it may be mentioned that in early period of
Islamic invasion and rule in India several mosques and
other religious constructions were raised, in very short
period, by the rulers, ruling elites directly or by their
orders after destroying existing Hindu temples and other
structures. The dressed construction material which
recovered from the destruction of temples was freely
utilized by the Muslim builders. In such a situation the
architecture that resulted by using Indian motifs and
decorations in mosques or tombs was termed Indo-Islamic,
which evidently not by the choice of the ruler rather
perforce of the existing situation. It was more a case of
architectural conversion of Hindu temples into Islamic
4318
mosques and tombs. The purpose of the construction after
destruction was simple-to establish the suzerainty of Islam
and terror among the native Indians. This fact was at times
boldly advertised too. At Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near
Qutab Minar in Delhi where the inscription very clearly
proclaim so Ardhai-din-ka-Jhopara is another example.
XXI. So far as Srivatsa is concerned, primarily it is a
Vaishnava symbol, representing Laksmi, Consort of Vishnu.
Lotus is also, primarily Vaishnava symbol.( Reference may
be made by the Dictionary of Iconography)
XXII.The objection of the plaintiffs that the octagonal
stone block having so-called floral motif has been
compared with the used in Dharmachakrajina Vihar at
Sarnath. There is not the least similarity between the two.
Sarnath is rectangular while Ayodhya one is octagonal on
plan. The Sarnath specimen depict motif in slightly low
relief while on Ayodhya one it is ni very bold relief.
XXIII. There is similarity of decoration and purpose
and functional use of the pillar or bases, they are not the
exact replicas. The depth of the carved motif is no criteria
for dissimilarity. It is after all hand made and that too by
possibly different men. The suggested similarity is only for
the aforesaid points and in them there is sufficient
similarity and enough basis to arrive at a tentative date for
the two.
XXIV. The objection of the plaintiffs that Nagari
inscription is not to be dated with any certitude to the 11th
century; its time range could be 7th-12th centuries. The
Arabic inscription can be dated to 13th century with as
4319
much reason as to the 16th century. The decipherment is
hasty; it is Siddhmatrika script and should be dated to 7th-
12th century. A.S.I. should have itself about the Pala suffix
which suggests a possible reference to one of the Pala
rulers of Bengal and Bihar.
XXV. In this connection it may be submitted that the
date of 11th century has been reached after comparing the
letters and is well researched and not arbitrary as the off-
hand conclusion of the Objector. It is an unfounded
possibility raised against a well-researched academic
conclusion. Baseless arguments.
XXVI. The Pala suffix to names was not used only by
the rulers of Bengal and Bihar. Rajput rulers also used this
suffix. Dating of the inscriptions is fine. There is no
necessity to draw inferences about some ruler mentioned
from the five letter extant broken inscription which not even
shows all letters of equal size which should have been there
had it been some royal inscription.
XXVII. The objection of the plaintiff regarding
successive structural activities is baseless. It may be
submitted that there is some difference in the "first" and
"successive" structural activities. The structural activity
noticed in the early part of the Sunga level does not have
any evidence continued in the succeeding phase of the
Sunga level itself. It is definitely the first activity witnessed
and exposed by the excavation.
XXVIII. Where as in the Kushan level the structures
that are build continue in the succeeding phases and
periods without any appreciable break. Learned counsels
4320
are expected to appreciate the difference between the two
statements.
XXIX. In the Tentative Periodization and Schematic
Cross Section the trenches included do not belong to
southern area nor there is any reference to the southern
trenches. The Schematic Cross Section is west to east. It is
gross misrepresentation of the facts to mislead the Court.
The conclusion regarding the gradual building of partition
wall and the enclosure wall is based on hard
archaeological facts.
XXX. Most of the burial were found in the northern
side out side the enclosure wall and were sealed by layer
one, while on the south side the pit line of the one burial
excavated was open to surface which also lies outside the
enclosed area.
XXXI. The objection of the plaintiff that ASI has
distorted evidence to suit its temple theory is shown by its
treatment of mihrab (arched recess) and taq (niche) found
in the western wall, which it turns into features of its
imagined temple. The objection of the plaintiff is nearly for
the shake of the objection to criticize the report only.
During excavation recessed niches where found which have
been detailed on page 68 of the report. The report
described as under:-
XXXII. "At an interval of 4.60 m in the inner side of
the wall 16 in its first phase of construction two recessed
niches were found 0.20 m deep and 1.0 m wide along the
face of the wall and 0.78 m wide at its deeper side with
0.02 m thick lime plaster in trenches E6 and E7. The niche
4321
in E6 was exposed while the niche in E7 was found
attached with the E7-E8 baulk. A similar niche was found
in ZE2 in the northern area with same dimensions (Pl. 49).
All of these three niches were closed during the second
phase of construction when the floor level was raised and
wall was raised above the ten original courses."
XXXIII. It is merely the physical description of the three
"recessed niches" devoid of any suggestions or
relationship, even tentative. Even the "Summary of Results"
does not speak about the alleged distortions; there is no
turning of these 'recessed niches' into 'features of (its)
imagined temple'. However it may be noticed that temples
do have niches both inside and outside its walls where
subsidiary idols or images are placed.
XXXIV. So far plaintiff objection regarding mihrabs or
Taq are concerned it must be noted that ASI did not used
any of these expression rather simply mentioned recessed
niches. Plaintiffs have.. that expression to mean
mihrab or taq. No such evidence was found during
excavation as could have indicated that these three niches
in wall No. 16 had any are indeed all these nitches where
closed during the operation of raising the floor level above
to original brick courses have scraped attention of ASI
when the closer of operation was notice.
XXXV. No "Taq" has been found during the
excavation. Professor R. Nath, Retired Professor & Head
of the Department of History and Indian Culture,
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, referring to the niche
found in excavation at Ayodhya expressed his opinion
4322
which was published in History Today (An archeological
general) part 4 of 2003. According to him the lower part of
a recessed niche has been discovered in the recent
excavations at Ayodhya (The ASI report 2002-2003 ,
submitted to the High Court Allahabad, Plate -49: "A
Niche in the north-south oriented brick walls" TR-ZE2)
(Plate-1 herewith). It is built of brick masonry which was
plastered over. Its plan is rectangular with a single recess
(offset) making a Karnika (corner) in it. Its floor is also of
brick and it is there courses (of brick masonry) higher than
the floor-level of the room on which it opens, and of which
it is a part.
XXXVI. According to objections wall No. 16 belongs to
a pre Mughal open Kanti Mosque or Idgah. Fundamentally
this claim must be thrown out of consideration because
none of the Plaintiffs or objectors even pleaded that
disputed structure was even erected over a pre-existing
Kanti Mosque or Idgah. They did not even argued their
pleading after ASI examination. A Kanti ( so called )
because it has a kanat i.e. a curtain. Mosque or Idgah has
no nitches. It is a straight plain wall.. In India, such an
open "curtain" mosque which does not have a "Liwan"
(prayer-hall) or any other paraphernalia attached to it,
and is just a wall, has 5 or 7 or 11 arches, as a rule and a
single arch cannot make-up a "Qanati" mosque.
Technically, it is an arcade and such arcade- walls were
build in Idgahs and graveyards for facilitating "Fatiha"
prayer, during the whole medieval period (1192-1803
A.D.). A single arch, even if it was there, cannot be branded
4323
a "Qanati" mosque or "Idgah" and his claim shows that he
is not, at all, conversant with the subject.
XXXVII. Equally important is the fact. Secondly, that a
"qiblah-mihrab" (an arch in the centre of the western wall
of a tomb or mosque, denoting the direction of the Ka'bah)
is an arch, roofed by a half-cup shaped vault, both of which
have tremendous lateral thrust. Hence, stone nook-shafts
are invariably used on the corners of such a mihrab, as are
there in the mosques of Jaunpur and Delhi (of the Sultanate
period, 1192-1526 A.D.), for example, without any
exception. But lithic nook-shafts are not there on the
corners of this niche. It is architecturally inconceivable to
build an arch, roofed by a vault, in a brick masonry without
stone nook-shafts, and if stone nook-shafts are not there to
take the load, and counter the lateral thrust of the arch and
vault, there cannot be a mihrab. Structurally therefore,
there was no arch or vault, and it was just a single,
rectangular niche which is what the ASI Report says.
XXXVIII. It has also to be noticed, thirdly, that the floor-
level of this niche is three courses higher than the floor-
level of the room on which it opens. This is possible only
when it was made as a niche or "alaya" for placing an
image, or for a similar other purpose. The mihrab and the
Liwan (sanctuary or prayer-hall of a mosque) are always
and without any exception, built on the same floor-level,
and there is not a single example where a mihrab is built
on a higher level as a niche for keeping things. Hence this
cannot be identified as a mihrab in any case.
XXXIX. A perusal of the objection filed by the SCBW
4324
makes it clear that the objection has been filed on baseless
and concocted facts and no material evidence has been
produced by the opposite parties in support thereof. The
SCBW in support of its objection has examined as much as
seven witnesses out of which six witnesses namely Prof.
Suraj Bhan (PW-16), Prof. Dhaneshwar Mandal (PW-24),
Dr Jaya Menon (PW-29), Dr R.C. Thakran (PW-30), Dr
Ashok Dutta (PW-31), Dr Supriya Verma (PW-32) are said
to be experts of excavation. But a scrutiny of the cross
examination of these witnesses makes it clear that except
Prof. Suraj Bhan none of them has any experience of field
archaeology. Prof. Suraj Bhan, who has conducted some
excavations as mentioned by him in his affidavit, made it
clear during cross examination that the reports of the
alleged excavation have not been published so far.
XL. The plaintiffs of O.O.S. No. 5 of 1989 have examined
Dr. R. Nagaswamy, a renowned archaeologist and expert of
temple architecture who is a retired director of ASI and had
appeared as an expert archaeologist for and on behalf of
Government of India in a case pending before London
courts. The highest court of London recognised him as an
expert archaeologist and based its judgment on his
evidence. Dr. R. Nagaswamy has supported the report of
ASI and proved the same to be correct and trustworthy.
XLI. In addition to him Dr R.D. Trivedi who was also
director in ASI and is an expert of temple architecture of
North India has also been examined by the plaintiffs of
O.O.S. No. 5 of 89 who on the basis of discoveries made
during excavation by ASI has proved the existence of a
4325
Nagar style Hindu temple then prevalent in Northern India.
EW. Shri A.K. Sharma has also been examined by the
plaintiffs of O.O.S. No. 5 of 89 who is undisputedly a field
archaeologist and has carried on various excavations and
is still carrying on excavation work and the reports of his
excavation have been published in various journals.
XLII.Dr Rakesh Tiwari, director, U.P. State Archaeology,
has been examined by the plaintiffs in support of their case.
It may be mentioned here that at the time of leveling near
the disputed site in June 1992, plenty of artifacts relating to
Hindu temple were found near the disputed site. Dr Rakesh
Tiwari in his official capacity as director has prepared a
list of 263 artifacts relating to Hindu temple and has
proved before the court that the artifacts found at the time
of leveling prove existence of a big Hindu religious
structure at the site. A perusal of the list prepared and filed
in the court proves the same to be temple artifact. In
addition to the above, inscriptions written in Nagari script,
images of Ganesh, Lakshmi, Sadanand and Vrishabh, etc.,
further prove existence of Hindu temple on spot.
XLIII. It is pertinent to mention that the leveling work
was conducted under the control and supervision of Govt.
of U.P. under strict security through Government agency
and the listing of artifacts found on spot and their
preservation was done by the State archaeological
department. The artifacts so found on the spot were
tendered as evidence and are still in the custody of courts.
During excavation also plenty of artifacts relating to
temple structure were found as reported by ASI in its report
4326
duly confirmed by all the witnesses including the ones
examined by the SCBW.
XLIV. The Report of the Archaeological Survey of
India also makes it clear that there existed temple like
structure underneath the disputed structure as well as
evidences of demolition of pre-existing Hindu temple are at
the disputed site. It will not be out of place to mention here
that before demolition of disputed shrine the artifacts
recovered at the time of leveling by the Government agency
also establish existence of a huge temple/religious structure
in the periphery of the disputed area. The existence of
temple before the construction of the disputed structure is
established during excavation particularly wall No. 16 and
17 which are undisputedly prior to the construction of the
disputed structure. The shape, size, length and continuity of
the wall on western side in south north orientation coupled
with pillar bases intervening floor 2 and 3 and also of the
pillar bases of the northern side are admitted by the
plaintiff.
3992. Sri Pandey summarized his argument on this aspect
submitting that the following facts established pre-existence of
Hindu temple before construction of the disputed structure at the
site in dispute.
I. The disputed structure had no foundation of its own
(Refer Wall No.5, 16 and 17). Admittedly the wall No.5 was
raised on wall No. 16 which is much prior to the disputed
structure, i.e., relating to old temple structure. It is also
apparent and established that wall No. 16 which is resting
on wall No. 17 belong to pre-existing structure and are
4327
about. ............. wide whereas wall No.5 is
about .................... wide, much lesser than the wall No. 16
and 17.Wall No.5 is not in continuation of wall No. 16 and
is lying over the wall No. 16. Wall no. 16 and 17 are much
longer than wall No.5. The existence of wall No. 16 is
much more than 50 metres because the ending point of the
wall was not discovered during excavation.
II. The in-situ existence of Makar Pranal in wall No. 5
proves that the temple materials were re-used for
construction of disputed structure. It is noteworthy that
existence of Makar Pranal has all along been admitted by
the plaintiff and their witnesses.
III. Scientific analysis of the plasters used in the wall of
preexisting structure, observations and examination of wall
No. 1-15 proves that materials used in wall No. 16, 17
onwards are much superior to the walls of the disputed
structure, i.e. 1-15 wherein brick bats, and re-used
material have been used.
IV. The construction of wall Nos. 1-15, i.e., its structure
and texture, material used, etc., proves that the walls of the
disputed structure were constructed hurriedly by re-using
material of the earlier structure even without any
foundation as is evident from the use of brickbats and
broken bricks used in the wall which prima facie
establishes demolition of pre-existing temple.
V. Existence of pillar bases on all the floor without
pillar found during excavation including pillar bases found
in the section of the trench further proves that the disputed
structure was constructed after demolishing the temple
4328
including pillars and after general levelling of the disputed
structure was constructed.
VI. The existence of pillar bases in the northern side
admitted by the Plaintiff as pillar bases beyond the
disputed site with foundation further proves existence of
huge pre-existing religious structure extending to much
more area in northern side. It is pertinent to mention that
bases of the pillars were not removed whereas pillar bases
found in the southern and eastern side of the makeshift
structure shows existence of similar foundation of pillar
bases with removal of bases.
VII. Pillar bases have been found below the floor level of
the structure. The pillar bases No. 29, 32, 34, 35 further
prove demolition of the pre-existing temple structure as is
evident from perusal of the report at page No. 52 and
plates 30 and 45 of the Archaeological Survey of India
Report Vol. II. Figure 3 B of ASI Report Vol. I shows nine
pillar bases have been exposed below the wall and floor of
the disputed structure numbered as pillar base Nos. 22, 23,
25, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34 and 35. The existence of these pillar
bases below the disputed structure particularly in
courtyard establishes existence of temple before
construction of the disputed structure.
VIII. 20 line inscription recovered from the wall of the
disputed structure at the time of its demolition also proves
existence of temple in 12th century AD, i.e., prior to
construction of the disputed structure.
IX. Recovery of 20 line inscription on 06.12.1992 from
the debris of the disputed structure proves that the same
4329
was reused in the construction of the disputed structure.
X. Circular shrine which dates back to 4th-6th century
admitted by the plaintiff proves existence of huge temple
like structure on spot much before the construction of the
disputed structure.
XI. The 11th century inscription found from the debris of
trench No. J-3 at a depth of 5.75 metres below the floor
level of the disputed structure indicates existence of temple
below the disputed structure as reported by ASI in its report
Vol. 1 at page 204, 205 and Fig. 22 as well as Pl. 137 of
the report Vol. II. It is noteworthy to mention that such
decorated inscriptions are always found in temple/Hindu
religious structures and are never found in the residential
buildings. A perusal of the behaviour of debris as shown in
Fig. 22 marked as layer No.5 and 6 of trench No. J-3 also
indicates that the same was created due to demolition of
the temple. The lower level of the layer as shown in Fig. 22
establishes that the boulders obviously came from the
demolished temple in accordance with a theory of
gravitation.
XII. Archaeological finds like Kopot Palli, Amalak
decorated bricks, decorated stone slabs in wall No.5 and
17, Srivatsha, earthern lamp below the floor of the disputed
structure, Garuda Dhwaj (the pit made for erecting the
Garuda Dhwaj in front of the Garbhagriha - a salient
feature of northern Indian temples) shown in Pl. No. 59,
60, 63 and pit of Garuda Dhwaj in front of sanctum
sanctorum
4330
further confirms the pre-existence of temple on the disputed
site.
XIII. A perusal of artifacts found during excavation as
shown in Plate nos. 5, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 36, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 81, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90,
93, 95 prima facie establishes pre-existing temple/temple-
like structure.
XIV. Under any circumstances above referred artifacts
may neither form part of Islamic structure nor could be
used in non-religious structure. Existence of divine couple
as shown in plate No. 235 and the circular shrine
undisputedly proves existence of temple on spot.
XV. At the site in question (Rama Janma Bhumi/Baburi
Masjid) right from the virgin soil, beginning with the
circular Shiva Shrine up to the working floor of the
disputed structure only religious structural remains
associated with antiquities of religious nature have been
found. The continuous nature of 10.80 meter thick deposit
accounts for nine cultural periods beginning from N.B.P.
level of 6
th
Century B.C. to 15
th
Century A.D. and clearly
indicate that the site was never abandoned and was never
used for habitational purpose. At the site four working
floors have been exposed. From Floor # 3, there is a radio
carbon date 910 70 A.D. (calibrated 900 1030 A.D.).
This well-scientifically dated floor is below the Floor # 2
with which 50 pillar bases are associated. Over Floor # 2
is Floor # 1, i.e., the floor of the mosque. Floor # 2 with
which 50 pillars bases of Mandapa are associated is
evidently the floor of the temple which was demolished.
4331
Typical habitational deposits such as soakage pits, ring
wells, drainage system, etc., of Indo-Gangetic plain were
never found (A. Ghosh Encyclopaedia of Archaeology,
Pages 134-135). When one temple fell into disuse either
due to natural calamity or natural decay, immediately new
religious structure was raised.
XVI. The act of continuous raising of structures only
of religious nature at the site clearly indicates that the
people had memory of a happening of very important
nature in the distant past at the site. At the site there is no
stratigraphical gap or any hiatus.
XVII. While demolishing the standing temple in 1528
A.D., Mir Baqi was well-aware of the sacred and religious
importance of the site and he thought it proper to raise only
a religious structure, i.e., a mosque, right over the
demolished temple and did not leave it for people to occupy
for habitational purpose.
XVIII. The evidence of existence of a temple in 1528
A.D. is clear from the plan of the structural remains which
show Garbha Grih (where presently Ram Lala is located),
Ardha-Mandapa and wide Mandapa along with Pushkarini
on the North-East corner, very wide walls and even
damaged structural parts of earlier temples and religious
members of the last temple used in the walls of the mosque.
This use of members of religious nature in their
construction could be done only by persons of other faith.
3993. Sri Pandey also sought to summarize his arguments
on the question of demolition as under:
I. The Mosque was built right over the walls of the
4332
demolished earlier structure, i.e., temple after levelling
them. No independent foundations were laid for the
mosque.
II. In a hurry to raise the mosque, self-same material,
i.e., bricks and stones of the demolished structure were
used which is evident from the fragmentary nature of
bricks. No full bricks have been found in the walls of the
mosque. Secondly, the size and texture of the bricks
(wherever length and width are available separately) tally
with the size of bricks used in the demolished temple.
Normally, structures of different periods have bricks of
different sizes and texture. In Wall No. 15 of the mosque,
many members of the temple like Makar Pranal, etc., have
been used.
III. As right over the working floor of the demolished
temple, the floor of the mosque has been laid, it shows
continuous action of demolition and construction. There
was no marked evidence of time gap, i.e., both the works
were done by the same agency.
IV. In some rudimentary pillars of floor 2, signs of
demolition are visible. In spite of cleaning the demolished
structural remains, broken pieces of bricks, stones and
other structural members were found scattered.
3994. Another attempt was made by the learned experts of
plaintiffs (Suit-4) by suggesting that historically they do not find
any evidence that the muslim Rulers were indulged in
destroying temples of idolaters and therefore a presumption that
an existing temple was demolished for construction of the
disputed structure should not be formed. Though it would not
4333
have been necessary for us to tell positively that there existed a
massive temple structure which was demolished by someone
and thereafter the disputed structure was raised for the reason
that for our purposes it was sufficient that the disputed structure
has been raised on an erstwhile building of a religious nature
which was non-Islamic but the kind of statement, which has
been given by so many experts appearing on behalf of the
plaintiffs (Suit-4) to justify their stand that temples in past were
never demolished by the then muslim Rulers or invaders from
Persia etc. is so blatant lie that we are reluctant to ignore it
without referring to some well known historical record on these
aspects particularly some of which have been written by the
Muslim writers themselves.
3995. Sri Jilani referred to the statement of the Expert
witnesses where they have said that the Mughal Emperors
before Aurangzeb were not against the idolaters or idol worship
and there do not exist any historical record to suggest that they
demolished any Hindu temple and constructed mosque or other
Islamic religious structure. Even for the Muslim Rulers or
invaders before Mughal's as also Aurangzeb and subsequent
once it is suggested that the act of a few such demolition of
temple attributed to Mahmood Gazani or Khilji's or Auraugzeb
etc., was not on account of any hatred on their part against idol
worshippers or for spread of religion of Islam but more on
account of economic reasons since these places i.e. Hindu
temples etc. had lot of wealth and for looting the said wealth
those attacks were made. He also referred to certain documents
constituting historical record etc. to show that neither Babar
entered into such activities nor others.
4334
3996. Exhibit 48 (Suit-5) (Register 20, page 129) contains
a photocopy from Memoirs Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Baber;
Emperor of Hindustan written by himself in the Chaghatai
Turki and translated partly by John Leyden and partly by
William Erskine with Notes and a Geographical and Historical
Introduction published in 1807 at London. It has frontispiece
and pages number 378, 379, 380 and 381 of the said book. On
pages 381 of the book (paper no. 107C1/68) it deals with the
description when Baber reached near Ayodhya:
We were still a march or two from Oudh, when a
messenger arrived from Chin Timur Sultan, with
intelligence that the enemy were encamped on the other
side of the Siru, and that he would require to be reinforced.
I dispatched to his assistance a thousand of the best men
from the centre, under the command of Kazak. On
Saturday, the 7
th
of Rajeb, I encamped two or three Kos
above Oudh, at the junction of the Gogra and Siru. Till that
day, Sheikh Bayezid had kept his station, not far from
Oudh, on the other side of the Siru. He had sent a letter to
Sultan, for the purpose of overreaching him. Sultan having
discovered his insincerity, about noon-day prayers sent a
person to call Karacheh to his assistance, and begun to
make preparations for passing the river. When Karacheh
had joined Sultan, they passed the river without delay.
There were about fifty horse, with three or four elephants,
on the other side, who, being unable to stand their ground,
took to flight. Our people brought down some of them, and
cut off their heads, which they sent me. Bikhub Sultan,
Terdi Beg, Kuch Beg, Baba Chihreh, and Baki Shaghawal,
4335
passed the river after Sultan. Those who had passed over
first, continued till evening prayers in pursuit of Sheikh
Bayezid, who threw himself into a jungle, and escaped.
Chiu Timur Sultan having halted at night by a pool,
mounted again about midnight, and renewed his pursuit of
the enemy. After marching forty kos, he came to a place
where their families and baggage had been, but they were
already in full light. The light force now divided itself into
different bodies, Baki Shaghawel with one
division,following close upon the enemy, overtook their
baggage and families, and brought in a few of the Afghans
as prisoners.
I halted some days in this station, for the purpose of
settling the affairs of Oudh and the neighboring country,
and for making the necessary arrangement. Seven or eight
kos above Oudh, on the banks of the river Siru, is the well-
known tract called the Hunting-ground. I sent Mir
Muhammad Jalehban to examine the fords of the rivers
Gagra and Siru, which he did. On Thursday, the 12
th
, I
mounted, to set off on a hunting party.
3997. Exhibit 15 (Suit-5) (Register 20, pages 139-143)
contains photocopies of frontispiece and pages no. 332 and 333
of Memoirs Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Baber; Emperor of
Hindustan translated by John Leyden and William Erskine
(Annotated and Revised by Sir Lucas King) published in 1921
in two Volumes by Oxford University Press. It also contains the
verbatim description as we have referred to from Exhibit 48
(Suit-5) at paper no. 107C1/68.
3998. Exhibit 62 (Suit-4) (Register 12, page 367 to 405) is a
4336
copy of an article/ letter/ report said to be submitted by Sri R.S.
Sharma, M. Athar Ali, D.N. Jha, Suraj Bhan under the title
"Ramjanambhumi-Baburi Masjid A Historians Report to the Nation"
along with the covering letter dated 13.5.1991 addressed to Sri
Subodh Kant Sahay, Minister of State for Home, Government of
India, New Delhi. A perusal of the letter and report shows that it
contains signatures of only three persons, i.e., Sri R.S. Sharma, M.
Athar Ali and Suraj Bhan. Sri D.N. Jha has not signed the said
report.
3999. Exhibit A-10 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 65-78) is
photocopy of Appendix-A list of sacred places in and about
Ayodhya from the Book "A Historical Sketch of Tahsil Fyzabad,
Zillah Fyzabad by P.Carenegy.
4000. Exhibit 90 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 156-162)
contains the photocopy of the title page and pages no. 51 to 53
and 62 to 65 of the book "The Disputed Mosque-A Historical
Inquiry" by Sushil Srivastava published in 1991 by Vistaar
Publications, New Delhi. The author of this book himself as
appeared as witness, i.e. PW 15 and the book itself has been
produced before the Court.
4001. Exhibit 92 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 168-181)
contains the title page, preface, index and pages no. 12 to 34 of
the book "Mughal Empire In India" by Prof. S.R. Sharma,
Eleventh Edition published by Laksmi Narain Agarwal
Educational Publishers, Agra. The author on page 15 of the book
has given reason of Babar's invasion to India as under:
"The great advantage of Hindustan, "Babar was aware,
"besides its vast extent of territory, is the amount of gold,
coined and uncoined, which may be found there." To
Hindustan, therefore, he turned his wistful attention when,
4337
after the conquest of Kabul, he left the need for supplies"
4002. Exhibit 15 (Suit-5) (Register 20, pages 139-143)
contains photocopies of frontispiece and pages no. 332 and 333
of Memoirs Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Baber; Emperor of
Hindustan translated by John Leyden and William Erskine
(Annotated and Revised by Sir Lucas King) published in 1921
in two Volumes by Oxford University Press. It also contains the
verbatim description as we have referred to from Exhibit 48
(Suit-5) at paper no. 107C1/68.
4003. Sri Jain and other counsels on the contrary refuted
the above arguments vehemently and refers to other documents
as are:
4004. Exhibit J-6 (Register 13, page 47-51) is the photocopy
of History of Oudh (Amir Ali Shaheed or Marke-e Hanuman Garhi)
by Sheikh Mohammad Azmat Ali Kakori written by Sheikh
Mohammad Azmat Ali Kakori published by Markez Adab Urdu
Shahganj, Lucknow.
4005. Exhibit J-10 (Suit 4) (Register 13, page 53-55 and
125) is photocopy of the paged no.71 of Fasanah-E Ibrat by Mirza
Rajab Ali published by Marke Adab Urdu, Shahganj, Lucknow.
4006. Exhibit J-31(Register 13, page 57) is a copy of page
No.324 Holy Quran-majeed by Maulana Saeed Farman Ali published
by Matbua-e Nizami Press, Victoria Street, Lucknow.
4007. Exhibit 87 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 1-6)
contains the title page, index and contents of pages 207, 218 and
221 of "History of India As Told By Its Own Historians" Vol. 6
by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson. It is part of the Chapter LI
titled as "Tarikh-I-Firishta of Muhammad Kasim Hindu Shas,
Firishta". As we know the above book contains the English
translation of various manuscripts written in Persian, Arabic,
4338
Urdu etc. as collected by Sir H.M. Elliot while he was in India.
"Tarikh-I-Firishta" is work of Mohammad Kasim Hindu
Shah who is said to be born in 1550 or 1570. Initially, he was in
patronage of Murtaza Nizam Shah at Ahmadnagar wherefrom
he proceeded to Bijapur sometimes in 1589 A.D. which was in
the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah. Later on, the King presented to
him a copy of Rauzatu-s Safa, remarking that no competent
person had hitherto written a general history of Muhammadans
in India, except Nizamuddin Bakhshi though his work was too
brief and imperfect, especially as concerned the Dakhin (south).
The Firishta wrote history but it is quite imperfect about Indian
history previous to Muhammadan invasion. He died probably in
1660. His book contains 12 chapters the details whereof have
been given on page 209 of Vol. VI of the said book (entire set of
"The History of India as Told By Its Own Historians" is
available to the Court and, therefore, instead of confining
ourselves to the pages filed by the plaintiffs (Suit-4), we have
gone through the book and have taken the contents therefrom.
The translation of the book has been done by General Briggs. It
is said by Elliot and Dowson on page 216/217 that General
Briggs procured a copy of Firishta in Persian which contains
several valuable annotations and corrections. This copy was
carefully collated with several others. Chapter I commences
with "Mahmud of Ghazni" and his attach on Anundpal, Raja of
Lahore at AH 399 (A.D. 1008). At page 221, it deals with Firoz
Shah Tughlik. The above pages have been placed on record to
show that the Muslims came to India as long back as with the
start of A.D. 1000 and odd and it is not Babar, who for the first
time laid the foundation of the Muslim Emperor in the then
4339
Hindostan. The learned counsel for the other side, however,
drew out attention to page 227 last five lines:
"Some historians state, that Sultan Feroze Shah Barbek on
this occasion broke the idols of Nagrakote, and mixing the
fragments with pieces of cow's flesh, filled bags with them,
and caused them to be tied round the necks of Brahmins,
who were then paraded through the camp."
4008. Exhibit 88 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 7-12) are
photocopies of the title page, index and pages no. 218, 239, 339
and 434 of the "The History of India As Told by Its Own
Historians", Vol. 4 by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson. Page 218
and 239 are the extract of Chapter XXVIII, Tuzak-I-Babari or
Wakiat-I-Babari, the Autobiography of Babar. In the Book, this
Chapter runs from page 218 to 287. Page 239 shows that in the
last but successful invasion, Babar proceeded to India on 17
th
November, 1525 (AH 932). Page 339 (Paper No. 244C1/5 is
part of Chapter XXXII "Tarikh-I-Sher Shahi or Tuhfat-I-Akbar
Shahi of Abbas Khan, Sarwani". This work is probably
composed after AH 987 (AD 1579). It appears that the author
was connected by marriage with the family of Sher Shah. We
find no assistance from the said document for the purpose of this
matter except that for some time, Sher Shar (Sher Khan)
defeated the Mughals to take over the right of kingdon of
Bengal and Bihar.
4009. Page 434 (Paper No. 244C1/6) is extract of Chapter
XXXIII "Tarikh-I-Daudi of 'Abdulla" who has commenced his
work with the rein of Bahlol Lodi alleging that he was the first
King of the Afghan dynasty and brought down to reign of
Muhammad Adali Sur and Daud Shah alleging them as last
4340
Rulers of that reign. Learned counsel for the other side drew our
attention to pages 466 and 467 narrating the reign of Sultan
Sikandar Ghazi (Sikandar Lodi):
"He founded masjids throughout all his dominions, and
appointed a preacher, a reader, and a sweeper to each; to
all of whom he gave regular stipends." (Page 446)
"He allotted lands to the infidels who submitted to the
followers of Islam in their respective countries; and
whoever rebelled or was contumacious, was considered
guilty of treason, and was either slain or banished.
He was so zealous a Musulaman that he utterly
destroyed divers places of worship of the infidels, and left
not a vestige remaining of them. He entirely ruined the
shrines of Mathura, the mine of heathenism, and turned
their principal Hindu places of worship into caravanserais
and colleges. Their stone images were given to the butchers
to serve them as meat-weights, and all the Hindus in
Mathura were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads
and beards, and performing their ablutions. He thus put an
end to all the idolatrous rites of the infidels there; and no
hindu, if he wished to have his head or beard shaved, could
get a barber to do it. Every city thus conformed as he
desired to the customs of Islam." (Page 447)
4010. Exhibit 89 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 13-20) are
the photocopy of title page, index and pages no. 284, 285, 389,
476 and 477 of the "History of India As Told by Its Own
Historians" Vol. 3 by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson. Pages 284
and 285 are the extract of Chapter XVI "Tarikh-I-Firoz Shahi of
Shama-i-Siraj, "Asif". This work is devoted exclusively to the
4341
reign of Firoz Shah. The author claims to be attached to the
Court of Firoz Shah and accompanied him on his hunting
expeditions. The two pages shows the reign of Firoz Shah at
Delhi.
4011. Page 389 is extract of Chapter XVIII "Malfuzat-I
Timuri or Tuzak-I- Timuri' The Autobiography of Timur". The
original work was written in Chaghatai Turki language,
translated into Persian by Abu Talib Husaini, and dedicated to
Emperor Shah Jahan, who began to reign in A.D. 1628. Timur
came to India sometimes in the end of 14
th
century. It is not
necessary to deal into his invasion in detail since it is also a
story of invasion with the object of loot and destruction of
idolaters which is evident from the following extract:
"About this time there arose in my heart the desire to
lead an expedition against the infidels, and to become a
ghazi; for it had reached my ears that the slayer of infidels
is a ghazi, and if he is slain he becomes a martyr. It was on
this account that I formed this resolution, but I was
undetermined in my mind whether I should direct my
expedition against the infidels of China or against the
infidels and polytheists of India. In this matter I sought an
omen from the Kuran, and the verse I opened upon was
this, "O Prophet, make war upon infidels and unbelievers,
and treat them with severity."
My great officers told my that the inhabitants of
Hindustan were infidels and unbelievers. In obedience to
the order of Almighty God I determined on an expedition
against them, and I issued orders to the amirs of mature
years, and the leaders in war, to come before me, and when
4342
they had come together I questioned the assembly as to
whether I should invade Hindustan or China, and said to
them, "By the order of God and the Prophet it is incumbent
upon me to make war upon these infidels and polytheists."
throwing themselves upon their knees they all wished me
good fortune. I demanded of the warrior chieftains
whether I should direct my expedition against the infidels
of Hindustan or China. At first they repeated fables and
wise sayings, and then said, in the country of Hindustan
there are four defences, and if any one invading this
extensive country breaks down there four defences, he
becomes the conqueror of Hindustan.
The first defence consist of five large rivers, which
flow from the mountains of Kashmir, and these rivers unite
in their course, and passing through the country of Sind,
flow into the Arabian Sea, land it is not possible to cross
them without boats and bridges. The second defence
consists of woods and forests and trees, which,
interweaving stem with stem and branch with branch,
render it very difficult to penetrate into that country. The
third defence is the soldiery, and land holders, and prices,
and Rajas of that country, who inhabit fastnesses in those
forests, and live there like wild beasts. The fourth defence
consists of the elephants, for the rulers of that country in
the day of battle equipping elephants in mail, put them in
the van of their army, and place great confidence in them,
and they have trained them to such a pitch that, lifting with
their trunks a horse with his rider, and whirling him in the
air, they will dash him on the ground.
4343
Some of the nobles said in reply that Sultan Mahmud
Subuktigin conquered the country of Hindustan with
30,000 horse, and established his own servants as rulers of
that region, and carried off many thousand loads of gold
and silver and jewels from that country, besides subjecting
it to a regular tribute, and is our amir inferior to Sultan
Mahmud P No; thanks to Almighty God, to-day a 100,000
valiant Tatar horsemen wait at the stirrup of our amir; if he
determines upon this expedition Almighty God will give
him victory, and he will become a ghazi and mujahid before
God, and we shall be attendants on an amir who is a ghazi,
and the army will be contented and the treasury rich and
well filled, and with the gold of Hindustan our amir will
become a conqueror of the world and famous among the
kings of earth.
At this time the prince Shah Rukh said: "India is an
extensive country; whatever Slultan conquers it becomes
supreme over the four quarters of the globe; if, under the
conduct of our amir, we conquer India, we shall become
rulers over the seven climes." He then said: "I have seen in
the history of Persia that, in the time of the Persian Sutans,
the King of India was called Darai, with all honour and
glory. On account of his dignity he bore no other name;
and the Emperor of Rome was called Caesar, and the
Sultan of Persia was called Kisra, and the Sultan of the
Tatars, Khakan, and the Emperor of Chine, Faghfiur; but
the King of Iran and Turan bore the title of Shahinshah,
and the orders of the Shahinshah were always paramount
over the princes and Rajas of Hindustan, and praise be to
4344
God that we are at this time Shahinshah of Iran and Turan,
and it would be a pity that we should not be supreme over
the country of Hindustan." I was excessively pleased with
these words of Prince Shah Rukh. Then the Prince
Muhammad Sultan said: " The whole country of India is
full of gold and jewels, and in it there are seventeen mines
of gold and silver, diamond and ruby and emerald and tin
and iron and steel and copper and quicksilver, etc., and of
the plants which grow there are those fit for making
wearing apparel, and aromatic plants, and the sugar cane,
and it is a country which is always green and verdant, and
the whole aspect of this country is pleasant and delightful.
Now, since the inhabitants are chiefly polytheists and
infidels and idolaters and worshipers of the sun, by the
order of God and his prophet, it is right for us to conquer
them.
My wazirs informed me that the whole amount of the
revenue of India is six arbs; now each arb is a 100 krors,
and each kror is a 100 lacs, and each lac is a 100,00
miskals of silver. Some of the nobles said, "By the favour of
Almighty God we may conquer India, but if we establish
ourselves permanently therein, our race will degenerate
and our children will become like the natives of those
regions, and in a few generations their strength and valour
will diminish." the amirs of regiments (kushunat) were
disturbed at these words, but I said to them, "My object in
the invasion of Hindustan is to lead an expedition against
the infidels that, according to the law of Muhammad (upon
whom and his family be the blessing and peace of God), we
4345
may convert the true faith the people of that country, and
purify the land itself from the filth of infidelity and
polytheism; and that we may overthrow their temples and
idols and become ghazis and mujahids before God." They
gave an unwilling consent, but I placed no reliance upon
them. At this time the wise men of Islam came before me,
and a conversation began about the propriety of a war
against infidels and polytheists; they gave it as their
opinion that it is the duty of the Sultan of Islam, and all the
people who profess that "there is no god but Allah, and
Muhammad is the prophet of Allah," for the sake of
preserving their religion and strengthening their law, to
exert their utmost endeavour for the suppression of the
enemies of their faith. And it is the duty of every Muslim
and true believer to use his utmost exertions in obedience
to his ruler. When the edifying words of the wise men
reached the ears of the nobles, all their hearts were set
upon a holy war in Hindustan, and throwing themselves on
their knees, they repeated the Chapter of Victory.
When I girded up my loins for the expedition, I wrote
to Hazrat Shaikh Zainu-d din to the effect that I had
determined on a religious expedition to Hindustan. He
wrote in the margin of my letter: "Be it known to Abu-l
Ghazi Timur (whom may God assist) that great prosperity
in this world and the next will result to you from this
undertaking, and you will go and return in safety." he also
sent me a large sword which I made my sceptre.
In the meanwhile there came a petition from the
Prince Pir Muhammad Jahangir, from the confines to
4346
Kabulistan, the government of which country, from the
boundaries of Kunduz and Bakalan and Kabul and Ghazni
and Kandahar, was vested in him. When I looked at this
petition it was thus written: "Since, according to your
order, I arrived in this country, I have acted towards all the
people conformably to the exalted order and wisdom-
increasing counsels of the great king. When I had satisfied
my mind with the conquest and settlement of this kingdom,
I turned my thoughts towards the acquisition of some of the
provinces of Hindustan. I enquired concerning the
condition of that country, and received the following
account: that the city of Dehli is the capital of the
sovereigns of India, and after the death of Sultan Firoz
Shah, two brother among his nobility, of whom one was
named Mallu and the other Sarang, becoming very
powerful, established their independence, giving the
nominal sovereignty to one of the sons of Sultan Firoz
Shah, by name, Sultan Mahmud, they kept the real power in
their own hands, and virtually governed the empire. Mallu,
the elder brother, lives at Dehli, about the person of Sultan
Mahmud, and Sarang is established in the city of Multan,
for the protection of that country. When I became
acquainted with these matters, acting according to the
practice of the great king, I wrote a letter and sent it to him
(Sarang) by an ambassador, purporting that since the fame
of the victories and conquests, and of the extensive empire
of the great king is spread all over the world, it is certain
that it must have reached him also. The great king has
appointed me to the government of those provinces which
4347
lie on the borders of Hindustan, and has ordered that 'If the
rulers of Hindustan come before me with tribute I will not
interfere with their lives, property, or kingdoms; but if they
are negligent in proffering obedience and submission, I will
put forth my strength for the conquest of the kingdoms of
India. At all events, if they set any value upon their lives,
property, and reputation, they will pay me a yearly tribute,
and if not, they shall hear of my arrival with my powerful
armies. Farewell.' When the ambassador reached the
presence of Sarang at Multan, he was treated with great
respect and consideration; but in reply to his letter, Sarang
said, 'It is difficult to take an empire like a bride to your
bosom without trouble and difficulty and the clashing of
swords. The desire of your prince is to take this kingdom
with its rich revenue. Well, let him wrest it from us by force
of arms if he be able. I have numerous armies and
formidable elephants, and am quite prepared for war.' with
these words he dismissed the ambassador. But when this
unsatisfactory answer was brought back to me. I issued
immediate orders for the armies to assemble from all
quarters, together with such of the nobles as were in my
province, such as Amir Saikal Kandahari, and other amirs,
and soldiers."
4012. The amount of wealth his army looted at Delhi is
mentioned on page 446:
"The other booty was immense in rubies, diamonds,
garnets, pearls, and other gems; jewels of gold and silver;
ashrafis, tankas of gold and silver of the celebrated Alai
coinage; vessels of gold and silver; and brocades and silks
4348
of great value. Gold and silver ornaments of the Hindu
women were obtained in such quantities as to exceed all
account. Excepting the quarter of the saiyids, the ulama,
and the other Musulmans, the whole city was sacked."
4013. On page 448, the number of the peoples killed by
him mentions:
"I had triumphed over my adversaries, I had put to death
some lacs of infidels and idolaters, and I had stained my
proselyting sword with the blood of the enemies of the
faith."
At page 476 and 477 is the narration of his return journey
through Kashmir.
4014. Exhibit 64 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 80-91)
contains photocopy of title page, preface and pages 1 to 9 of "Ek
Drishtikon Ramjanambhoomi, Babari Masjid Vivad" by Ram
Saran Srivastava, Retired District Magistrate, Faizabad. We find
no matter of substance in the aforesaid document.
4015. Exhibit 65 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 93-96)
contains title page and pages 27, 28 and 29 of "Ek Drishtikon
Ramjanambhoomi, Babari Masjid Vivad" by Ram Saran
Srivastava, Retired District Magistrate, Faizabad. It says as
under:
i n|n ri ni r l i - lr i li i |
lri ni | |ln ii iiir i in ni
i | ini | i| l lr i ,ii -ln i -iiln | n;
i ri ll-n i ri n| r|| | -ii -n | n lr i
i ni r i i i -ii ii l |ni i ;i ri ini ii
i i - |ni i ri i ni| - l-- iii ;| i
i i~i i ; i i| - i ir r| li ln lr i
- - ii i i iln | iii | r| i ri ini r l i-
4349
ni i - il- - i i lr ii ri n r ,
lii i i -, l- r n i n -i n i |
srs ; o - il| iir - - i- ni |ni i ;
- ri i ri n r nl i ; ni r| l-|| n
i n - - - n i lni li ni
ii r| i i -l i| - l n | l i| i| -l
ri ii i ii lr ri i n r | | l-i i
srr ri -ii| i l- i i ilni
r -in| s| | n; i| | -n r| ; r - -- ni
lii r |
- -ii ii i i il-nni | n n| i
ii li i l r i- lni | iii| i| i i i
i ii| ri i- - i i -l i ii
r| | -l- i; n; | srr ; o ii -ii|
ii -n |, i | |, (ss) lii r l szs -
l-i ilii ii - i| -l- - -ii -l ( nii
- -ii - ) i; n; | | -n -ni; i i| ni|i i
| ln i+ | - ni i; | - r i ;i ii ss/
- r i ii| io i | | -n l-i | n i
(/s/sc/) | -n ii ; ; in ,i i i i r |
l- nii ni r l i ii i - |ni i ; i
| -l- i; n; | i i n i r
i i | i| -| i i /c/ - i i ii ii lii ii
l -l- i - lr i n ll-n i i n i
i r i| ~ i li ii l -il- -l i ni -n n
-l- i; n; i|| ; r i| ll- cos l|
-n | ln i lr llni -ni - -i r -
~ i li ni r l - -ii i- i - i -li i
i| -l- i l ni i ni ii| ; l r ri l r
nn i n i | - ii i i i |ln nrn
-n| i i li ii -r i ii - - -| ii -i r |
-i ii r; l,i i-i i r iii r| | i
4350
n| i| l ri n i ii lii ri ni| ri --
lii r l i i- - -ii i| -l- i;
i|| ; lnln -il- sss ; -- ; li ,
;i; i |li i ; li srs, i nl- s// i
l i- scz ii r n i i ; ii
r| r l i| -l- l - n| - -i| -ni i - -l-
; --ii ri ni r i- - il- -ii -l i ni
i; n; i|| n iii l lr - -ii - - i
l li i n -i - -i ri i i i i i ; ii r| ii
i l ; - i i - ii - li i| ii - n
ii - r| i-i ri i ii i n r ri ii| i l
;lnri nini r l i n | | i| ; n nn i| l
-l i ni + -l- i; |
4016. From Exhibit 19 (Suit-4) (Register 10, Page 21), we
find that the Babar though defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the battle
of Panipat in 1526 AD, but he himself noticed several local
Amins having declared themselves independent even before his
defeat of Ibrahim Lodi:
When I first arrived in Agra, there was a strong
mutual dislike and hostility between my people and the men
of the place.
The peasantry and soldiers of the country avoided
and fled from my men. Afterwards, everywhere, except only
in Delhi and Agra, the inhabitants fortified different posts,
while the governors of towns put their fortifications in a
posture of defence, and refused to submit or obey. the
nature of the situation he was confronted with, after his
victory at Panipat, is best described in his own words:
(a) 'Kasim Sambhali was in Sambhal;
(b) 'Nizam Khan in Bayana;
4351
(c) 'the Raja Hasan Khan Mewati himself in
Mewat: that infidel was the prime mover and agitator
in all these confusions and insurrections;
(d) 'Kanauj, with the whole country beyond
the Ganges, was entirely in the possession of
refractory Afghans, such as, Nasir Khan Lohani,
Ma'ruf Farmuli, and a number of other Amirs who
had been in a state of open rebellion for two years
before the death of Ibrahim.
'At the period I defeated that prince, they had
overrun, and were in possession of Kanauj and the
country in that quarter, and had advanced and
encamped two or three marches on this side of
Kanauj. They elected Bihar Khan (or, Bhadur Khan),
the son of Darya Khan, as their King, and gave him
the name of Sultan Mahmud. When I came to Agra
we could not find grain or provendor, either for
ourselves or for our horses. The villagers, out of
hostility for us, had taken to rebellion, thieving, and
robbery. The roads became impassable.
'I had not time, after the division of treasure, to
send proper persons to occupy and protect the
different parganas and stations.'
To make matters worse, the heat was abnormal that
year, and many of Babur's men dropped down dead. Not a
few of his Begs and best men began to lose heart, objected
to remaining in Hindustan, and even began to make
preparations for retreat. .... The final subjugation of the
Afghans had to be deferred in the face of a more
4352
formidable foe."
4017. However, Sri Hari Shankar Jain placed before the
following passage from page 22 of the book:
But Babur himself looked upon this only as holy
war against the infidel, with whom had joined some
Muslim apostates. This is indicated by his assumption of
the title of Ghazi after the victory: 'After this victory. I used
the epithet of Ghazi, in the Imperial titles.' this was
necessary to arouse his dispirited and home-sick followers.
Babur was a master of the art of persuasion, with a keen
eye for the dramatic.
4018. The Afgan Rabels were sought to be taken by Babar
in February, March 1528, but after persuing them upto Avadh,
he returned to Agra by 13
th
March 1528 as is evident from page
25 of the book as follows:
Afghan Rebels. On February 2, 1528. Babur set out
to punish the Afghan rebels who had advanced from Bihar
into Doab, stormed Shamsabad, and driven the Imperial
garrison out of Kanauj. At Babur's approach, the enemy
crossed the river Ganges and mustered on its left bank to
dispute, Babur's passage. The Emperor reached the great
river, on February 27, built a bridge across its broad
stream, by March 13, put the insurgents to headlong fight,
and hotly pursued them as far as Oudh. After this Babur
returned to Agra for the rainy season.
4019. Sri Jain placed before us the following extract from
page 32 and 33:
Babur was, with all his virtues, a Musalman
Emperor. When he had killed the Pagans (as he called the
4353
Hindus) he piled up a pyramid of their skulls, at least for
the delectation of his orthodox followers. He considers the
war against the Rajputs as jihad or 'holy war' and assumed
the title of Ghazi, after his victory at Khanua. He spoke of
the self-immolation of the Rajputs at Chanderi as 'going to
hell'. When he remitted the tamgha after his penitence and
vow to renounce wine, it was only Musalmans who were
exempted from it, and not the Hindus. After the fall of
Chanderi, as Ferishta tells us, he did not fail to rebuild
and repair the mosques in Chanderi, Sarangpur,
Rantambhor and Raisen, which had been partly destroyed
and otherwise injured by being converted into cattle-sheds,
by Medini Rai's orders. Babur himself stated on his
conquest of Chanderi, that he converted 'the mansion of
hostility' into 'a mansion of faith.' All these facts make it
difficult to accept the too liberal policy outlined in the
Bhopal MS. ascribed to Babur.
But to say this is not to allege the contrary. Babur
was beyond question a man of deep faith in God; but his
belief in Islam must have sat comparatively light on his
mind. He had abjured his orthodoxy and became a Shia to
win the support of the Shah of Persia to his cause. At the
same time, he had refused to persecute his quandom
orthodox co-religionists at the command of his newly
accepted suzerain. There is no evidence of his ever having
destroyed a Hindu temple or otherwise persecuted the
Hindus on account of their religion. On the other hand,
there is at least one reference to his equal recognition of
the Hindu and Turki Amirs who had enlisted in his service."
4354
4020. Exhibit 102 (Suit-4) (Register 16, pages 183-196)
contains photocopy of the title page, preface, index and pages
no. 259 to 281 of the History of India As Told By Its Own
Historians Vol. 2 by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson. Page 259
onwards is Chapter VIII of the book providing English
translation of Minhaju-S 'Siraj's Tabakat-I Nasiri' from the
earliest time upto 658 AH (AD 1529). Page 269-270 deals with
the Mahmud Ghazni's invasion of Somnath and also conversion
of a thousand of idol temples into mosque. It says that the idol
of Somnath was broken into four parts, one part he deposited in
the Jami' Masjid of Ghazni, one he placed at the entrance of the
royal palace, third he sent to Mecca and fourth to Medina.
4021. Exhibit 24 (Suit-5) (Register 22, page 415-511) is a
photocopy of the book "Sri Ram Janambhumi (Sachitra,
Pramanik Itihas" written by Dr. Radheyshyam Shukla
published in 1986 by Bal Krishna Goswami, Ayodhya. The
author of the book has given his qualification as M.A., Ph.D.
from Oudh Vishwavidyalaya, Faizabad. He is journalist and has
worked in some daily newspaper in 1970-85 as co-editor, editor
and free lance writer. It has been heavily relied by Sri
R.L.Verma, Counsel for plaintiffs (Suit-3), Sri Ravi Shankar
Prasad, Senior Advocate, counsel for plaintiffs (Suit-5) and Sri
P.N.Mishra, Advocate appearing for defendant no.20 (Suit-4).
From internal page 1 to 33 i.e. paper no.107C1/154/5-37, sought
to be relied by Sri Verma, we place hereat some extract thereof
to have an idea as to what the author has said to consider its
acceptability and reliability:
- i -i iln l ii ii i n -i i ii-n-
ini i- i - ri r i ii ;| ii| i i|n-
4355
ilrl- i n -rli i~-|l i i-ii r | -rli i~-|l
i ini |i- i i ii (-) l i l n i i n|
- r i ii r ii | iii| i| nii | lii
n- | r ; i|| n -i i i-ii l - | n|
- ini i- | ii ni i - l, i| ln i i | i ;
ri i i r| r n| i|| ;i -- ii i| ii| i li
ni r -ini r l |i- | s ii i ni n -
| |i l i l l ;i i| iili ii|
iii nii ni i| ini i- | i ri i
(; . . nin zsro sro |) r i | l n -i i-ii i
ii l,i ; . . soo ; . zoo | -in r | i li i|
-ini r l i i ; i | ; i || - n i
ri i i | ii ni l ri ii i ni i ; i r| |
ini , - (; .. s-| ini|) - lii n-
i r n i n i- l, ii| - i i i-
i i ; n ii r| r| | l ; i i i n i|
i i (;i i|) rn i | i n r| i i r , ;| ri
l | ;i i ; ni r| ni ln ;ni lln r l
-ril ili - i n i i i r| n i i-
ii| i i i- -rii - ri i n i i i i
i i| - ;-n -i li r | | ri i
(i | ini| ; . i -) ili l,i | ri i
i i n| i r| r| -ni| ; nr i n -
ii | ri ri i i i| |i- -i l- | ri |
--i i -iii r| r i i l i n i| |
ii i| r|| ,i| iin s -n- -rini -
i n i| i ir in l- r| i| i i -ni
i- i i n ri ni ni ;i -r- i- ni| i (; . .
i i| ini|) - ;i -r- l si| i i r ni|
i n i nii iiii - i| iil- n - ;|
ll, i| l i | i inili - ni r -in
i -r-r| ri ni|
4356
l -i l - ,i i i i | i i
i i | i -i - r li li i i ri
r l - i- l -il- | i i | ii |, ini
i- | -i l- nii n|i -ii i ni nii nii ri
-l ii| l -il- i i r ni r| r | ;lnri i
lni l -il- i- n - r| ri ini i l
;lnri - i i| li l -il- ri r | ;-
i|n- nin l -il- r| ini| ; .. r nii |n-
ir| ini| | i i i ni - ln li i i-
-il- i- n l,i lnril lii - iil- li|
lii r l ii i n -in r l r | - -
i | n| (ii) n| i l -il-
- n | | r|| | l -il- i- ;|
ii | i ri i-n i- li ii| ri iri i
i n i i ii nii ini i-, | iii |ni,
-i nii iln -ri| iiii ii
-- ln -ii sco -li i l-i i ii| -il- i s
i li li| l, il nii ;lnrii li-
nii |o i n| i| ;| ii i rii r | l| ; ri|
i nin ;lnri | i -| i i i- r| li| (
zzs)
i - | i - -l i l -i i
+ ~ i i i r l l -il- -n n ii ln
(i iii|) li i -l ii ii| - i li r l r| |i-
-il- i i- -l ii| ; -l i - i ii ;|
i ~i i | i n| r | -i nin r l i
-i -|i ii| i-ii -l i - - i i ii|
i -i ; -|i -n-ii - c i| i| i i - i
r | ; -n-ii i i - l,ii - -ni r | s l,i ;
| ir| ini| i -in r ni s l -il- i|| ;
i lii i i i ; - iii r| r | -i li ni
;i i i| l -il- (-n n) i i r| -ii ni| i
4357
l,i r r| -in i n r r l n ni - -l
l-i ii i| i i i - i|| n ni| l - li
i i i in r - l| i i r| ri i ni| i
; nr -|i -n -n-ii ii ni i ; i| n-i| - l nin
r| r | l r --i ii ilr l ; i- -l i
l-i ini n n - i- ii i i - - | n i i- ni
ii| l r| - i -n- - l ii ri ni|
r i i r l i -i -|i -n-i |i-
| -il- r| i r i - r| r| | |i-
-il- lii i nii - iin - i n inil- -i
| i li - ilin r ; r ni ni r l ir| ini|
i i ri | l-ni | ;l in |i- -il- i
r -ll- i -i -n-i n ooo i s
i - i| ; l,ii i r i| n r l ir| ini| lr
n|ii i li i -|i ni ii i ~ i n r
|i- -i l- i| l -|i ii i i ii i li
nin r | i ii ini li lii - r | -i r r
i ii nnln |i- l r| ii ri | -|i lii
r| -i nii i ni r l - n i i |
n|i - ll, r| ri ln ;i r i r| l ri
|i-- l ii r| r| | r -i n ii li - ri
-li | i | r | r in| ini| i i - ri ii ii
; ;ni ni -ilin ri r| ini r l ri ri - r i|
-l i , -|i | n|i | - i -i ;
;i r| li i ni|
-i l- l- r inil- -ii l-i i -
- n| -ni i ni ni r | ; ilr r l |i- -il-
i - - n| i l-i i r i| ri l-i i l -n n
ii ni -i r ii i ii - r l-i i |i ri ni ri
li - i (i| ir| ini|) - l-i i ii ni|
n|| i - n - i- i iii - i -|i|
-l i -n -l- ii i i - - -n - l -
4358
n|| ir| ini| - |i- -i l- -l i |ii ,i
l ii ;| i| -- ii| r| r ln r- in r l
- ln- nr i i i iii ii l
ii- ; -li i l-i i ii| r n -i r |i- -l i
|ii ,i | ii ri | ii |nii- ii ;lnri
- ~ i li r l |i- -il- l -il- i
-n li i r-i i -i nii ii| r -i |ii ,i
in r| nii ni ri ni| ( zss)
l i| inni;i r- ; . ooo nin -r-
n| n - - i| n ri n i | -r- - r-
i n i -i- nrr li ii| -
n - - n r-ii ii | n r i -i li ii
l i i - -ii i ri ii| r-i - r-- ni |
- (nin ; . s) r i| ni | i lrii -iiir i
ni | -in ri r-i li i ri l-in i- n|i
ilii -l i -n ii| ln |i- -il- i
-l i rii i ri| i i| i i
nini - l-- iii l i - r| l |i- -il- i
l| i ; iln r i i - r| li| - ni in-
n |i- -i l- i -l ii i -iii + i l i i
ri|
- n l ni r| | - r-- i lr| n ss (; .
rz/) - i i ii| i | i| (ii-i) - - lii
r l r r|i zs -i rz/ i i i () r i| i i
() -i-i i l-i l r s l ri i|
ii-i - ;i i ; ~ i r| r l i i - i ; - l
ni i -l- ii| r ~ i ri ni r l ;l i|
in ri l z rz/ i i| r| ni r | i|
l s ln- rzs i ri n| r ;| | - |i- -il- i
-l lni ri -l- i | n|| r ni r| ni l
i -l- l-i i i i ii - ii ii l~| i i -
ni ii| ii-i i l iir| -ni in
4359
- i i li r | r i ii ii- i lr-i
r i ii -, nni r i ss lr| n li i |
s i - - r | iir| -ni in r lr-i -in -
i i i| i r | ; i - lii r ; -i ri
n| , rni i|, i, i lii i i nii n|
lii i ir ~ r , s i lni i ni| | i
i i i li| ; ilr ri ni r l i i i
ii l~ ri s l li i| li|
; - |i- -il- i i i
-|i| ,ii i -l- i | | n| i|n nii ir i n
, li i ln r | i| ll - ln ; li i ;
l-i i ;lnri s ii ni r | i|n i li i ;
i r |
- i iir i | l
i ; -n ni in - i|||||
i ; -rn li
-| in lii -|i | ||z||
i i | ii i;
;i i | n n- i i|||s||
;i lr| i ; i ri ni
i iir | ini , l i | i iii n r n| r ;
r , l -|i| l-ni n l, r -ii ii r |
| i i | r | l i i||
i i| ; i ; -l- l-i i | lnli ssr
lr| (rzs ; .) i| l in| r |
-l- ir i ( i ,i +) li i | c
lni l| nr | i n| r i| -| ri n| r |
lr| ll - ; li i i i- ; i r
i- i l iir-n
l iil -i i- i-i|
- -ni i nii
l - i i ri|
4360
ii ri i
l i i n n| i-i|
; li i - -i ; (i i), rn - r-- nii i
| i i | n| r | r i - ri ni r - i nn i
l-ni (; ) - li lrn r | i - rn - r-- i
i i ri nii n-i i i ri ni r | n| i - i i
r | i i | n| r ln n| i lni (i
-| r ) li i i i r| lni|
i - n i i | ln-i r n n| i| ini
i- | -i l- iin| ili ii i i - i ii
-in -ii| - -ii i i r| i ; -l i
ni i -l- i | ini | ri n| i l lr n|i i|
- ;i li - -i |i |i | i i - i
ni ii| -ii| -i -|i n| r l | i - i
ili i i ; l i ii l r - l i ni i
ri -l- i | ; i - i ili | i| i|
|i- -il- l-lii | ii li -|- | | r |
; - - l r| i -n-i n r l i r -n-i
-l- - n r |
n li i nii | | ri| ;ni -- ri ni r
l | i - i ili i i - i iiir i
i -|i| i |i- -il- -l lni ri -l-
i i i i li l i i i i li i - l i
-n -l- i l-i i ii| ii- l li (z
rz/ s ln- rzs) ni r | li - i| -l
i lni -l- i i i- - r i ri ni| i l
r| i| ri| i | i| - lii ri ni ln i - i
r| l| ln lr- i li li ri ni i l i i
r li iin - - n ~nn l ril l, ri ni ii|
| | i -ni | lnril -ni i - ni - i l- |
ni-il l-iln nii |i |i | il-i i i ; ~ i r|
l-ni ln -ii| ln -i - i| ri| r n s lin r |
4361
i l - i i ii ii - -il- -ri--i
i-i | rn i | -l | i i r| l-- i|| -i -
i l- l, n - | iln i|| ii i
nii + | | iii - n i | lii - - -i
i| i | nii ini r l i il - i r
ni| | - i | iiir i| r| i ni| |i-
-il- | ln-i i i ; i i |i i i n r
-i - i i nii ri -l i -l- i | ri
i ni iin - ;-i- | ii ni - r| i n| l-ni i
i| - n iii l- i ni| ; |i i- l r| ri;
i iri ri ri ni ri ii i- iin| n|i i -i
ii - i -i i li ni l
l i| iii lr | nr - i n | ;
|i i li ii l l ri -l- i ni - -ii
i r lr i| | ii - i n n | i n
i i i i ni| l i ii ; |i
-ii| - -ii i l-i i i i | -ir|
i || | i| ln r l l, -i| i | i|
-il- -i irn i | - i ili i| l- -i l- -l -
i -i ni ii| l l| - l -i ir
li l ii li l r ; -l i -n i
si ni| i i| - ri r ~ i i - ri
li -ii | - ni -n -l i -n-i r | i i -
ln i| l lni -l ni i i - ii| i-i i - l--
|i i r| -in| r | - -i i| r| -in r l |i
- i r i li| ni|i i|i -|n
ili i- n i - i| |i i -|i| i ; i i
l-- i -rii ni r | ; | i i iiln li
;| i| ri| r i lli- - | n| r |
-i l - i i - ni l i i
ili i ni |i i i -n ni | ii ln
i-i | i lii | i-ni| | i n n| i||
4362
r ni i l - l-- i -l i i| i| -n n| r
i l iiir i i i i l- ni r ni ri - l | |
ln-i i - i li i si -| ln-i i -nii |
i l n | l -l ili nii ini ii rn
-l | ii i ~ li| iir| - -l ,i
r | ni ili i-ni i li| i-i i i i-i n n i
li i- li| |i- -il- | i i- r|i ir|i n -
n|| - ln i i | -i| i| i n| l ri r
i ; ln-i r| l-|| ir l ni i | -i ri -l
i -| i li| -l i lni | i in | nr
ii ;ii - n|| ii | -n| n| l
-n ln lr i i r i l l i| | i - i n
ri i- | | | iiir ln l r | -i
i -l i -n lii - ii lsr-n ri
lr -i n | r i lniiln i ri n| r ln i r|
r l -|i| ll i i i i - li ri | ii| i
ii i r| r iir| ii i i i - ri ni
ri ni| l| i i r i r| r l iiir lr i
i i nii i i| ; -i | | -l- i
l || r r -i i li r l lr - i i r|
-l | nr -l- r| i li ri ni l n-i| iii
| ri| i i i ; i iii r| r l i-ili ii
li i |
-rni l r i l i -i nin rili i
l - -|i| -l i -n i | - i| -|
lin ii -rni l r ( ii l nn n i i o
l-|o lii) |ii ii- | n|i ii - - i i r |
r ; i lin i | i l-| ni ri n|i ii i
lii si i i |i- -il- | ii lii - - n |
ri il-i ri l |ii- r| -n ii- ii
| n i| | r | ri lni ~| ri i il-i i
-i i i -i l- | ii l - - l iir| i n
4363
i|| nii ini r l ii -rni l r -nr li n ii
n i- li| ; i- n - ri | i - n | ir ln ||
in i l iir| i i - ii ii r| r l i| -
ii rn ri - l i ii r| n || ( szss)
- l n l r i | i i
( rzs s/ ; . n)
ii -rni l r |i- -i l- -l | ii ni r|
l li -| in n-i- iin| |i i i
-i| |l-n iln, si -| nin ri i | nini iir|
i -in r i -i i ii-n- iii | | |
iiir ln n r | -rni l r i i -i i ii |l-n
iii - |i- -i l- | - ln l n| ii r | i
i ni - n nini n n ii ri n r| r
n l iin|i i -l- i ni - i i lii r|
l- ni| | iilnl iil- |ln ii ni - r
l lii- - ri n| nii iirri - iiln r| | ln
- - i| i n iir iir n r| l-iln n||
n i r| i i ii ri lr i i- n i | ln- i |
i n i ii i - ss - r i| i -
-nni iln - n r - i iii i li | li i
ri r |
- ni
| | i i ri i| -l- r| i; i| l o
|| i ii ili i ii i -i l-
- - | ln || i i i l-|o l-in n i-
i li| ni in r | ilrn i | ri ii
lini il |i i nl-n li i iir| i i
r-i li| ln || ii- r| r| i- i| ln
i | il-- ri i ni -|i| i i ni| l
l - , r i| i l n , i s- l -|i|
ni ,ii | n| ; - ln | l - n| ri li
i n | i ii i -ir ni i n |
4364
ri r| i - ; - i i ni i li i n
li i ii i ni |i -|i| ri r-i
li i rii| i ii| -|i| i i ri - ls ni
i - || ni | i || ; ni |
iiin -il- | in| li ri i i ~ i
r i| i i ln- -i l~rlii- (i i
-in i ii l-) r i| |i- -il- i-
nln ;lnri i ln i-ni i i ii
i ln || i r r-i s rzs i r i ii i
i li s rzs i l i r i| ; i
n i n i- ; | i i - i| -i r |
i i i i l l r i r-i ln || | - - -i
i nir i r (r lin i| ii i - l-in r)
ii il l r ii| i -i l- lii l
r-i li| l | - -i - ; ii i| i| li
ii ; l in| i n | -n l -ii
li|
l -i i | | s r| r| - | i| - i ni |
iilii i--r-i i i-ni (i r) in| r| r l i i |
iilii ln | ir ln i i l - i ri
rii - -ii i | | in - r| i | in -
i r li|
n r i il l r | -n ii i |
-| i| i -i| ln ~ i i i |i
-ii| ; |ii n| ri l-i i nl-n i| i
i| i iir| i ii sii-i , i li| i
-i| i r-i nini r -i - n i| ri| nii ini r
l r -i - - ; i| i ni iir| i i i
-il- i li ln ii r| - - ; iir| - i
n| i ii n r ; ; |i ni i| n i
ln | niii - l-i i ~ i li|
; , - i| n i| -i-| -r i | i|
4365
iil- r | | lii ii n r ri i| iir| i i
ii| iln r i |nln in ||
i i i i ri r-i -ri | - - ;
ii ili - i| ii i -i| -ri i -i-|
i-ii| , i in ii ri ii ili
i li l~ ni ni i - lr i | -n i
n i || ;ri ; r- l | -i i ;ri | |
i r-i li| ; i -il- lii - r
ln | ni -ii; r| ri in| i|| | iir| - i
i r iini ni| l i| i-ii| ii i
- | ni ni | i| l |i- -il- l iii-n
l - |i | -i | - n ii i n n li|
-l - i n - -l r -i-| i-ii| ii i
lii- ii l n-i| - n iiir i -l- i ni -
-l -|i i i| nii ini r l -i-| i-ii| r|
li -l- i ni - ni i i
lii li l i | -l- -i i n| l- + i
-l ii ni| i-ii| i r lii li -
| iil- ini iiii i i| -i ii -i -
nii | ri n i| i- li| | -i i| si -i
i -l r l- i i- ri ni r |
i i | i i | - lr i - -i i i
; i - -i i i n | - -i i i i
( -i) i i|n i -i i n i lr ir| n l-
ii- i n i i - il -in i | ; - r
-l- i| -l- i i-i -l- i -l- --ii i|
rin| i||
i i l n ni i i i i i rzs - -l | nr -l-
l-i i n | i |i i| r ; i| -
(rrccor -) r r n s r n| i iirri - n
(cz/crs ; .) ii i iiln i inii i ri| | cs/o
i | ; li - -i l- l l| ii i ni r| ni|
4366
lr ,i ; i l- in i i ii- n i | - -i
ln - i -i in i l lr i -l | i
ni r r| in i | nl - l-- |i i r in i-n|
i| l ii i i li i i| i ; - -i |
lr--n r| in i | ln iirri i i n - n
l ri -i ni i-i i |i l | i | i
|| l |i l i i -l ni n l -
li l i n i i-i ini n i - ln|
i||
i n i i l i i l s i
iin| (lr ) -iin lri ri n r | si - n i
n - i | -l- - i| i- i li-i -in i | - l--
-i i| r i ; l r| i|| l ;-i-| - - ii i
-l- i ni - i -i, ilili , i i nii |n | n nl
r| rin| i|| i n i - - ;-i-| ii - nli
nn i| r i ni ; - -lii l~| i - r
iiir li || nii ini r l i n ii i i l
lr -l- - i ; iil- - | lrii
i i ii i i ii i i i i| l ri i| in|
lr lini il n i | - -i n i-i
li ii i i ii lr~iii- -ii l-in i i--
- i -i i | ii rii l--iii| ii i i -ii ii|
ii i i ii n nin| i- ii i i i|
n i ii ii| ii | ;lnri i lr i i nii
ii ii l--iii| ii i | i i i ii
| i i - ii li i -i inii|
nii ini r l ; i ii i n i i ii
i r-i li i | nr r | i l n li|
r | r n | i ni iii ii i i
l ii r i| i i i ;| i l-| ni ri
li n nil l r i li i i ii| nil l r
i ri r | r - i l lr i n|
4367
iin l n i iir| i i - ii n| -iii i|
( iiii | |-i ), inn ( ii n i l-|
ii) nii ii (i i | n -i i | i) i
l li| inn - lii i -ni i ni i ls ni|
(nii ini r ; i si -i i ni iii i| ii) ili i
-ni i | - i -i| i i i l--iii| lni r ii
i ni | n - - - - ni| iir| i ri ri i |
- r i| n n - n l in il -ii- iin l |
iir| i inn r | ni lii iii i li| |s
ili i| r-i li| ; r r- - iir| i nrr
ri n| i r | ii i| -ii ni| n ni l l r
ii - ii l r -ii- -r i ri i| n i i|
ii i |
|i- -i l- lr i i i - i-- i
r i ni ii| - iii ii nii n r-ii | l-iln -
-ii| - - i| - -i s r| in i l iiir
i in rn i | nn cc - i n - | i
ii i i ii i -il- r-i i li| ; r- -
lr i r| l- | n-i| i| ln-i iin i
r | i n | i n i -l i i ii
i n i ii n i li| r lii|i i- li n
n| r|| i n i i i i li -li i lni
ri -l- i- || -il- ni | i i i
i| lii lr i i r| r ni|
nii ini r l ii ii | ii ri
l--iii| ii ri n i | i n | iii - nini iir|
i | i - - l r l n - ;i i r i ni r|
ni|
i | i
i n i l~| ~nn -i ri n| | n|| i
- i| -ii| lin -n ri n| i|| l~| iiir
- r--iir l-n i in ii - r-- -| ri - ~
4368
i (ln- /zz) i i i i i i| i| i
l i r-i li| - -| ( ~ni l | lin)
ii n -n l r i i - ii li| ; , - i
l| ri lr n- lsli ri ni|
l r i i i i i l l i i l -i
- -| ii n -n l r nii li ii i -i l r
in| ii - - i| |i- -i l- lii l
i i| ii| in| ii i| || - r-i li n i |
; il i |i- -il- lr i i r |
nr i i- i lii li| ;i ~ i n l-i - ii
r | r- lii r l lr i r- + i
-l- - lr i i i| ii- | ;in | n i
s nni iin r i|
in|ii i i i-i - |ii
n i i i (/ss ; .) i| - - i i -
iiln | r|| n i i -i i i i i i
i r i (c n /r)| n -| i nii
i i i -| i i i i iil- ln i | i -
l| nr i i- il -- r| i i r i| i i i
ii l- r- n | | i| li i-
ii ii ni| (; - ii i - i r )| ;
r| i iil - i ii li ii ni|
i i i i - i i i (//r ; .) - |
iii| ii r-i ri zo l-|. l- i+ -
ii| i ii i i| l- n i i - | i ri n
l-i| l- n i lr - l-- ii | -iii - i n
i ni li| l- n i -i r| n -i r -in | | i||
i l i ri n li ii| ;| i - -i l-
-l- i ni - r ni l i l i n i i li ii|
ii i - i- il ii | nr i ri ln i
| | r iii (sz/s/ ; .) - |i- -i l- i
| ilii r ; | -r| ni i n - - lr i
4369
| i| n| i -i l- r-i i i| ln- i -l-
i - i| ri n ln -i n| li i iir| i
l -l- s| ||
i l | i i r - l r - l -- i i
i il|iir iii - ( srr; .) n i- r
i- | | ni i li| l-i r l n i-
r ir r -in| n i | r -i | i- n r|
ii n i | l| in i i -rin li ri ni
; | - -ii i r r i ii i li
l r -in | i|n i n i -l- i; i| ilni
lni li r | - -i ri - i n i nl-n ri
r -in| r-i i li l r -in | ii i| nl-n
i | | -i in - -i iin | ii i i |si
li i -i l- -l- - ls n | ii i -l- i
i- ni ii| i i i - ii r i| ; ii -
ii nii /r - -i -i n |
i i n-i| i ni l-i - |- n nni l-i
| r n i lii | l ii-i r | ii i i
i ni il r i| ii i r| nr li|
i l | | l i ni i i - r ; ; -i|- | li
- -ii | i i il|iir i- | n|
ri ni l lr i -l- i ii ri li r ;l r
-l- - i i li i nii n i r-i li
i| r i| -l- r - -ln i r| ri | ilr | iiir
ili ir -il i - -ii | ii-n
i li li
r- ; r -r r| il|
n ii r i ni i niii r i ni i||
(r- ni - i| r , -r i r r- r| in , ir -l ri
ir -l-, - l i i - i ; r| r)|
ri | i i i i i ; lnril | n l - n
- i ii r ; | ln - - i| - -i ; i
4370
ii r | - -| -|-i | -|| i- - -i ii -
i - i- , ( ri) i l li| i- ii
i- - -ii i lii ii nii |i- -il-
lr i i ni i i -l -n l li|
i | i - -ii i i i ni l r| -i | i
ii l - -i r| -i r r ni -|| i i l
i| | l - | i || ;i lr iii i|
ri i - ii | n i| || i| i i ir| i
-|| | i ii i | i i - ii r i| lr
i i| r n| i|| ; , - -|| -ii ni| lr i |
i i|-| i -i -n l r i| ; lii - iil- r |
; i-i i li -|n i li i- n i - i| ii r |
; i -i | -| | -i | -i /o il-i
i ri l ii r | z/ z/z lr| n
ii -il r i| ri i i- i - -i i|
lri| ( ri - iil-) r | n| i ri | - n ri n| i
i ir| i n n r ir| r |
n -n-n riin ii i| ; i-i i li li r |
;- -|| i i - -| (i+) i li| nii ni r |
i ri l-i - |- n ;-il ,ii i
i i iri ln r r| -ii| ili|i srr - -n
n i| | l- |i, i- nii lii (ii |) - -i
ni ii i -i li rii -ii| r i n | | |
- iliil i i+ i - li l -|| i
ii| in ili i i i i| i iir| -i i|
r i i, n r r| -i ni n - iir| i i
n i | i i | n|| ii i ri l r ni~ i l-
ni i | i| i n|| ii i ri l r | i -||
ilii i ii li|
l l -i i i i
sr/ i- -n ni n i- i i i l l-i ii
i - i ni| nl ; i - -i l- i ; li r| ii,
4371
- -i r i i i | -i i n i nii lr n
-l - ii-, l i i i|ni|n ;
i lii - n rn i l i ri l~ ii ,
;l ls- - ii ri n rn i | ; . sr/ i i i ri l
lr i - -i i ii l-i n i l, , - n
i | i- il ,i | ii;i - r| i| | - r -iiil ii
l - -ii | i -il- i -l- - n i i lr i i
i l i i -ni ini| - l-- ni -||
ii ii i| - -ii i r -nii l
r-i - i- ri iir i i - i- -i l nr ,
r r r- i| in i s i ilr l
i -n| i - n ri | ; l | r l |i- | |
--i| lr i i i | i| inii i ri i ii i|
- -ii - -i li| l n i i r ni
i ni ii n | r| irn i l lr i - -i i -n
i| ; - i i - n i l, ii ii -
ii i-ii - i i | i--il- r-nini | -i i l- n i
- | i| -r- i il-i ni| in| r | n i i
-|| nii ii i-ii i in| iilin li nii
s -i srs i -|i ;-| - -| | nii
ii i-ii i i i i | | n|| -ii| ni r n li
n ; ;-| | i n| r|| n i r ,i i|
ni ; ;-| i i| -i li|
i | l -i l i i r-ni -i l- i i| -l-
li | ii| l l-i -rii| l-ili i r ; ni ;
-l- i ii i - nii i i n |
ii i| | i i i li l i n | - ; ii
|i i| | i - -i -i , lr ir n
i i i- | l l-i liili ii i i li
i -l- i n - | i- l- + | |i i | |
n| l- || - i r | ili ni | n| nii i r r|
i i ni n | r |i i i| ;| nr i r |
4372
n | i - ri ni n | i - |i--il- i
i i ni r i ri sz - i ss - | sz n -
i lr i - -ii | i n|| ; n |s ii
- -ii ,ii ni | i| ni| in| r | ni |
i i ii| | -i ri i-ni - -i i| n
r ; -l- |i--i l- - -i l - -ii i
ii li i -ln | n| i| i i l- in| i|| nii
ini r l ; n i i l-i r| ii n-i| -rin
i -n-i | l~| n i ii i i i i | ri
| l-iln i i i i | i i| l -i
i|n i r-i li i ni r-i | nr i| ni ||
n | i - i ni n i iii - i ni
ss - r i| r i| i| i r i| r ni li
i ii| ; n - -ii| i| r n i n ii - |ln
r | s i| i n r l| ; n - l il-i i|| -i
li i i z -i ss l - ni i i r i ni
i i| l ni i i i lii| - l-in ni
iirri - i| r ; r | i l-n r| r -in| s ii
ri r | ni - -ii i - ii li| r i in
| nr i i - n|| in| i -ii- i ii n- ri
ni| nr-| (i-i - lii - r~i) ii i-i
i- ri ii | | r-i || nii ini
r | i iir i l| -i i| i| | r n - i i ii
i iln r || ilni nii n r-ii i -i l- i|
-l- ii i n -i i ii lni li| r-
- -l i|n n| - -i -i n | ; ll-iln - - l--
- i | liin ii i| i | - |
ii i | n|| n - in li ni| i i n
ln ni l n | ln ni l n i ni - ln ii li i |
ii li| ii -i r - i ; | -in ||
- -i lii s - n | ln ni l n
i ni - - i i -rin i i (i -ii) ii lii- i
4373
(ini i) -rin i-lii i (--ii) -rin i--r i,
ii - ni ri, ii i i, ii - i i (i|
r -in|) nii n-| | | si| lii||
n l- o|o ~ i i ; n ii
i-- ( ll- - ) nii| l i| ri |
i r ; | ; -l- | ---n | n| nii n -i
i l -i i ii ni| -l- i|n -i ln li i
- ; ---n i l r, l nr ii - i ii ii|
li i ; i r z/ -i ss - nil lr
srz lr| i i lr i; -l- ir| |
ni -i n | li nr ii - i lrin i | ii
ni-| ii| ( ssr)
4022. Most of the contents of the said book are
unauthenticated. The credentials of the author are not known.
On page 436 and 437, there are footnote no.1 respectively on
each and the same reads as under:
. i nl - -i i i- ii l r -r- n| i
- r-- ni| | nr inni; r| ii| r i- i| ii l i-i i
r| | r iin - i i- i -iiln ii ii ri
r| | | i- i -iii | i - r i| ni l,i |i
| i in | i lii ni ii| | ; -i | i
ii r| | i - i ili nii iiir -ii|
ii r lr i- i in ri ln , i i ii r| ii|
;i i -ii r r l ii - nii -ii
ii | -i-| i | i i i i |ii -| | i|
| i|| r -ii i| i| r i ; i i| i
-ni i| r | nii ini r l | i l,i n| i i i
ri ii ii ni r i ii i| ni ii| ; il- | iln
i r| nii -- | -iii r ; | i i| ri l-in
ii i r i|n- i -- r l -rin ; - -i-|
iiiii | r
l,i i i i ii|i in
4374
r| r i i i| ni ii ni | l,i; |
ii -i |i- -il- -l ni - i
li|( sc)
. -i l i- n | | li c i; sz
- i -i i -i-| - l i i i si ii
l- ri iir| -i | ln i i n li ii|
i iir| - r n r -i r i inini | si|
i i - n i| iir| inini ii l-i ii| r -i
iiir i | i i| li ni ii i |i- -i l-
-i - ii| r -i r| r i r| ;| i ; ii|
r| r | ln i | ilin -ni - si i i ;
i r iir iir lr -il ri iiir i r - rn
iiir -| - nil i i - i- | -i l- i l--i
| nr | -i -l- ni-| | ;in
| n| r l ; r -i- n -i ni ;l-ni inir
li ini r l lr -ni l| i| n i ; lr i i
i i l r ri ri l r ii irni r ,
i ln ni ili iini li i| r - | n|
ni-| ri -n| ( s/)
4023. The correctness of the facts stated in the two
footnotes could not be supported or authenticated by any of the
learned counsels and in respect to the footnote on page 437, in
fact no counsel on behalf of Hindu parties claimed that any such
Farman ever existed. The author of the book has not been shown
to be a known historian or expert on the subject. The preface of
the book i.e. paper no.107C1/154-3 (Register 22, page 419)
shows that the book was written in hurry meaning thereby the
author had no occasion to make any in-depth research on the
subject. There is no mention that the author had earlier or at any
point of time ever made research on the subject. He has also
mentioned in preface:
4375
l i| n l lni nii -ii i rii i i r |
This is self speaking. In our view, no credence can be laid
to the above document and this book loses trustworthiness for
lack of supporting reference and material.
4024. Reliance has been placed on "Sri Ram
Janambhumi Ka Rakt Ranjit Itihas" written by Late Pt. Sri
Ramgopal Pandey "Sharad", published by Pt. Dwarika Prasad
Shivgovind, Ayodhya (1987). Photocopy of the frontispiece and
pages 14, 15, 31, 33, 34, 95 and 96 of the said book have been
filed as Exhibit 128 (Suit-4), Register Vol. 19, pages 33-40. The
relevant part from pages 20 to 34 referred to by Sri R.L. Verma,
Advocate says:
; -i - -i l - i- | ii i|i i n
nio c i; sz - ilin r i ii| ; i
i i |-i-| - l i| -i-| |- l i
iln in ln r | lr| i i ni lln r |
|-i-|| ; i l ii - i -i iin| - ln -
i i -ri- n ;lnrini | - i| i ii| i|
li| -n - | ii ii n- i ln lr| i -
i n iln in | r | ii l~| - l| i inini
| si| - i| - n i| i| inini ii i|
ll - |ii ,ii ilin iir| - r n i i iir|
-i in r i ii| i i i - l-in |i- -i l- -
lni -l i -i - iir| liili i i|
li ni ii| i n | - -i l - c i; sz
; o - iiiir| ilin ri i i ii
sii ii l - |i- | i i i|i li
r i | r- -i i l lr| i | r r |
| i - -i l -
|i--il- i lni -ii i| -l l-i i
l ini i l i i i ii
4376
l, ni- | - -i | i - i ilii
ir l i i i - l- n|i i -i i - i iri
ii|
i i r i i r l r i l ri i i i r i r - |
rn i iir r - - l i i - i- |
-il- i l--i | nr | -i -l
ni-| | ;in | n; r | l ; r -i- n -i
ni ;l-ni inir li ini r l lr -ni l| i| n
i ; lr i i i i l i r ri ri
l r ii irni r i ln ni ili li li
i| r - | n| ni-| ri -n |
(iir| - r)
; r ni nni r l - | i i| r
-nn| i| l i- i -i l- i ni nr -l i |
i ii i- r| r | ;i ii i lr -ni ni|
i ; r ; lr iln i n i; i| ri in|| l ni
-i l~| i l ri ri ini i i|
i-ni i - l- in||
; -i l i i lii- r i| iin lr
-il- ,i l s i r|, ;i r-i i i ;
-ii r| r | ln li- | i+ n l- - ilin
li - r nin| r l , n r ii i r-n ri lr
-i i , | iii i n ni n i | -|
i | ii ni ,ii -il- i -l lnii| r li - l i-
l iii | r ;i i| r-i i i ; -ii r| r | l
| r li - - - lr i -i i | r | ;| i-
r i n r l --n iin| ni ; i , i| i
| --n ilni -i l- | ii l n ~
i|| r l-~- ni ii | n l- - ri n lini r l
iiir lr i i i nii i iri| ; -i |
| -l i l | i||
i ii- - lini r
4377
rn i - i ilii ir | ;in
-i l- -l i l--i - | -i |
nr r -l ni-| ||
ii-i - /s
-l i i| lr iin r| - ,
i i--i l- i in l n ~ r | r -i
- - i i i l-in i lli, i i i-
n i- i| ili - i ii ii i ri |
i - ln ri ri -i l- iii i li|
-iii i| iir| sili i- i|, n- l i -l
i ni ,i ni i i li ln n| r| l iir|
- i n; i i| , n r -i n ni i - in
ni | n; ln i ; i| iin r| r |
i i - ri l nl-n -i l- r-i li|
iir| i iii i|| | i -ii- r ; | r -ii
l~| r i ni ii | i -i - i r n
-nii| lr i | i -i iir| i i ii
ni -l i- i li ii, | ini
-iiln | ini || |i | - lii r
-i l- i i l lr i zo r- l | |
lr lii | l li-| ri ;l iiriir lr iir
i | ii | i -i - | i i
i| -l i- ni i si -i i i- -l
ni-| | ;in i |, i r r - li l i ; i|
i ii- - l| nr | i -i |
(|i | )
; |ln s li l r nni iin ri ni|
n l-in ini | -ln i i- r n li n
iinln ni ri| | -i ini ii - -i
i| i -i il i i i- - i ; li r| n i |
r| - iirri - n ri| ri n| i iirri i| ;
-i - lr i i i ; lii r| li| co - l~|
4378
l ri lr i- , i| i n -i n -il- ;lnri
- - ilni| i i i-i r i|
i n i i -i
il ri -n r| r i n i i ii
| i ni| i ii ni r l i ii ri ni r r|
- i| lii| n ri in r | ri - - lr
iln ln ri iln i ii | lini i| ri i n
- - lr i- , lii i i~ ri ni, l ri -n r|
- ~ii i n i i i l i i i- -il-
| i lii i n lrii ii ii | ini
- -n i i || r i i i i r || ili i
r r| r -i - ri ni ii n ri ini | - ln
i i i-i lsi li nii ini in rini - i - i - -l
i -i ri | i lr i i | i in r| in lr i
i -n -l | iii |i- -il- i -i,
li i i - lr~iii- i i- -- - l-in ii i-
-ri--i li n i lii in -i n |i-i |
-rii li i i r| | ini i - i -n| iin -
lr - ln i lil- i i i ,i l i -
r i | ; ii ri |--iii| ii i i -n
lni r ii| lni r ii i, i n iii, i |, , lni
il i| ii - l i i, -i l- i n | i -i i
-ii ; ii i i l-i ni r ii i | -n i
lr i l- n; i ; -n |
- n i i - i-i li| in l n nini ii n i-
ri ii i |--i | -i iir| i i n i r
- i si iin i| r ; |
- n i i iln ini in r ii i i
ii+ ni - ls ni| lr i i lni r i| ri nri
ni ri ni i n l-in -l | ii ri n; | ;
i i -ii i n i r i ni r -n ,
r i i i i ii i n -ii r
4379
| i lrii i i ri i -il- i nr
r i l i i|
-n ii i i i| iii r| ii| ; lni r s
il-i i ii n nil l r i i i| n
nil l r i|-i lii | -n i
li in | i - n i | r | i i r i | ii
ii i l- n i r - i i -ii| ii
i - z - n i | -i r r i | r ni i
l r| | ini - i ri - n i i i| | nr
ii | i n| | i r| i ii ni iii i| r
ni li i ii i | i n| l |
lii i si - ni ii ii ii n -i irinn
i i ni - ls ni| i n r-i ili i ii l
i | - - iir| i i i-i li| i ii i
|--iii| lni r ii n ni - ls - n i |
lnii ni|
iir| i i ri - ii i| - ili r i l-
iiii i; i lln i - i r- n i
i lii i l- n | - n i -ni lr
iln ri iin n , n r lln ri in || r|
r irinn i r | r| lii i i i ii | nr
- - i| |s lr i i| iii i li| lii
in lr iir| ni ii r| lii li|
; i r| -i - n i ii -| i ir si iin
l|| i r| i| ; , - -i n | ; i i
i n i i l nini i n -i l-
i -i i i- n r| li|
i i n nini i -i ri ii lr iii
i | ; ii -i cc - i n |-il-
i -i li| r -ii i lr i - ii li ln
iir| i i- | | ili - -l-i
ini | ln-i lsi | n; | ; i i -i - ri
4380
lr i i i r i| -i n lr i | ii -l | ,i
l-in i i i i- i ii - i | n; i
ii i rili| -i i li ni| i i| r
n ir|i i- -l ,i l-in r l
- -i | -l-n nin r |
i - l n i n l i i n i -
iir| i -i l- i ni ii ii| r n li n r
ni n - ri l-in ii| lr ni |i- i -|
l iln ii | n - in i li n| i||
i+ | i| i r i i i+ | i| | -
i rin| ii nni| r i ni i l lr i
-il- i -i li ln ; i i| ii r ni
r| l-||
i il | r - - l lr i i -n
i -i r i| ; i lr nl-n i | | i - i| i
i i-i r i| i- l lr i | iln i|i ri n|| -il-
- i - lr i - -ii | iii i ni r i ii| iir|
i l li i - - n r i | ; ii n i- -
i|-| r, -r|, i r-, li, - -| ii n -n l r il
i| l--ln i | iir| i ;r si n| r ; r -in| n i; |
r -in| n i ii i | |--iii| -in lr i i
l-|| ; -in - ii| ii i ii -r
n i| i | | i - ii n i- r i| ; , - iir| i
li n i n n| r ; lr i i -il-
lii li|
ln r lii li li n r| ri| -n iir|
i i l ; rii -il- s| ||
i il| iir - - lr i -il-
,iii i -i li| | i i -i - i i i
iii i si i| lr ii l--ln i | ii n l- -
l i- lini r l ; i iir| i i i| n-iii i
n|| lr i - -ii i r s - | n; l i
4381
- l- | r n i- i ii ii l i i iln ir
r | i l in l n ri i i , - | nr - -i
iln r | , lr i | i| -i i ni
i i -li i l--i n|| ri n
l - ln i n i li r| si i| ri l-i i i i
i ; ril r| r i; | i| i i - - ni, - -i
ii si | i iin l | ;lnri i li-
lini r l r i i i i lr - l- i ii|
- -ii | ; i | ii i iir| i l-
lin n i | l-iln i i - li| i ir - i
| iiiii | n; | - i i -rii -il r i
il|iir r ni l lr i i i |
ini li; i n n| |- + | i | -l- -i i
si -i i -l i l- ini | -iii | n; |
n | , i - -i l - r-i |
n | i - i i -i l- i -i lr i ,ii r |
ri i -i sz - i i i -i ss - r i| r
i -i - ni i| -l i ril r| r | ln i -i -
i| -l ni i i | n; ln ii
l-| l- o |o l~ -l i ||
i| -l - nr lii r
z/ -i ss - nil | lri srz lr|
i i lr i; -l ir| | n -i
n li nr ii - i lrin i | ii ni-| li|
(i| -l )
- -i i ,i i | i - - i l - ,i i -
s i -ni l - ri iir i - i-
ii lin l ir i ii li ni ni i i lr , ii
|i l r ni i i nii in| i-ii | ini - nl-n
ri n| - in| - -ii ni -|| i i i
ii --n - -ii i ;- -i ri l lii n
n-i ini i i - r-i lr ii;i l n i
4382
ri | lii; r ; r- i r| n ` - i- ri iir
i i iiir -i r-i lr ii; i i ri r r ,
;l ;ir| r- - ni r l lr i i i |i-
| | i;i| nr i i| | r r r- ;r i i|
i l lr - l- i;-ni| | | r| r i
r- ; l nr i i n |
ri r| ri ni l -|| ; -ni i i - -ii
- -i li| ln n i i r in - r| i||
irn i l -l | r l lr i - -ii l
i - l- i , i l i| -l lr i i
- -ii ,ii i l i | i | i|| n i - i
iir- ; | ;i -ii r- ~ni nl- - ilin
- sc -il- | li - i i n n r |
i i | i| -l i - -ii ,ii lr i i
i l i | i r- i ni - iir- n; | i
li ri ni l lr -ni n in- ri i n | l
si r i l n i i - ni i -|| nii i;
ii i-i i i | -i li ni l i ii
i;i | - - - n; i n-i- ii l r-ii i
nil ri ni| i l ni i i ii |i l r r r| i ri
i ii| ; i- - ii -il r - ri i i r-i| | -
||
ri r| ri ni l -| | i r - - n i |
-|ln ii l ri ni i s -i srs i -|i
l-in ;-| ii i-ii i -|| i i i
i | -i li ni| r n li n ni ; ;-|
i i i ini i i | | n; i|| sn in| r||
n i ni | ;n| -n ,i iini ln
i| ni ln- --i ;-| i i i| -i ii|
; i - -ii ,ii |-i l- ,i li ni - n i |
-|ln i ri ni|
-i l- ,i l i ii i n
4383
lsr-n r l| | -, | | i r| r |
. i - -
z. r -i - - o
s. - - zo
. i n - - so
r. i irin| - - r
c. il | r - - s
/. il| - - z
s. n i - - z
i n /c
ln- ii , l- iir| i i| n-iii in|
i| i lr - -i i - i r i r
src - r i ii, l- ril - -ii | r ; i||
4025. We do not find any reference for the supporting
material of the said book. On page 33, however, reference has
been made to Cunningham's report but the facts which are
alleged to have been written by Cunningham do not find
mention in the work of Cunningham which we have already
referred in some detail. The alleged Farman of Babar, which is
mentioned by the author in support of his work that the Babar
issued order for desecration of the birth place of Lord Rama, has
not been shown to exist anywhere. Despite our query, the
learned counsel could not place his hand even to suggest about
the very existence of any such Farman. Again the quote from
page 173 of Babarnama is also perverse as no such fact is
mention anywhere in the Babarnama written by various writers
and the learned counsel Sri Verma could not support the said
work.
4026. Ex facie, we are clearly of the view that whatever
have been written in his work mostly is imaginary and the
4384
creation of the author himself instead of having any factual
authenticity. We, therefore, find it difficult to belief on the said
narration in the absence of any supporting and corroborating
material particularly when it is not shown by Sri R.L. Verma
that author of the said booklet was a historian or in any case an
expert in the subject having special skill and resources to collect
such historical facts.
4027. Exhibit 114 (Suit-5) (Register 23, Page 535-577) is
a copy of article/paper by Dr.S.P.Gupta, Director, Allahabad
Museum being Presidential address in XXIII Annual Conference
of the India Archaeological Society held on 22
nd
December,
1989 at Guntur (State of Andhra Pradesh). The subject of the
paper is "Ram Janmabhumi Controversy : Passion Apart
What History And Archaeology Have To Say On This Issue".
The paper only shows the personal opinion of the author. The
aforesaid author has appeared as witness O.P.W. 3 on behalf of
plaintiffs (Suit-5). We find no reason to take into account the
aforesaid opinion when he himself has appeared before us and
has deposed as an expert witness (Archeologist).
4028. Exhibit 115 (Suit-5) (Register 23, Page 579-587) is
another article by Dr. S.P.Gupta, Former Director, Allahabad
Museum, Allahabad on the subject "Ram Janambhoomi-Babri
Masjid Revisited". This document also does not require any
further comments and we do not find any reason to consider it
since it is at the best an opinion of an expert and when the
expert himself has deposed his statement, it is better to consider
that statement instead of his ex parte opinion.
4029. Exhibit 132 (Suit-5) (Register 23, Page 593-603) is
a photocopy of the frontispiece, Foreword and two photographs
4385
at page 601 and 603 of "Catalogue of Historical Documents in
Kapad Dwara, Jaipur" by G.N.Bahura and C.Singh. Item 179
paper no.107 C1/195 has been relied on by Sri P.N.Mishra and
Sri H.S.Jain. It reads:
"Map of Ayodhya, painted on white cotton fabric:
early 18
th
Century: size: 213x178 cm.
The map was acquied through a Swami of Ayodhya at
a price of Rs.5/-. This kind of maps were made for pilgrims
and were presented to kings and nobles by saints.
Important religious places are depicted prominently, for
example:- Chakratirth. Devi of Ayodhya, Bharatkund, gufa
of Bharatji, palaces of Dashrath, Kalpavriksha, Janaki
kund, seat of Swami Raghodas, Sumeru Parvat, jaunpur
town 40 kos from Ayodhya, Vibhishan pol, Chauki of
Angad, Chauki of Sugriva, Patshahi qila, Lakshman kund,
Saptasagar where Sri Ram left for his heavenly abode,
Gorakhpur 40 kos from Ayodhya, river Tilottama,
Mahavidya-kund where Sri Ram took lessons, Janmasthan
(birth-place) of Sri Ram, Agni-kund where Sita entered into
fire, Vairagpur, Hanuman-kund, Apsara-kund, Ramdwara,
Ramghat and the river Sarayu."
4030. Exhibit 51 (Suit-5) (Register Vol. 28, page 217-225) is a
copy of a Article written by Sri Ajay Mitra Shastri under the title
"Ayodhya and God Rama" said to have been published
sometimes after December 1992. The author was Head of
Ancient Indian History and Archeology Department, Nagpur
University, Nagpur, Maharashtra, who has expressed his opinion
that the building in dispute was constructed by Babar in 1528 as
is evident from the inscriptions fixed on the said building built
4386
after demolition of a Hindu Temple and in support of this
opinion, he has relied on (a) the Chandravati plates of the
Gahadavala King Chandradeva, dated Vikram Samvat 1150 (AD
1092-93); (b) the research work of Hans Bakker; (c) inscription
of Jayachachandradeve, dated AD 1184 said to have been seen
by him when he claim to have visited Ayodhya in 1992; (d) the
stone inscription said to have been found at the time of
demolition of the disputed building on 6
th
December 1992.
4031. Exhibit 129 (Suit-5) (Register Vol. 28, page 227-
281; 289-325) claimed to be an Article read by Sri S.P. Gupta in
a Conference at Ayodhya in October, 1992. The author himself
has appeared in witness box and, therefore, we would consider
his evidence along with his oral deposition.
4032. Exhibit 131 (Suit-5) (Register Vol. 28, page 283-
285) is a copy of a map of the disputed site at Ayodhya which
was part of the Article of Sri S.P. Gupta, i.e., Exhibit 129 (Suit-
5) and shall accordingly be dealt with along with his oral
deposition.
4033. Exhibit 130 (Suit-5) (Register Vol. 28, page 327-
353; 369-387) is a copy of another Article of Sri S.P. Gupta
expressing his opinion about the disputed site and the building
which we may discuss along with his oral deposition.
4034. Exhibit 128 (Suit-5) (Register Vol. 28, page 355-
367) claimed to be copy of the resolution of archaeologists,
historians, epigraphists and scholars of allied disciplines
participated in seminars held between 10
th
to 13
th
October, 1992
at Ayodhya.
4035. Though expert witnesses produced on behalf of
plaintiffs (Suit-4), have sought to claim that history does not say
4387
demolition of religious structure by Rulers of one religion and
nothing is there to show discrimination between the followers of
different religions, we find that the said averments are mere in
the nature of a deliberate attempt to misguide the people and the
Court about historical information which already is present in
black and which in various historical literature. Even some of
the corresponding writers have admitted and mentioned these
things. The first source, we find more reliable than other is, the
translation of the work of a number of Muslim writers given in
the book History of India As told by its own Historians by
H.M. Elliot and John Dowson published in eight volumes.
4036. Henry Miers Elliot was born in 1808 at Westminster
in England. Due to consolidation of British power in India, the
East India Company felt extreme deficiency of civil servants
and, therefore, sought reinforcement from England by resorting
to an emergence summary kind of recruitment and it is pursuant
thereto Mr. Elliot was nominated as a candidate by Campbell
Marjoribanks and was appointed directly in civil services to be
sent to India. He sought to specialize in oriental languages and
during the Training Examination, secured honorary classes.
Initially, he was appointed an Assistant to the Magistrate and
Collector of Bareilly and thereafter he worked in the capacity of
Assistant to the Political Agent and Commissioner at Delhi,
Assistant to the Collector and Magistrate of Mooradabad,
Secretary to the Sudder Board of Revenue for the North West
Provinces. In 1847 he became Secretary to the Government of
India in the Foreign Department. He died in an early age of 45
while seeking to restore his broken health in the soothing
climate of Cape of Good Hope.
4388
4037. In 1846, Mr. Elliot got printed first volume of his
Supplement to the Glossary of Indian Terms and in 1849
published the first volume of his Bibliographical Index to the
Historians of Mohammedan India. It appears that Mr. Elliot
had collected a large number of manuscripts mostly from
Muslim writers containing history of Indian territory of the
periods since when the Islamic followers got attracted to India
hearing stories of its huge wealth on account whereof one of the
Muslim writer termed it Meadows of Gold. All the work was
either in Persian or Arabic. Elliot got translated it either himself
or through others. After his death the material which he had
collected was taken by his widow to England and thereafter
Prof. John Dowson of Staff College, Sandhurst got it edited, and
also, wherever necessary, made corrections in translation etc.
The said work has been published in eight volumes under the
title The History of India As told by its own Historians. The
above book basically therefore contains the English translation
of a large number of manuscripts which are the work of several
Muslim and other authors. The antiquity of the work relates
back to the period of Mahmud Ghaznavi. Besides, in the form of
Appendix, the authors have analysed the Indian history of more
than a thousand years which was relevant in connection with
Muslims with Indian sub-continent.
4038. In Appendix A, Page 403 and onwards, (Vol. 2) of
the book History of India, the author has referred to what has
been said by Abu Rihan al Biruni in his work Tarikhu-I
Hind written in Arabic stating that Kabul was earlier governed
by Hindu Kings. It says :
Kabul was formerly governed by princess of Turk lineage.
4389
It is said that they were originally from Tibet. The first of
them was named Barhtigin, and the Kingdom continued
with his children for sixty generations. The last of them was
a Katorman, and his minister was Kala, a Brahman. This
minister was favoured by fortune, and he found in the earth
treasures which augmented his power. Fortune at the same
time turned her back upon his master. The Katorman's
thoughts and actions were evil, so that many complaints
reached the minister, who loaded him with chains, and
imprisoned him for his correction. In the end the minister
yielded to the temptation of becoming sole master, and he
had wealth sufficient to remove all obstacles. So he
established himself on the throne. After him reigned the
Brahman(s) Samand, then Kamlua, then Bhim, then Jaipal,
then Anandpal, then Nardajanpal, who was killed in A.H.
412. His son, Bhimpal, succeeded him, after the lapse of
five years, and under him the sovereignty of Hind became
extinct, and no descendent remained to light a fire on the
hearth. These princes, notwithstanding the extent their
dominions, were endowed with excellent qualities, faithful
to their engagements, and gracious towards their inferiors.
The letter which Anandpal wrote to Amir Mahmud, at the
time enmity existed between them, is much to be admired. 'I
have heard that the Turks have invaded your dominions,
and have spread over Khurasan; if you desire it, I will join
you with 5,000 cavalry, 10,000 infantry, and 100 elephants,
but if you prefer it, I will send my son with twice the
number. In making this proposal, I do not wish to ingratiate
myself with you. Though I have vanquished you, I do not
4390
desire that any one else but myself should obtain the
ascendancy. This prince was a determined enemy of the
Musulmans from the time that his son, Nardajanpal, was
taken prisoner; but this son was, on the contrary, well-
disposed towards them."
4039. The author, however, made minor corrections in the
above extract which was initially translated and published by M.
Reinaud and instead of word 'Katorman', in translation this line
is, The last of them was a name, which represents the name of
a tribe, or prince of that tribe, as well as the name of the country
in which that tribe resided. He also observed that Turkish
dynasty at Kabul which is said to have lasted for sixty
generations should mean that it must have continued in the same
family or tribe and they appear to have reigned upto AD 850.
Further, history and genealogy of the rulers of Kabul and nearby
areas has been considered thereafter which we do not find of
much relevance to discuss in detail. However, in order to see the
extent of reliability and the so called historical narrations in the
books of different languages written by innumerable writers, we
find useful to refer some discussion made in Vol.-2, Appendix
Note C which relates to the history of Ghaznivides and reads as
under :
The contents of this volume relate more especially
to the history of the Ghaznivides. It therefore seems
expedient to take a general review of the authors who have
particularly treated of that dynasty.
First in order come 'Utbi, who has already been
sufficiently noticed. It may be remarked generally that he is
deficient in dates, and, though the chief and earliest
4391
authority on all which relates to the early invasions of
India, be evidently had no personal knowledge of that
country, a circumstance which of course greatly detracts
from his value. He is fuller in the reign of Subuktigin and
the transactions in Turkistan than any of his successors.
Thirty years later come Abu-l Fazl Baihaki, of whose
voluminous and important work only a portion has come
down to us.
After an interval of more than two centuries follows
the Nizamu-t Tawarikh, composed in 674 H., about a
century after the extinction of the dynasty. The short notice
which this work devotes to the Ghaznivides has been
translated as an extract from that work, but it is of little
authority, and confuses dates irremediably towards the
close of the dynasty, in which the transactions were carried
on too far eastward to be within the foreign ken of the
author. Indeed he confesses that he knows nothing of their
successors, the Ghorians, beyond the names of three of
their kings.
The next, but after a period of two hundred years
from 'Utbi is the Tabakat-i Nasiri, the chief value of which
is that it quotes the lost volumes of Abu-l Fazl Baihaki. It is
for this reason, however, greatly to be regretted, especially
as he is one of the earliest Muhammadan authors who
wrote in india, that his notice of Mahmud's reign is so very
curt; for it is that in which we most feel the want of
Baihaki's familiar gossiping narrative. It is true he is
quoted in the Jami'u-l Hikayat, Tarikh-i Guzida, Rauzatu-s
Safa, and Firishta; yet it may be doubted if any except the
4392
author of the first ever saw his Tarikh-i Nasiri, which is
mentioned by name in the Tabakat. In some of the other
Ghaznivides reigns, this work differs from others, as will be
seen from the passages which are extracted in the article
TABAKAT-I NASIRI in this volume.
The great copyist and extractor, Rashidu-d din,
follows after the lapse of about twenty years. In this Jami
u-t Tawarikh, he follows 'Utbi implicitly, as far as the
Yamini extends, taking not only this facts, but giving a
literal translation of that work, even to the images and
similes. So little does he attempt to improve upon the
Yamini, that he even leaves out the important expedition to
Somant, which was undertaken after the close of that work.
This resource fails him altogether in the later reigns, which
are consequently very unsatisfactorily disposed of in the
Jami u-t Tawarikh.
About twenty years later follows the Tarikh-i Guzida
of Hamdu-lla Muatauff although he mentions the
Makamat of Abu Nasr Miskati, and the Mujalladat of Abu-l
Fazl Baihaki, he does not appear to have read them: at
least he gives no information derived from them, and
altogether his account of Mahmud's reign is very meagre.
He mentions the names of the towns taken by him,
omitting , however, all notice of Somnat, and without
stating the dates of their capture. He is so often quoted by
Mirkhond, Khondamir, and Firishta, that he has had more
credit than he deserves in this portion of his universal
history.
After a long interval of about a century, we have
4393
Mirkhond, who in his Rauzatu-s Safa has given us the first
detailed account of the history of the Ghaznivides. It is
founded in the early portion upon the Yamini, but in later
reigns rests upon some other authorities which are not
quoted. Those which are mentioned, as the Nasiri and
Guzida, are too meagre to have furnished the fuller
information found in the Rauzatu-s Safa. This portion has
been translated by F. Wilken into latin, and published with
the original text at Berlin in 1832, under the title of
Historia Gasnevidarun. He has added in footnotes
passages from Firishta and Haidar Razi, where the details
are more complete than in the Rauzatu-s Safa. Haidar Razi,
however, is no original authority. I have found all the
passages, except two, quoted by Wilken to be word for word
the same as the Tarikh-i Alfi, even where other authorities
are quoted, as Ibn Asir, Ibn Kasir, and Hafiz Abru. The
chief omission to be noted in Mirkhond's account is that of
the expeditions to India intervening between those of
Kanauj and Somnat, and the attack upon the Jats of Jud
after Mahmud's return from Somnat.
Mirkhond is followed by his nephew Khondamir in
the Khulasatu-l Akhbar and the Habibu-s Siyar. The former
has been translated by Price with additions from Firishta,
and from the latter a translation will be found in a later
volume of this work. He follows the Rauzatra-s Safa
closely, and has no new authorities, omitting some
passages, but dealing more copiously with the biographies
of contemporary poets and ministers. Altogether,
Mirkhond's narrative is preferable, and in this, as well as
4394
in many other portions of his history Khondamir might
have saved himself the trouble of attempting to rival his
uncle.
The next authority of any value is the Tarikh-i Alfi.
Like as in other portions of that work, it is, in the history of
the Ghaznivides, also somewhat deficient in connexion, and
troublesome, from adopting a new era; but, altogether, it is
copious and correct. 'Utbi and Mirkhond are the chief
authorities of the Tarikh-i Alfi, but something is added from
the less known histories, which have already been
mentioned as being quoted at second hand by Haidar Razi.
It is to be regretted that Abu-l Fazl Baihaki is not amongst
them. Here also we have no detailed account of the Indian
expeditions between those of Kanauj and Somnat, and that
to Thanesar is not mentioned.
Nizamu-d din Ahmad, in his Tabakat-i Akbari, gives
a succinct account of the history of the Ghaznivides, and is
particular in mentioning his dates. He notices very
curiously the events in Turkistan, Sistan, and 'Irak,
confining his attention principally to what related to India.
In his work we, for the first time, find mention of several
expeditions to India, which are passed over by his
predecessors; and it is, therefore, to be regretted that he
does not signify on what authority he relates them. The only
probable source, among those mentioned as his general
authorities, is the Zainu-l Akhbar. Nizamu-d din is followed
closely by Firishta.
'Abdu-l Kadir, in his Tarikh-i Badauni, follows
Nizamu-d din implicitly; but, in order to show the
4395
variations, he occasionally quotes the Nizamu-t Tawarikh,
and the Lubbu-t Tawarikh. He adds also, some verses of
poets who were contemporary with Ghaznivides.
The Muntakhabu-t Tawarikh of Kahki Shirazi is very
brief, and scarcely deserves notice. It is chiefly follows the
Habibu-l Siyar.
We next come to the history of Firishta, which gives
the most complete and detailed account which we have of
the Ghaznivides. Dr. Bird complaints of the author's
ignorance of the geography of Upper India; but he has
exhibited no more than his predecessors, and in one or two
instances attempts corrections. His chief resource is the
Tabakat-i Akhbari, but he has also used the Tarikh-i
Yamini, the Tarikh-i Guzida, the Rauzatu-s Safa, and the
Habibu-s Siyar. Some of the other works which he quotes
there is reason to believe he never saw. The translation by
Briggs is generally correct and faithful in this portion, and
there are no omissions in it of any great consequence.
The Khulasatu-t Tawarikh discusses this history in a
peculiar fashion of its own. It omits all notice of
transactions on the frontiers of Persia and Turkistan, and
confines itself solely to India, insomuch that it leaves out
whole reigns in which the sovereign had no connection
with India: and, in consequence, preposterously confines
the whole number of reigns to seven only. There is no other
novelty in this chapter, except that it substitutes two new
readings of places, which if they are derived from the
history of Mahmud by 'Unsuri, which is quoted in the
preface, may be considered authentic.
4396
These are all the authorities which is seems
necessary to notice, as all the subsequent ones follow in the
wake of Firishta. Abu-l Fida, Ibn Shuhna, Ibn Asir, Ibn
Kasir, Nikbi, and Lari, have had all that is valuable in them
extracted by the diligence of European authors, who have
translated, abridged, or commented on the reigns of the
Ghaznivides. The Turkish histories of the period, such as
the Nakhbatu-t Tawarikh, and the work of Munajjim Bashi,
we may fairly presume to have been exhausted by the
industry of Hammer-Purgstall amongst the fourteen
different histories which he quotes as authorities upon
Mahud's reign so that the only hope now left us for
ascertaining any new fact with respect to the history of the
Ghaznivides is in the recovery of the missing volumes of
Memoirs, which we know to have been written by
contemporary writers, and to have been in existence less
than two centuries ago such as those of Abu-l Fazl
Baihaki, Abu Nasr Mishkani, and Mulla Muhammad
Ghaznawi. The Makamat of Abu Nazr Mishkati (Mishkani)
is mentioned by Firishta (Briggs I. 32 and 97), and the
same author is referred to in Wilken (Gasnevidarum, p.
189). Firishta quotes from him the anecdote about Masud,
which has been given from the Tabakat-i Nasiri (Supra, p.
271), and which is there also attributed to Abu Nasr
Mishkan. The Tarikh-i Mulla Muhammad Ghaznawi is
mentioned by 'Abdu-r Rahman, who wrote the Mir-atu-l
Asrar and Mir-at-i Masudi, in Jahangir's time. The author
was contemporary with Sultan Mahmud, of whom his work
is said to give an ample account.
4397
4040. Regarding the expeditions of Mahmud Ghaznavi in
India with which the real Muslim history of invasions
commenced as is widely known, we find that the European
authors noticed the same in the 17
th
Century and probably the
first publication came from D' Herbelot, a French author under
the title Bibiotheque Orientale, Art. Mahmood. Paris,
published in 1697. Modern history writers tell us about
seventeen expeditions of Mahmud Ghaznavi to India but in
Tabakat-i-Akbari written by Nizamu-d-din Ahmad, the period
of expedition mentioned twelve which has been reiterated by
some subsequent writers. This discrepancy has been noticed by
Dowson in Appendix, Note B, on page 434-435 (Vol.-2) as
under :
It has been usual to consider the number of
Mahmud's expeditious to India to be twelve. The first
authority for this number is Nizamu-d din Ahmad in the
Tabakat-i Akbari; and as Dow has also numbered them as
twelve, the most English authors following him as the
standard, have entertained the same persuasion. But it is
curious to observe that, while Nazamu-d din mentions that
there were altogether twelve, in recording them seriatim, he
enumerates no less that sixteen; and Dow, while he
marginally notes twelve, records no less than fifteen
different ivasions. Even Elphinston though he notes twelve,
records more. The Khulasatu-t Tawarikh gives twelve, and
confines itself to that number, or in reality only to eleven,
as by some mistake an expedition to Kashmir and Kalinjar
are placed in one year, and the tenth expedition is omitted.
The Akhbar-i Muhabbat follows it in both errors.
4398
4041. Dowson, thereafter, proceeded to consider
expeditions period-wise individually and has shown total
seventeen expeditions which took place in 1026 AD (AH 417).
The author has not hesitated in giving the details of the battles
fought by Ghazani and his determination to destroy Hindu
religious places as well as the idols. The first expedition started
in 1000 A.D. (AH 390) when the Mahmud Ghaznavi captured
many forts, provinces in the northern territory of India and
established his Governors thereat. Various Volumes of History
of India by Elliot and Dowson (supra) give details of various
subsequent Muslim rulers and about their act of demolition of
Hindu temples which included similar orders having been issued
even during the reign of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb etc.
4042. Sri Hari Shankar Jain sought to place before us
"The History and Culture of the Indian People; The Delhi
Sultanate" publish by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan (1
st
published in
1960, 4
th
Edition 1990) forwarded and edited by K.M.Munshi,
R.C.Majumdar, A.D.Pusalker and A.K.Majumdar. On page 617
in the Chapter titled as "Hindu Muslim Relations" Status of the
Hindus has been discussed. The learned authors referred to a
passage from an article written by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, historian
as under:
"The poison lay in the very core of Islamic theocracy.
Under it there can be only one faith, one people, and one
all overriding authority. The State is a religious trust
administered solely by His people (the Faithful) acting in
obedience to the Commander of the Faithful, who was in
theory, and very often in practice too, the supreme General
of the Army of militant Islam (Janud). There could be no
4399
place for non-believers. Even Jews and Christians could
not be full citizens of it, though they somewhat approached
the Muslims by reason of their being "People of the Book"
or believers in the Bible, which the Prophet of Islam
accepted as revealed.
"As for the Hindus and Zoroastrians, they had no
place in such a political system. If their existence was
tolerated, it was only to use them as hewers of wood and
drawers of water, as tax-payers, "Khiraj-quzar", for the
benefit of the dominant sect of the Faithful. They were
called Zimmis or people under a contract of protection by
the Muslim State on condition of certain service to be
rendered by them and certain political and civil disabilities
to be borne by them to prevent them from growing strong.
The very term Zimmi is an insulting title. It connotes
political inferiority and helplessness like the status of a
minor proprietor perpetually under a guardian; such
protected people could not claim equality with the citizens
of the Muslim theocracy.
"Thus by the basic conception of the Muslim State all
non-Muslims are its enemies, and it is the interest of the
State to curb their growth in number and power. The ideal
aim was to exterminate them totally, as Hindus,
Zoroastrians and Christian nationals have been liquidated
(sometimes totally, sometimes leaving a negligible remnant
behind) in Afghanistan, Persia and the Near East.
"The Quran (IX.29) calls upon the Muslims 'to fight
those who do not profess the true faith, till they pay jizya
with the hand in humality (ham sagkhirun)'. This was a
4400
poll-tax payable by Hindus (and also Christians) for
permission to live in their ancestral homes under a Muslim
sovereign.
"In addition to the obligation to pay this poll-tax, the
Hindu was subjected to many disabilities by the very
constitution of the Muslim theocracy. He must distinguish
himself from the Muslims by wearing a humble dress, and
sometimes adding a label of a certain colour to his coat.
He must not ride on horse-back or carry arms;though
wearing the sword was a necessary part of the dress of
every gentleman of that age. He must show a generally
respectful attitude towards Muslims. The Hindu was also
under certain legal disabilities in giving testimony in law-
courts, protection under the criminal law, and in marriage.
Finally, in the exercise of his religion he must avoid any
publicity that may rouse the wrath of the followers of the
Prophet.
"Under the Canon Law, as followed in Islamic
countries, a man who converts a Muslim to some other
faith is liable to death at the hands of any private Muslim,
and so also is the apostate from Islam."
4043. Thereafter the authors further said:
"Sir Jadunath's exposition of the Islamic theory, and in
particular his view of the nature of the jizya, has been
opposed by some. But his views are fully borne out by the
following passage in the Zakhirct-ul-Muluk by Shaikh
Hamadani:
"The is another mandate relating to those subjects who are
unbelievers and protected people (zimmis). For their
4401
governance, the observance of those conditions which the
Caliph 'Umar laid in his agreement for establishing the
status of the fire-worshippers and the People of the Book
(Jews and Christians) and which gave them safety is
obligatory on rulers and governors. Rulers should impose
these conditions on the zimmis of their dominions and make
their lives and their property dependent on heir fulfilment.
The twenty conditions are as follows:
1. In a country under the authority of a Muslim ruler,
they are to build no new homes for images or idol temples.
2. They are not to rebuild any old buildings which
have been destroyed.
3. Muslim travellers are not to be prevented from
staying in idol temples.
4. No Muslim who stays in their houses will commit a
sin if he is a guest for three days, if he should have
occasion for the delay.
5. Infidels may not act as spies or give aid and
comfort to them.
6. If any of their people show any inclination towards
Islam.
7. Muslim are to be respected.
8. If the zimmis are gathered together in a meeting
and Muslims appear, they are to be allowed at the meeting.
9. They are not to dress like Muslims.
10. They are not to give each other Muslim names.
11. They are not to ride on horses with saddle and
bridle.
12. They are not to possess swords and arrows.
4402
13. They are not to wear signet rings and seals on
their fingers.
14. They are not to sell and drink intoxicating liquor
openly.
15. They must not abandon the clothing which they
have had as a sign of their state of ignorance so that they
may be distinguished from Muslims.
16. They are not to propagate the customs and
usages of polytheists among Muslims.
17. They are not to build their homes in the
neighbourhood of those of Muslims.
18. They are not to bring their dead near the
graveyards of Muslims.
19. They are not to mourn their dead with loud
voices.
20. They are not to buy Muslim slaves.
At the end of the treaty it is written that if zimmis
infringe any of these conditions, they shall not enjoy
security and it shall be lawful for Muslims to take their
lives and possessions as though they were the lives and
possessions of unbelievers in a state of war with the
faithful.
It is unnecessary for our present purpose to enter
into any further discussion about the correctness of Sir
Jadunath's interpretation of the Muslim scripture, but there
is no doubt that he correctly represents the view accepted,
both in theory and practice, by the Muslim rulers and
theologians in India during the period under review. And
this is really more relevant to the present issue."
4403
4044. Sri Jain also referred to the following narration
contained in pages 620 as under:
"Reference has already been made above to the position of
the Hindus in Muslim State according to Islamic theory as
explained by the 'wise men', and particularly Qazi Mughis-
ud-din of Bayana, to Ala-ud-din Khalji, and the earnestness
with which the Sultan carried it into practice.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq is generally, and perhaps
rightly, regarded as a man of liberal views. The Chinese
Emperor asked for his permission to build a temple at
Samhal, a place of pilgrimage in the Himalayan hills
frequented by the Chinese, which the Muslim army "had
seized, destroyed and sacked". But the Sultan, who
accepted the rich presents sent by the Chinese Emperor,
wrote to him a reply to this effect: "Islam does not allow
the furthering of such an aim and the permission to build a
temple in a Muslim country can be accorded only to those
who pay the jizya."
It has been already stated above, that Firuz Tughlaq,
who also looked upon India as a Muslim country, held
more bigoted views, for he would not permit the erection of
new temples even by those who paid the jizya. He, however,
realized this tax with utmost rigour even from the
Brahmans who were up to that time exempted from it.
The true nature of the jizya is further revealed by the
opposition of the orthodox Muslims to the idea that the
Hindus should be allowed to perform their religious
ceremonies simply by the payment of the jizya. The
historian Ziya-ud-din Barani, a contemporary of the two
4404
Tughlaq emperors, mentioned above, wrote in righteous
indignation.
". . . . Should the kings consider the payment of a few
tankas by way of jizya as sufficient justification for their
allowing all possible freedom to the infidels to observe and
demonstrate all orders and details of infidelity, to read the
misleading literature of their faith and to propagate their
teachings, how could the true religion get the upper hand
over other religions and how could the emblems of Islam
be held high. . . . ."
It would thus appear that an orthodox section of the
Muslims chafed at the Hanafite doctrine which was
officially accepted by the Muslim rulers in India. As Qazi
Mughis-ud-din pointed out to 'Ala-ud-din Khalji, 'it was
Hanifa alone who assented to the imposition of the juzuya
on the Hindus. Doctors of other schools allow no other
alternative but 'Death or Islam'. As has been stated above,
Sultan Mahmud followed this policy, and evidently Barani
and men of his ilk yearned for its restoration in the
fourteenth century. Barani gave vent to this feeling in the
following passage in his Fatawa-i-Jahandari. "If Mahmud .
. . . had gone to India once more, he would have brought
uder his sword all the Brahmans of Hind who, in that vast
land, are the cause of the continuance of the laws of
infidelity and of the strength of idolators, he would have cut
off the heads of two hundred or three hundred thousand
Hindu chiefs. He would not have returned his "Hindu-
slaughtering" sword to its scabbard until the whole of Hind
had accepted Islam. For Mahmud was a Shafi'ite, and
4405
according to Imam Shafi'i the decree for Hindus is "either
death or Islam"-that is to say, they should either be put to
death or embrace Islam. It is not lawful to accept jizya
from Hindus as they have neither a prophet nor a revealed
book." The same book shows how Barani chafed at the idea
that the desire for the overthrow of infidels and the
abasing of idolators and polytheists does not fill the hearts
of the Muslim kings, who permit the banners of infidelity
to be openly displayed in their sapital and in the cities of
Muslims, idols to be openly worshipped ." How, asks
the Indignant historian, will the true faith prevail if rulers
allow the infidels to keep their temples, adorn their idols,
and to make merry during their festivals with beating of
drums and dhols, singing and dancing?
If a learned historian and a distinguished Muslim felt
no scruple in openly expressing such views in writing, in
the fourteenth century A.D., i.e. six hundred years after the
Muslims first settled in India, one can well understand why
the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims could never
be bridged.
A perusal of the history of Afif, another great
historian of the period, conveys the same lesson. He puts in
the mouth of the wazir of Firuz Tughlaq a long speech in
which he frankly says that a State should have only two
ends in view, namely (1) prosperity of the kingdom and
protection of the people, etc.; and (2) destruction of the
infidels and expansion of the kingdom.
4045. He also refers to page 627 of the book were the
'Travellor's Account' of 'Ibn Batutah', who came to India about
4406
the middle of the 14
th
century A.D. during the reign of
Muhammad bin Tughlaq has been dealt with and refers to the
following:
"Ibn Batutah confirms the general statement, made above,
particularly about forcible conversion, mass-enslavement,
and the inferior status of the Hindus as zimmis. Thus he
remarks that "other nations embraced Islam only when the
Arabs used their swords against them."
4046. The Muslims and non Muslims peoples were also
treated differently. One of such illustration has also been noticed
by J.S. Grewal, Director, Indian Institute of Advanced Study,
Shimla in his book The New Cambridge History of India II.3
The Sikhs of the Punjab" and in Chapter 2 thereof, which is
under the heading Foundation of The Sikh Panth, it says :
The rulers are unjust; they discriminate against their non-
Muslim subjects by extorting jizya and pilgrimage tax. The
ruling class is oppressing the cultivators and the common
people. The rajas prey like lions and the muqaddams eat
like dogs; they fall upon the raiyat day and night.
Notwithstanding the association of non-Muslims with the
administration at subordinate levels, contemporary rule is
occasionally equated with 'Muslim rule.
4047. The historical events as they took place are fait
accompli. In our view today whether we appreciate or condemn,
like or dislike, the practice, policy, individual acts or omissions
on the part of a Ruler, who invaded India or his successor who
ruled India in the past, we cannot forget that whatever they
have done is a matter of history and will always remain so. After
this length of period, we are not able to understand as to how
4407
this Court is competent either to comment upon the genuity or
ingenuity, justification or injustification, correctness or
incorrectness, cruelty or liberality etc. on their part. One side
while condemning the acts of any of such invader and/or Ruler
may find obstruction as a track of rocks difficult to break.
Similar attempt on the part of other side either to justify such
acts or to otherwise glorify the same would be of no help. If
something is wrong ex facie it was always so but the concept of
wrongness is a relative one. Something which may be wrong at
one point of time for some individual may not be so at another
point of time or for other set of individuals. It depends on a
variety of factors, which we find difficult to place in a strait
jacket formula or to codify. It is a historical fact that before
independence of India in 1947, most of the geographical area of
this Country had to face a large number of invasions either from
a north west side or from Europe from different directions.
Mainly these warring incursions were with the motive of
syphoning off the huge wealth this Country had. Some times
those invaders decided to make it a source of regular earning
and left their Governors/ Representatives/ Commanders in their
conquered territory to rule. The religious background those
invaders had, came along with them but all the individuals did
not come from their native place. The situation was exploited by
creating such circumstances so that the native people of the
conquered territories of this Country would have no option but
to convert their religion so as to avail favour of Rulers. These
are some of the historical illustrations which this Country had
experienced in last more than a millennium. In our view, this by
itself would not be a relevant factor to decide or adjudicate an
4408
issue in the present day territory governed by a written and
codified law including a written Constitution. All the persons
irrespective of their religion, faith, customs, etc. who were
residing in the territory of India set out in our Constitution at the
time of its promulgation became citizens of this Country besides
those who have born or otherwise have acquired citizenship as
per the procedure laid down in the Constitution and the statute
concerned. They are governed by the statutes as are in force in
this Country. A Court of law is also bound to decide a matter in
accordance thereof. Neither the Rulers several hundred years
back were governed by these statues we are confronted or
governed nor they can be under the authority of judicial review
of a Court of a judicial system which came into existence later
on and is governed by a different system in-vogue subsequently.
4048. For our purpose it is not at all necessary to go into
this larger question and the manner in which it has been raised
since certain facts are the matters of history and all those who
have some idea of history are well aware. Whether an act of past
should be seen in a different context colour or texture may be a
subject matter of debate and discussion amongst the intellectual
of this country whose approach is also tainted with their own
mind set and this is really unfortunate part that we are still
looking for only unbiased independent and objective historians
who may give us a correct and clear picture of historical
evidence but whatever we had to do suffice it to conclude that
the incidence of temple demolition are not only confined to past
but is going in continuously. The religion which is supposed to
connect all individuals with the brotherly feeling has become a
tool of hearted and enmity. For the purpose of the present case
4409
we can stop on this aspect by simply observing that the
justification sought to be canvassed by some of the expert
witnesses of Muslim parties that in the history the people who
attacked the Indian continent from its northern borders of Panjab
etc. in the last more that thousand years and odd have acted
according to their understanding and policies as the case may be
but they are totally irrelevant in the present day time where this
county is governed by a written constitution which clearly
declare no discrimination merely on the ground of religion.
4049. Some of the learned counsel for the parties sought to
rely on the Constitution Bench decision in Dr. M. Ismail
Faruqui (supra) by reading certain passages in a manner as if
the Apex Court has expressed its opinion on certain aspects
which are contentious issues before this Court in the suits
pending before us and said that the said observations are binding
on this Court and, therefore, those aspects cannot be looked into.
4050. Sri Iyer, Senior Advocate sought to read the
aforesaid judgement where the contents of the White Paper
issued by the Central Government quoted to suggest that these
are the findings of the Government of India having taken note
by the Apex Court and, therefore, should be treated to be
concluded. It is suggested that the issues, if any, in those matters
should be deemed to be concluded by the judgement of the Apex
Court.
4051. We, however, find no force in the submission. The
Constitution Bench considered the validity of Ayodhya Act,
1993 whereby certain land at Ayodhya including the land which
was subject matter in these suits sought to be acquired by the
Government of India. Further, the Apex Court was considering
4410
the special reference made by the President of India on 7th
January, 1993 under Article 143 of the Constitution seeking
opinion of the Apex Court on the following question:
"Whether a Hindu temple or any Hindu religious
structure existing prior to the construction of Ram Janma
Bhumi-Babari Masjid (including the premises of the inner
and outer courtyard of said structure) in the area on which
the structure stood."
4052. In the context of the above matters the Apex Court
refers in detail the contents of the White Paper published by the
Government of India in February, 1993. In the context of the
question as to whether certain provisions of the Act, 1993 are
valid or not, the Court considered several aspects and repelled
the argument that the Act is discriminatory containing
provisions more favourable to Hindus by observing that certain
rights of Hindus also stand adversely affected.
4053. It is in this context that certain facts place on record
are mentioned therein but it cannot be said that those facts stood
adjudicated by the Apex Court for the reason that those facts
neither were in issue before the Court nor actually have been
adjudicated. The only one question which has specifically been
considered and decided that was necessary in the light of
challenge thrown to the power of acquisition of land over which
a mosque existing. It appears that pro-mosque parties raised a
contention that a mosque cannot be acquired because of special
status in Mohammedan Law irrespective of its significance to
practice of the religion of Islam. This argument in the context of
acquisition of land was considered from para 68 (AIR) and
onwards in the judgement. The Court has held that the right to
4411
worship of Muslims in a mosque and Hindus in a temple was
recognised only as a civil right in British India. Relying on the
Full Bench decision of Lahore High Court in Mosque Known
as Masjid Shahid Ganj Vs. Shiromani Gurdwara
Prabandhak Committee, Amritsar, AIR 1938 Lahore 369
where it was held that a mosque if adversely possessed by non
muslims it will loose its sacred character as mosque, the Apex
Court held that, "the view that once a consecrated mosque, it
remains always a place of worship as a mosque was not the
Mahomedan Law of India as approved by Indian Courts." The
Lahore High Court also held that, "a mosque in India was an
immovable property and the right of worship at a particular
place is lost when the right to property on which it stands is lost
by adverse possession." Both these views were approved by the
Privy Council and the Apex Court followed the said view.
Besides, independently also the Court took the view that the
sovereign power of the State empower it to acquire property. It
is a right inherent in every sovereign to take an appropriate
private property belonging to individual citizens for public use.
This right is described as eminent domain in American Law and
is like the power of taxation of offering of political necessity
and is supposed to be based upon an implied reservation by the
Government that private property acquired by its citizens under
its protection may be taken or its use can be controlled for
public benefit irrespective of the wishes of the owner. The Court
also considered the right of worship whether a fundamental right
enshrined under Article 25 or 26 of the Constitution and
observed, "while offer of prayer or worship is a religious
practice, its offering at every location where such prayers can be
4412
offered would not be an essential or integral part of such
religious practice unless the place has a particular significance
for that religion so as to form an essential or integral part
thereof. Places of worship of any religion having particular
significance for that religion, to make it an essential or integral
part of the religion, stand on a different footing and have to be
treated differently and more reverentially". Ultimately the law
has been laid down by the Constitution Bench by majority that
under the Mohammedan Law applicable in India title to a
mosque can be lost by adverse possession. If that is the position
in law, there can be no reason to hold that a mosque as a unique
or special status, higher than that of the places of worship of
other religions in secular India to make it immune from
acquisition by exercise of the sovereign or prerogative power of
the State. A mosque is not an essential part of the practice of
religion of Islam and namaz (prayer) by Muslims can be offered
anywhere even in open. The Court also held that unless the right
to worship at a particular place is itself an integral part of that
right, i.e., the place is of a particular significance, its alienability
cannot be doubted. The Apex Court having answered the various
questions on the validity of the Act 1993 decline to answer the
reference and return the same as such as it is. The suits having
been revived due to striking down of Section 4(3) of the Act,
this Court trying the original suits has to decide the entire matter
on merits unless it can be shown that a particular issue which is
engaging attention of this Court in trial of the original suit has
already been raised, argued and decided by the Apex Court. The
learned counsels for the parties have not been able to show any
such finding in respect to the matters which are involved in
4413
various issues before this Court and, therefore, we are not in
agreement with the counsels for the parties as argued otherwise.
4054. The mere fact that some facts have been noticed by
the Government of India in White Paper and those facts have
simply been noticed by the Apex Court while referring to the
facts mentioned in the White Paper, it cannot be said that those
facts can be construed as if they have been accepted by the Apex
Court to be correct and stand adjudicated. The law of precedent
is well known. The authority of the superior Court laying down
a law is binding on the Courts below provided a matter has been
decided by the Court. An issue can be considered to be decided
by a superior Court when it was raised, argued and decided and
only then it is a binding precedent for the other courts.
4055. The ultimate inference, which can reasonably be
drawn by this Court from the entire discussion and material
noticed above, is:
(i) The disputed structure was not raised on a virgin, vacant,
unoccupied, open land.
(ii) There existed a structure, if not much bigger then at least
comparable or bigger than the disputed structure, at the
site in dispute.
(iii) The builder of the disputed structure knew the details of
the erstwhile structure, its strength, capacity, the size of
the walls etc. and therefore did not hesitate in using the
walls etc. without any further improvement.
(iv) The erstwhile structure was religious in nature and that too
non-Islamic one.
(v) The material like stone, pillars, bricks etc. of the erstwhile
structure was used in raising the disputed structure.
4414
(vi) The artefacts recovered during excavation are mostly such
as are non-Islamic i.e pertaining to Hindu religious places.
Even if we accept that some of the items are such which
may be used in other religions also. Simultaneously no
artefacts etc., which can be used only in Islamic religious
place, has been found.
4056. The claim of Hindus that the disputed structure was
constructed after demolishing a Hindu temple is pre-litem and
not post-litem hence credible, reliable and trustworthy. Till late,
no person of any other religion except the Hindus have been
continuously staking their claim over the site in dispute on the
ground that this is the place of birth of Lord Rama and there was
a temple. In normal course, there could not have been any
reason for such persistent attachment to the site had there been
no basis or substance for the same particularly when this kind of
persistence is continuing for the last hundreds of years. The
various non-Indian writers, who have mentioned these facts,
clearly stating that a Hindu temple was demolished for
constructing mosque in question. May have some motive if it
would have been a case of only post nineteenth century when
the British Government virtually came in power and sought to
evolve the theory of "Divide and Rule" but even prior thereto,
these facts have been noticed and recognized. Tieffenthaler was
a missionary have no motive in making such remark when he
visited Oudh area between 1766 to 1771 and such work was
published in 1786.
4057. This belief is existing for the last more than 200
years from the date the property was attached and therefore,
having been corroborative by the above it can safely be said that
4415
the erstwhile structure was a Hindu temple and it was
demolished whereafter the disputed structure was raised.
4058. One more aspect remains to be seen. Issue No.1(b)
(Suit-4) further requires that if the first part is answered in
affirmative, then what shall be its effect. We have already held
that whatever happened was in an era when this Court and/or the
codified statute or the Constitution of India at that time was not
applicable. The intent of the sovereign was supreme at that time.
We can only see the de facto position as has resulted after the
aforesaid event but we find no authority to consider this event
de jure. The de facto position is that after demolition, a building
was constructed in the shape of a mosque. It is also de facto
position that despite construction of such building in the shape
of the mosque, it was used and continued to be visited by
Hindus for offering worship, Puja and Darshan since according
to their belief, they treated it to be the birth place of Lord Rama
in respect whereto there was no alternative and according to
their belief, the piety and reverence, the place is permanent and
not liable to be disturbed in any manner by any such act.
4059. Accordingly, we answer both the issues i.e. Issue
No.1(b) (Suit-4) and Issue No. 14 (Suit-5) in affirmative.
(B) Existence of other Hindu religious places making the
disputed building landlocked by religious places of Hindus:
4060. In this category, falls Issue No. 19 (b) (Suit-4),
which reads as under:
"Whether the building was land-locked and cannot be
reached except by passing through places of Hindu
worship? If so, its effect?"
4061. This issue has been framed considering pleadings of
4416
the defendants that no Muslim person could have entered the
building in dispute for the reason that it is landlocked by the
Temples and other Hindu religious places of worship. In para 28
(B) of the written statement of defendant no. 13, Mahant
Dharam Das, it has been said that no one could enter the three
domed structure except after passing through the places of
Hindu worship, i.e., Ram Chabutara; Charan and Sita Rasoi. It is
said that according to the tenets of Islam, a Mosque should
never be landlocked by a Hindu place of worship and there can
be no co-sharing in title or possession with Allah, particularly, in
the case of a Mosque. His possession must be exclusive. To the
similar effect is the pleading in para 31 of the written statement
of defendant no. 13.
4062. We have referred to the site maps while discussing
issues relating to limitation. One of the oldest map, which is
available, is that of 1885 prepared by Sri Gopal Sahai Amin, a
Commission appointed by the Civil Court in Suit-1885. So far
as the disputed site is concerned, he had clearly noticed
existence of three structures in the outer courtyard, i.e., Ram
Chabutara on the south east side, a Chhappar on the north east
side and Sita Rasoi on the north west side. Another map was
prepared and submitted in the Court of Civil Judge, Faizabad on
25
th
May, 1950 by Sri Shiv Shankar Lal, Pleader, who was also
appointed as Commissioner in Suit-1 for preparing the site map.
Here also he has mentioned three structures in the outer
courtyard as were noted in the earlier map at the same places.
Besides the above, in the vicinity of the disputed site, other
existing places which are shown in the map are: on the eastern
side, Mandir Sri Vijay Raghav Sakshi Gopal, Shenakr
4417
Chabutara; on the south east side Sita Koop, Tulsi Chaura,
Sumitra Bhawan; on the southern side Lomash Chaura and on
the northern side, it shows Narad Chabutara. The aforesaid map
was not disputed in that suit by the defendant no. 2, who
contested that matter as Mutwalli of the alleged wakf of the
disputed building and in the present case, by both the parties
except of nomenclature.
4063. This situation is virtually admitted by the parties
also including the plaintiffs (Suit-4) as is evident from the the
deposition of their witnesses, though in the pleading, initially,
they tried to deny existence of Sita Rasoi etc. in the premises of
outer courtyard of property in dispute. This is evident from the
following:
(i) PW 1, Mohd. Hashim:
r i- in i ni lii | n
ni ii| i|i| i| i n -n i | r ni i-n
- r- ii| s ii| -l- -n
i i ~ri i r i ii, i | ni i ; rn i |
i-n i - i ; ii i ; i- r| i|| |ni i ;
i- i|i| i| i ii i| ri i -n i
i in i | ; i -l- i |i i|,
ii nii ni r i ii|( s)
"There was a Chabutra on the south, when we would go
inside through the eastern gate earlier. Priests would
sometimes sit on the said Chabutra. This Chabutra was ten
paces away from the pathway. There was a shed on it. Near
the northern gate of the mosque was built a hearth, which
was called Sita Rasoi. In coming inside from that pathway,
there was no hurdle on account of their being Rasoi. There
was a four-walled enclosure in front of Sita Rasoi, and we
4418
would enter from the northern gate, whenever there was
much crowd. After that, inside the mosque lay another wall,
main gate of which was locked." (E.T.C)
n | i -- ii l sii r i
ii| r | i n- -i i i r -l - - ln i i i
l ii ini r | ( zr)
"On that Chabutra there lay a wooden structure which was
covered with thatched. This wooden tent like structure is
often raised in every temple for keeping idols." (E.T.C)
r i- in i ni lii | n
ni ii| i|i| i| i n -n i | i r -
ri ii, i| n -n i , r nn r , ri s i n -n
i i r in r| r | r i- i-| lr i i| i ii
r| i , i n i i r| i | ... ss - | ni i ; i
i i|| |ni i ; ~ri i |, i ni i i ii
i ss - | i i | lr r| i | r ~ri
i i i ii r nr i ii l lii; ni ii| i
- r- i n i| i | in i , - i ; ni r| ii|
i i- i n |ni i ; rn i | ...| ni i ; i i
i n i |( z/)
"Whenever we would go inside through the eastern gate
earlier, there was a Chabutra on south. Priests would
sometime sit on it. My earlier statement to the effect that
the priests would sit on Chabutra, is incorrect; some people
would sit there and this fact is correct. These common men
were Hindus but they were not priests or saints; these
people did not belong to Ayodhya. . . . . In 1949, Sita Rasoi
was on the level with the floor. In 1949, 'Chulha' (hearth),
'Chowki' and 'Belna' (rolling pin) was made with lime-
mortar. Four pairs of foot prints were not there on it. This
4419
'Chulha-Belna', which was made, was on the level with the
ground; it was just visible. In the beginning we would see it
from a close range; no tension prevailed at that time.
Common people called it Sita Rasoi. . . . . would go to
have darshan of Sita Rasoi." (E.T.C)
| i- i ir| |i -n n
-i i s ii, r i i ii i r| r r| ni ni| r
-i i s |- | ii| i n s - rn i
- n r| -i - i i n rn i | ; s | lr i n rn
i , - -i i n r| rn i | ( s)
"On entrance through the eastern gate, towards the north
inside the outer wall there was a long shed; I cannot tell
whether it was 'Bhandar' (store room) are not. This longish
shed was under a neem tree. People used to live in that
shed but I do not know who they were. Under this shed, the
Hindus resided; the Muslims did not reside." (E.T.C)
-n | n |ni i ; i si i i r r i l ir|
|i r | ...liln ii lii n l -i i -l
i i , i| lni li| ( sz)
"On the north, except Sita Rasoi, there is an open
courtyard and after that lies an outer wall. . . . . To the
south of the disputed property was Sumitra Bhawan
temple, which too was demolished." (E.T.C)
r | ni i ; i - r ri r , r r-i ri i
r i i ri r | |ni i ; - ~ri, ni i i
|ni i ; i- -ir ri | in - n rii r | |ni
i ; | i-|ni | i |ni r , | i- i i ini r | (
s)
"This Sita Rasoi, about which I have stated earlier, has
continued to exist since before the time I gained
4420
understanding. Since when I gained understanding, I have
knowledge about 'Chulha' (hearth) 'Tasla' and 'Belna'
(rolling pin) getting famous by the name of Sita Rasoi. Sita
Rasoi is associated with the name of that very Sita, who
forms Ram-Sita couple." (E.T.C)
ssr - i - -i -r n i i i n | | - i
ii, - i| |ni i l ii ii i r| - n -i - r| r |
|ni i ; i| li - r| r, n i ii, li -
i r | - n i n ; | i ;~- r| r i l i |ni
i- -ir r | ; i- - i| i ; ; i-
i -i r| ii| ( rs)
"I do not know whether or not Sita- koop has also found
mention in a case in which Mahant Raghubar Das and
Asgar Ali were involved in 1885. Sita-koop does not find
mention in any Government record ; there was a well at
that time, there is well in record. I have not till date had
knowledge as to whether this well is famous as Sita-koop. I
never saw any stone named after it, in front of this well."
(E.T.C)
l n i l - r i - li r r ni
i | . | . | . | . i i l - r | l n i i
|ni i ; r n liiin i l - r i - li r
r nr i| ; . |. |. |. i lr-i r | ; i i i
- r| ni ni l r |ni i ; ii lr-i i i r | - r|
ii l r |ni i ; lr-i ; i- . |. |. |. i n
r | - ; in i i r| ni l r -n l- i
n r i r| | i |ni i ; i i - r li r r ;
i - r| lii; n; r | - nr | in l r l li i
i; - r ; i lri r| ni ni| ( )
"The Chabutra I have mentioned about in my earlier
statement, is also included in the space marked as ABCD.
4421
The Chabutra and emblems like Sita Rasoi- I have
mentioned about in my earlier statement-is also a part of
ABCD marked place. Looking at this map I cannot say
which is the Sita Rasoi portion. I did not see on which side
of the ABCD marked plot Sita Rasoi is located. I cannot
respond to a query as to whether it is towards the corner of
north-west or not. The Sita Rasoi about which I have
deposed earlier, is not shown in this map. On the basis of
this map, I cannot locate at which particular point it is
located." (E.T.C)
ss ss | - l i l n i i - i ;
n | | r| r ; | - n -i - r| l |ni i ; i ni l
rin - ss - ii, | rin - ss - | ri n ri| ss
ss | - |ni i ; - li l - i r
lr- - ii r , i ; n|| r| r ; | l i l r l
r i ; -| | nr ii l-| r ; i|, l| n r-
i ; i r| li| (il- i ; |)| r -| r l ss
i ss | - n - i| i ; n|| r| | n; ,
li l - il- i ; | - ii r | ( /)
"No changes were effected in the disputed property
between 1934 and 1949. I cannot tell whether Sita Rasoi
and Chabutra continued to be in the same position as it
existed in 1934, till attachment in 1949. No change was
effected in that Sita Rasoi I have mentioned in the first part
of my statement. But I would like to repeat once more that
the said Rasoi abutted on the ground surface, towards
which I did not pay any attention. (Examination-in-chief).
It is true that between 1934 and 1949 no alternation was
effected in that Chabutra as well, which has found mention
in my examination-in-chief." (E.T.C)
4422
r l -i ; i i i i n r | r r n i|
l-i r i lr i n r-i ri i ; l-i i n i r
r | ;| l -i - r- i | r , r r-i | i | l -i n
r | ( )
"This 'Parikrama' (circumambulation) is on all the four
sides of this property. This is a very old circumambulation,
and the Hindus have been performing this
circumambulation since when I gained understanding. We
are also within this very circumambulation area; they
perform circumambulation around us also." (E.T.C)
(ii) PW 2, Haji Mahboob Ahamad:
; i - l i i | n + i ni r| i i ,
ni -i ; -i i i i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - r| r
ni l s - - i l r ri n i i
- -i | ( rz)
"On the south in this lawn, there was no elevated
Chabutra; there was certainly a place looking like a
Chabutra. . . . . I cannot say whether those sitting in that
shed were Hindus or Muslims." (E.T.C)
ri;- - zsso i -i - i | r ;- lii; n;
s i ni ; nr r| i , riil s r i| ii
l | n | i|| ( rs)
"I have seen the photographs 29-30 of the black and white
album; the shed and chabutra shown in them were not like
this. The shed, however, existed since before but it had a
different shape. " (E.T.C)
r |ni i ; i ~ri i r| ii l~ r |
r ir i - i|| ( r)
" Chulha (hearth) and belna (rolling pin) of Sita rasoi were
not inside the court yard but these things were in the outer
4423
lawn. " (E.T.C)
(iii) PW 3, Farookh Ahamad:
...; r lii - si -ii ni ii i
s ii| r ni i rii | | + i; n ii|...
; n lii lr- -l- | lii |i oro -
i ri n|| ... -n| n i| |i ln r| l-|
n s l i i i n i , i ~r r
i |( zo)
" To the south of this court yard, there was a small
Chaubutra, and on that lay a shed. This Chabutra was at
the height of one to one-a-half hand-span. . . . .The
southern wall of the mosque would be 40-50 feet away
from the southern portion of this Chabutra. . . .
.Immediately after exiting from the northern grill wall,
some marks such as those of 'Chakla', 'Belna' and
'Chulha' were made on the western side." (E.T.C)
r-i| ri i - r s |i i i ni ri ni| i sr -ir -
i ini ii|( z)
"In my knowledge, this shed must have been changed
twenty times. It used to be changed at the interval of a year
or sixth months." (E.T.C)
i ili ri li | n i ni ii
i| i n l- i| i| iil- ri n i , -i n i |...
- n i | r - r i n ni i i n
i | ..... r s i ni - ri i ini i ri ii|
( zsso)
" On the entrance through the main gate, towards the south
there was a Chabutra on which all the people, including
priests as well, would sit. Even on the occasions of fair
people of all religions would come and have glimpse of
4424
Chabutra. . . . . I continued to see this shed and Chabutra
since when I gained understanding." (E.T.C)
i i i ~ri liiin i , r r- ss r
i| i i | .... i co/o i r i ii ii i
s i| ii ii| ( sr)
The existing marks of 'Chakla', 'Belan' and stove
(chulha), had been seen over there by me even before 1949.
. . . About 60-70 years ago, I had seen the chakla-belan, as
also the thatched roof.(E.T.C)
(iv) PW 4, Mohd. Yasin:
... n i| li -n | n ir| r - i ; ~r i
lii ni r| ii l i i r i | ;
i i i + ni n i i si i - | rii -
ss n ini ri ii| ( s)
". . . to the south of grill wall, in the outer courtyard there
were certainly no marks of any 'Chulha' (hearth) but
'Chakla' and 'Belna' were certainly raised. In my
knowledge I continued to see till 1949 this 'Chakla' and
'Belna' and the two thatched roofings stated above."
(E.T.C)
(v) PW 5, Abdul Raheman:
; ii - i ili ri n i ni
n ir| r - si -| | sli i| i | n ~ri i
i ii ii| ( cs)
"On entrance in this structure through the main gate, in the
outer courtyard there was small shed on one side and
'Chulha' and 'Belna' were placed on the other side."
(E.T.C)
(vi) PW 6, Mohammad Yunus Siddiki:
ni s i i ii| s l| i s n r
4425
r| ii| in i - ri ini ii ni i n s - i n
r lii; n i | ( )
"Chabutra was completely thatched. I did not see anybody
doing any thing inside the said. Whenever I would go to the
shed there during nights, I would often see people sleep
there." (E.T.C)
r ;-in ii n lii li| r ; i|| - i r|
-nni l l i - ~ri , i l i , i ri i
l r l r n ri r -l - r| ri n| |( z/)
"This building was enclosed with walls all around. I do not
have the understanding that the building in which there
are 'Chulha', 'Chakiya' and 'Belna' or which is
worshipped by Hindus, cannot be a mosque." (E.T.C)
(vii) PW 7, Hasmatulla Ansari:
ir r - lii | n r- ni i i i i |
s i| ii ii| s - n - i | i i i lii
- i| ii| r s n ii r i ii, i -n | n ii,
i| i ii r| nni ii| -n ii s 6X8 l- i
ii, i r| ii| i s lii | n ii, r n| 20X15
- i ii| ni i ii| r ni z l- -i ri ri ni
i / |- i i ri ni| i- i| ir| r - i ; i r|
ii| r ir| r -n | n l- | n -
ni ii| l | rin lii | n r| i|| -n ii r
i r lr-i i l- | n - ni ii, ili| |i n
ini ii i n| so - -i ii| ; lr- | i i;
n| zo - ri n|| ; r | i i| | i|| ( zs)
"We had seen a Chabutra on the south in the outer
courtyard. I had also seen a thatched roofing on the said
Chabutra. 6here was a shed on the north and as also on
the south. This shed was separately laid which was on the
4426
north and it did not adjoin the boundary wall. The
northern shed was 6 X 8 feet; it was not a big one. The
shed which lay on the south was nearly 20 X 15 feet. The
Chabutra was bigger than the shed. The Chabutra would
have been 20 feet long and 17 feet wide. There was not tree
in the outer courtyard. This outer courtyard extended from
the northern side and turned towards the west. But such
position was not on the south. The portion of the northern
courtyard which had turning towards the west, extended
upto the last wall and was nearly 90 feet long. The width of
this portion must be nearly 20 feet. The floor of this
courtyard was metaled." (E.T.C)
; r - ~ri i r i i i i i r i
i i | (l ri) ri ~ri r| ii, l~ i ii, l
i l-i | in| r | r i i |- - r -i -
n i | r- ni i r| nni ii l r n-- r ri |
i ii ii - i - ri ri ni| i
- i | ii i ii| r i i r i i s
; | + i; si -i i i i -iiln l r
i | - n i r| l r + -ii ni ni -i i -i i
ii, n-- i ii i ; -i i ii| r ni -i | n| i i
- -| i ;n| r| i | i|| r si -i i ni l-| |i
n| zr - i ii| ... -n| n - - n
ili ri ;-in - ii i ni r si -i ni i; n
ni ii| i; n lii n| r | i ili
ri n n ; n i i r| li ini ii, ii | | ;| n
li ini ii| ; 4X4 si - n | lii| n |i
i|, i n i i|| - ii i| ii, i rni ii|
n ii |i | -i; n| so - i|| r l-
i|| r n i| |i l- l - -l- | |i i
l-n| i|| ri r n i| |i i ili| i i l-
4427
| n ii, ri ;-in | l-| |i i ii n| so
- ii| - -n | n i ; ii r| ii| -n| n
i| |i - r| ii ii, r |i | ii| r ii
n - r| ii i i r i ii| iii i ii ii| r ii
c - + i ri ni i i - i i ri ni| i|n| r | n
i| n i| |i i|| ( zs.so)
"In this courtyard, a 'Chulha' (hearth) was build and so
was a 'Belan' (rolling pin). (Further stated) there was no
'Chulha' there; there was a 'Chakla' on which breads are
baked. The said 'Chakla' and 'Balan' appeared to be made
of cement. It does appears to us that they were built of
marble. The said 'Chakla ' would have been a
circumference of one feet at most. A 1 feet 'Belna' was
beside it. The said 'Chakla' and 'Belan' was placed on the
small floor erected at the height of 4 or 6 inches. I do not
remember whether the said elevated Chabutra-like floor
was made of stone or of marbles or of bricks. This
Chabutra shaped thing was 3 or 4 feet long and it was that
much wide. This small Chabutra was at the distance of
nearly 25 feet from the western wall. . . . .On entering that
building from the road through the main gate, there lay a
small Chabutra on the left side. The left side forms the
eastern direction. At the time of entering through that gate,
one would not cross this Chabutra; one would go slightly
by its site. On the southern side of this 4 X 4 feet small
Chabutra, there was a wall having grills. It had a wall as
well which continued to be closed. That grilled wall was
nearly 30 feet in length. It extended from east to west the
grilled wall at the western end joined the wall of the
mosque, where the last corner of the grilled wall towards
4428
the west and from there the western wall of the building
was at the distance of nearly 30 feet. It has no door on the
northern side. Only in the northern grill wall, there was a
door which was in its middle. This door was in the grill
itself and was made of iron. The door was of iron bars.
This door would be 6 feet high and 4 feet wide. There was
a grill wall also to the east of the inner courtyard." (E.T.C)
(viii) PW 8, Abdul Aziz:
; ;-in | riin in s, n , li i i i
- ni r r - ri r| -n i i i ili| i -i
i n -n | nr i- r i - i ; i
r| r | i|| ( ss)
"The inteso was a 'Belan' (rolling pin)rnal position of this
buildinso was a 'Belan' (rolling pin)g, in reference to
shed, Chabutra, walls and flooring which I have stated
about, continued to be the same from my first visit to that
place till the time I last offered namaz; there was no
alternation therein." (E.T.C)
(ix) PW 9, Saiyyad Akhalak:
; r lii | n n | i i| ni-| i||
; n | + i; n| i n| - ii i|| r ni
ni ii| ... ; n si -i i s ii| ( zz)
"There was a Chabutra-shaped construction to the south of
this courtyard. The height of this Chabutra was nearly 3-
3 feet. It was a firm Chabutra. . . . . There was a small
shed on this Chabutra." (E.T.C)
r s | i-ii l-i r i ii| - | ii| - ;
n + i s | | | - - -i ni-| r| i|| ...
; n + i | | - i n| li | -i | |
r ; i| | ... lili | -i; i i; | i| l - i-|
4429
n ii ni ii| li li n | -
s nr ni rri i|| - ln i| r ; i|, i
ir lii; n| i|, | nri; i lni iri -i
|l| i i-| - n ini ii, ilr r l r
- i| ni ii| n + i s ii - - n -i -
r| i i- ri ni ii| - ri i| l| i -n -n r|
ii| ( zs)
"This shed rested on the wooden pillars. In my knowledge,
there was not any wooden tent like construction above this
Chabutra or below the shed. . . . . In between the top and
the bottom of this Chabutra, there were 2-3 window shaped
things.. . . . . The length and width of the windows was such
as to allow one to enter and exit in a bending position.
Inside the windows, there was, however, certainly some
space in the middle of that Chabutra. Inside that was
placed idol which was visible from outside. As far as its
depth is concerned, you may now take it to be so much as
you like. From the fact that a person can go therein by
stooping himself, it is clear that he can even sit inside it. As
far as the shed above the Chabutra is concerned, I do not
know what was done therein. I never saw anybody sitting
and standing up there." (E.T.C)
- ; ii i| i ; nii ni r i r| ii| ...
i i | | nr ~ri , i i i r
i n i | .... ~ri, i i i -i r i | ; |i
i l i| i n i i - | rii ;r ri ini
i| ii ii| ; -i -n | n n - ii| ( zr).
"I never saw any locks put on these doors. . . . .'Chulha'
(hearth), 'Chakla' and 'Belna' (rolling pin) were seen
built on a small place. . . . .Chulha' (hearth), 'Chakla' and
4430
'Belna' (rolling pin) were carved of stone. I would hear
about these things for a considerable times and since the
time I gained understanding, I continued to see them over
there. There was a gate to the north of this 'Uthan' (raised
place)." (E.T.C)
; r , i ir | n ii i i + nii ni ~ri,
ii r r , i r ini n i r
i| -i r| | n; | - n - ili ri -n
ii r i i i rni ii, i i ; ;-n -i r| ri ni ii|
( z/).
"Namaz was never offered in this courtyard, which was
towards the exterior side or which is the above-stated
courtyard having 'Chulha' and 'Chakla' and in the
Chabutra courtyard about which deposition has been made
earlier. On coming inside through the main gate, the
northern courtyard continued to be open and was not put
to any use." (E.T.C)
(x) PW 14, Jalil Ahmad:
i ; ri | i | - ~ri , i i i i i i |
i ; lr r| i | - r| ni ni l ~ri i i
i i i l -i r i | r i| | i | nr
| r ; i| i ; ni r| ii| r ~ri i i i i
ii ni r i ii ii n i r| li ii| ...;| si - i
i -n ii i i r- r ~ri i i i i i
r i ii| - n r| -i - l ; ~r i l
ii| ( s).
"There were Chulha' (hearth), 'Belna' (rolling pin) and
'Chauka' at the place where Rasoi was built. No foot prints
were built. I cannot tell of which material 'Chulha',
'Chakla'/'Chauka' or 'Belna' were built. All these things
4431
were built on the ground surface; there was no Chabutra.
The said Chulha', 'Chakla' and 'Belna' formed part of the
floor, that is to say, they were stuck to the floor itself. . . . .
To the south of and slightly away from this very small
door, the said Chulha', 'Belna' and 'Chauka-Chakla' were
wrought. I do not know who built the said Chulha',
'Chakla' and 'Belna'." (E.T.C)
r ~rii i r| r, l i - - + ni i
r | n-| o/ i i nir ri l ;- ~rii
n lii n r | ( zs).
"These 'Chulha', 'Chakla' and 'Belan' are those very things
about which I have stated above. Looking at the
Photograph No. 71 the witness stated- it shows 'Chulha-
Chakla' on a Chabutra." (E.T.C)
r i| r| r l ~ri | l ri ri ri -i
r| | i n|| ( ss).
"It is also correct that namaz will not be offered at a place
having pictures of 'Chulha', 'Chakki', 'Belan'." (E.T.C)
(xi) DW1/2 - Sri Krishna Chandra Singh:
r -n,i i i i| lii n i- ni ii
l i- i ln r nii | i-i | - ln li-i i||
lii l- i |- | i r| - ni r i
ii, ri i ni ii ni ii, n li, i n|, ni i,
iln , li| i ii | | - ln i li-i i|| ( s).
"On going inside through Hanumatdwar, on the left, that is
on the southern side there was Ramchabutra, on which
'Vigrah' (different forms) of Ram Darbar as also the idol of
Ramlala was seated. On its southern-western corner, there
were Neem and Peepal trees stuck together, where lay a
semi circular Chabutra, on which the idols of Shiv, Parvati,
4432
Ganesh, Kartikey and Shiv Ji's vehicle Nandi were seated."
(E.T.C)
(xii) DW1/3, Sri Sahdev Prasad Dube:
|i- -i l- l-in -l - i l lii - r -n ,i
c l-, ssz ii, ,i i i i i -| i-i n i ,
i lnn| - i i , ; | nii | -ln i i| i|| -n
| i |ni i ; ; - -i l- -l i iin r
i- ni ii, |ni i ; ; - -il- -l i
iin r i- ni ii, |ni i ; -n| lii - l r,i ii,
lii l- lii - n| -| i| l inni -l l
ii n i- -il- l-in -l | l-i n i | ( r).
"For entrance in Sri Ram Janmabhumi-situated temple, in
the eastern direction was Hanumatdwar prior to 6
th
December, 1992. On both sides of the gate were fixed
Kasauti pillars, two in number, with the images of gods-
goddess engraved on them. On the north lay Sita Rasoi and
on its east were 'Bhandar Grih' (store room) of Janmbhumi
temple and Ramchabutra. To the north of Sita Rasoi was
Singhdwar; on its south and west there was uncultivated
land, from which point of place devotees performed
circumambulation of the temple precincts or
Ramjanmbhumi-situated temple." (E.T.C)
(xiii) DW 2/1-2, Sri Ram Sharan Shrivastava:
liln i - n i -i i-ii , i, i- ~,
-, | nii -i i lni -- i| ni | l -
|ni i ; , ilr, i i , ~ri, i- ni ii| n -i
lr i -i| - ii liln -i ini
i- - -i - ii| ( r).
"'Kalash', mango leaves, lotus flowers, images of god-
goddess and human beings were clearly seen engraved on
4433
the black stone pillars embedded in the disputed structure,
and Sita Rasoi, foot prints, 'Chauka', 'Belan', 'Chulha' and
Ramchabutra were there in that very premises. The said
place was as a revered place for the Hindus and the
disputed site was always revered as the birthplace of Lord
Rama." (E.T.C)
i | l-iln - i ni- i r, l- | i i-
ni, ri i ri r| i|, -n | n |ni i; i liln
i i i| i n i--i l- -in i , r | ( c/).
"By the location of the building I mean the entire building,
including Ramchabutra on the east providing space for
worship, Sita Rasoi on the north and the disputed structure
regarded by people as Ramjanmbhumi." (E.T.C)
4064. PW 6 on page 20, further said about the others
temples around the building in dispute:
- nili ii ; ln lr i -l r | ; ii
r -in| n i-n - lr i - l r , i
i i---ii, r -in || -i r~i i-i - - i- -il- -l
i| r | ii - |i- | -l i| r , r -i | i|
-l r i li i| -l r | ( zo)
"Around the property in suit, there are temples of Hindus.
On the way from this property to Hanumangarhi, there
situate a number of big temples of Hindus e.g. Kanak
Bhawan, Ramjanamsthan and Hanumangarhi. In Mohalla
Ramkot, Ramjanambhumi temple also situates. In Ayodhya,
there are also the temples of Sri Ram Chandra Ji
Hanumanji and Jains." (E.T.C.)
4065. In the above context, PW 16 said as under:
| i i|n i | rin - lii | n ni
ii, l i- -i l- rn r | ;| rin | -n | n
4434
iin r i -i ri ni ii| ( r/)
"Entering through the eastern door, there was a chabutara
(platform) towards eastern side of the compound, which is
called Ram Janambhumi. Towards north of this compound
there might have been store room." (E.T.C.)
|ni i ; ri l-in ii, | i -n| ii ii| r
-| r l - ;-in l - -l- rni r , i
l i n lr iil- -iii i ri ii ni ii|
( rs)
"Near the place where Sita Rasoi situated, there was the
north door. It is correct that for reaching the main building,
which I term as 'mosque', one had to pass through the
aforesaid religious places." (E.T.C.)
4066. This position as emerges from the above could not
have been controverted in any manner. Therefore, the first part
of the issue in question we are inclined to answer in affirmance.
So far as the second part is concerned, i.e., its effect, we find
that the pleadings in this respect are that if the mosque is
surrounded or landlocked by the places of worship of other
religions (in the present case Hindu), then it cannot be a Mosque
according to the tenets of Islam. However, no such command in
any of the Islamic text could have been traced or placed before
us to support the submission. It is true that normally the places
of worship are constructed where the population of the
worshippers is quite reasonable and for their convenience, the
persons responsible for construction normally choose a place
where obstruction is minimal, but that is one aspect of the
matter and can not be equated to a proposition that such a
construction would not be an Islamic religious structure, if it is
surrounded or landlocked by the religious places of other
4435
religions.
4067. The issue further is sought to be argued on the
ground that under Islamic text, at one place there cannot be two
places of worship as the property vested in God cannot have a
share holder. It is, thus, submitted that this is a command against
a Mosque under the Islamic text and, therefore, the building in
dispute could not be a Mosque. We have already held that in this
case, it is a peculiar situation where in the same premises,
Hindus and Muslims both were worshipping according to their
beliefs, customs and tenets and this is going on for the last
several decades before the first suit was filed in the Court of
Civil Judge. When a religious practice is continuing in a
particular manner for such a long time, in our view, it ought not
to be questioned or should be discussed or adjudicated by the
Court. No one can be allowed to say such practice was not
correct and the generations to generations were acting illegally
or contrary in following tenets of their religion. The manner of
worship of one religion ought not to be allowed to be questioned
after almost a century by the people of other religion. It is
impertinent and improper. In view thereof, we answer the Issue
No. 19 (b) (Suit-4) in affirmance to the extent that the
building was landlocked and could not be reached except by
passing though the places of Hindu worship. However, this by
itself was of no consequences.
(C) Whether the Hindus had been continuously worshipping
at the place in dispute:
4068. Issue No. 13, 14 (Suit-4) and 24 (Suit-5) come in
this category.
4069. Issue No. 13 and 14 (Suit-4) read as under:
4436
Issue No. 13 :-
Whether the Hindus in general and defendants in
particular had the right to worship the Charans and 'Sita
Rasoi' and other idols and other objects of worship, if any,
existing in or upon the property in suit?
Issue No. 14 :-
Have the Hindus been worshipping the place in
dispute as Sri Ram Janam Bhumi or Janam Asthan and
have been visiting it as a sacred place of pilgrimage as of
right since times immemorial? If so, its effect?
4070. While considering issue No.3 (Suit-4) pertaining to
limitation, we have already held that in the outer courtyard there
were certain religious structures of Hindus which they were
worshipping since long i.e. before 1885. The plaintiffs (Suit-4)
having lost their right to interfere in such right of Hindus which
has continued for such a long time, therefore, in respect to those
religious structures, the answer would be affirmative. So far as
the inner courtyard is concerned, there the idols were kept for
the first time on 22/23
rd
December, 1949. But that itself makes
no difference for the reason that the place of birth of lord Rama,
we have already been held to be a Swayambhu deity and
worship of this place is continuing for the past several centuries,
as we have already discussed while considering issues relating
to site as birthplace and the existence of temple as also the
issues pertaining to possession therefore, Hindus in general had
been entering the premises within the inner courtyard, as a
matter of right for the last several century, cannot be denied this
right after such a long time. We therefore, answer issues 13 and
14 (Suit 4) in affirmative.
4437
4071. Issue No. 24 (Suit-5) is;
"Whether worship has been done of the alleged plaintiff
Deity on the premises in suit since time immemorial as
alleged in para 25 of the plaint?"
4072. Here also we remind that for the purpose of Suit-5,
the property in dispute comprises of inner and outer courtyard,
both. There are two plaintiff Deities. Plaintiff 1 is the idol. We
have already held that the idol of Ramlala or Lord Rama kept
earlier on Ram Chabutara in the outer courtyard and was being
worshipped by Hindus since long time, i.e. almost a century,
was shifted and placed under the central dome of the disputed
structure in the inner courtyard in December, 1949.
4073. So far as the plaintiff 2 is concerned, we have
discussed above that it was also being worshipped since long as
noticed by Joseph Tieffenthaler in the middle of the 18
th
century
and thereafter in several gazetteers etc.. Worship of both the
plaintiffs was going on for such a long time which satisfy the
term "time immemorial". Issue No.24 (Suit-5) therefore is also
answered in affirmative.
(D) The presence of idol in the disputed building:
4074. Issue No.2 (Suit-1) comes in this category.
4075. Issue 2 (Suit -1) is:
"Are there any idols of Bhagwan Ram Chandra Ji and are
His Charan Paduka situated in the site in suit?"
4076. Before answering it, we may remind ourselves that
the suit is confined to the premises within the inner courtyard as
also clarified by the plaintiff Gopal Singh Visharad in his
statement made under Order X, Rule 2 C.P.C. on 07.03.1962
which reads as under:
4438
"Plaintiff Gopal Singh Visharad and Sri Param Hans Ram
Chandra plffs of both the suits no.2/50 and 25 of 1950
accompanied by their counsel state that they do not want
any relief with regard to constructions or structures
indicated in the map of the Commissioner Sheo Shanker
Lal dated 25.5.50. by the terms 'Sita Rasoi' 'Bhandar' and
'Ram Chabootra' . They say that the reliefs are asked for
only with regard to property enclosed in the said map by
letters A. B. C. D. L. K. J. P. O. H. N. G. A.
4077. In the discussion already made above, this has come
on record that "Charan Paduka" is part of the structure which is
also called as "Sita Rasoi" or "Chhati Pujan Sthal" which existed
in the outer courtyard. It is evident from the site plan submitted
by Sri Shiv Shankar Lal on 25
th
May, 1950, which we have
already appended as Appendix 2 to this judgment. This also
admitted by plaintiff. Therefore, it cannot be said that "Charan
Paduka" situated in the site in dispute since the suit is confined
only to the premises within the inner courtyard.
4078. So far as the idols of "Bhagwan Ram Chandra Ji" is
concerned, we have already held while considering Issues
No.3(a) (Suit-5) and Issue No.12 (Suit-4) that the same were
placed under the central dome of the disputed structure, within
the inner courtyard, in the night of 22/23
rd
December, 1949 but
prior thereto the same existed in the outer courtyard and it is
therefrom, the same was shifted. Suit-1 was filed on 16
th
January, 1950 on which date idol of Ram Chandra Ji, as a matter
of fact, existed in the inner courtyard under the central dome of
the disputed structure. Issue No.2 (Suit-1) is therefore,
answered accordingly.
4439
(E) Issues relating to place of birth of Lord Rama, believed as
such by Hindus by tradition etc.
4079. Here we are concerned with issues no. 11 (Suit-4), 1
(Suit-1) and 22 (Suit-5) which reads as under:
Issue No. 11 :-
Is the property in suit the site of Janam Bhumi of Sri
Ram Chandraji?
Issue No. 1 :-
Is the property in suit the site of Janam Bhumi of Sri
Ram Chandra Ji?
Issue No. 22 :-
Whether the premises in question or any part thereof is
by tradition, belief and faith the birth place of Lord Rama as
alleged in paragraphs 19 and 20 of the plaint? If so, its
effect?
4080. The real and substantial issue in all these cases
going to the root of the matter is that the plaintiffs (Suit-4) and
Muslim defendants in rest of the suits unequivocally and
unanimously submit that there is no evidence to show that lord
Rama was born at the disputed site. They submit that Hindus
belief that Ayodhya is the place of birth of lord Rama and
therefore is very holy and religious place even if not disputed in
these cases, but that by itself would not mean that the disputed
place can be identified as the only place where lord Rama is said
to have been born. Neither in any Hindu religious scriptures nor
in any other history book or record it is mentioned that the
disputed site was actually the place of birth of lord Rama. He
may have born at Ayodhya but to narrow it down and
concentrate on the disputed site is wholly conjectured and
4440
imaginary. It is without any foundation or substance.
4081. It is said that though the statements under Order X,
Rule 2 C.P.C. have been given by the learned counsels for the
various Muslim parties that they do not dispute about the faith
of Hindus regarding birth of lord Rama at Ayodhya and that the
present Ayodhya is the same as believed by the Hindus yet the
Court cannot ignore the opinion of voluminous record of
historian and other experts in the field saying that the
Ramayana, which is considered to be the basic document to
reflect life of lord Rama and makes it an incarnation of lord
Vishnu, is a myth and therefore it is termed as an epic.
4082. That being so, the story of lord Rama is even if with
the passage of time has generated in such a vast Hindu faith as if
a matter of historicity yet on judicial side when this Court will
take note of it, it cannot held otherwise and therefore it is unjust
to raise an unfounded claim and contend that lord Rama was
born at the disputed site. They submit that the vedic literature
and the Hindu scripture relied by various counsels for Hindu
parties broadly do not construe reliable source of history and
therefore in the absence of any reliable material, merely on the
basis of something which is mentioned in some gazetteers
published in 19
th
century and onwards during the British regime,
that too wholly unsubstantiated, and, perhaps was written to
create a rift between Hindu and Muslim in furtherance of policy
of the Britishers to rule India following divide rule, it cannot be
said that building in dispute was constructed at a place where
lord Rama had born and therefore the question of desecration of
Hindu religious place does not arise.
4083. It is in this context, the common submissions in
4441
brief advanced by the learned counsels for the Muslims side are
that there exists no evidence to show that any temple or
religious structure existed at the disputed site which is said to
have been demolished for construction of the disputed structure;
there is no evidence to show that Lord Rama actually took birth
at the disputed site though his birth in Ayodhya itself is not
disputed; the disputed structure was constructed in 1528 by
Meer Baqi, a Commander of Emperor Babar and throughout
since then it has been considered, treated and practised as
Mosque wherein Muslims have offered their religious prayers
regularly till at least December 1949 when the District
administration restrained them by attaching the property in
dispute and placing it under the receivership.
4084. Sri Jilani submitted that it is for this reason that the
stand of Hindus also differ on certain aspect though not in
respect to the issue pertaining to birth place.
4085. The Sunni Central Waqf Board was impleaded as
defendant in Suit-1 in 1989 whereafter it filed its written
statement and Sri Jilani referred to paras 10, 11, 12 and 13
thereof. He then referred the claim and written statements in
other three suits and submitted that in general there are three
parties: (1) Muslim Group, (2) Orthodox Hindus and (3)
Nirmohi Akhara. The case of the Nirmohi Akhara is that there
was never a mosque but it was throughout a temple of Lord Sri
Rama and Ram Janam Bhumi was in possession of Nirmohi
Akhara who was performing Pooja, Arti etc. through its Pujaris,
from time immemorial. The case of orthodox Hindus is that it
was a place of birth of Lord Sri Rama where a mosque was
constructed by Babar through his aide Mir Baqi but the said
4442
building was never used as mosque. At least from 1934 the
building was never used as mosque. In respect to the placement
of idols, Sri Jilani pointed out that there are two versions: first,
about the alleged manifestation of Ram Lala in the night of
22/23.12.1949 and second is the transfer of idols from Ram
Chabutara to the dome shaped building of the disputed
premises.
4086. Mr. Jilani, in brief, advanced his submission by
placing oral and documentary evidence as under:
1. The building in question was constructed in 1528 AD
by Mir Baqi at Ayodhya and has always been treated a
mosque
2. The muslims were offering Namaj in the said building
since very beginning and at least from 1855 onwards.
There is evidence that the building in dispute was in
possession of Muslims, managed by a Mutawalli and
Namaj was offered regularly therein.
3. There is no evidence whatsoever that the disputed
building was constructed after demolition of any temple of
Lord Ram or any other deity worshipped by Hindus.
4. In fact there is no evidence at all that there existed a
Hindu temple on or before 1528 when Mir Baqi made
construction of the disputed building.
5. The claim of Nirmohi Akhara that it was throughout in
possession of the disputed building and Pooja Archana of
Lord Rama was going since long is incorrect, the oral
evidence is not creditworthy and self contradictory. There
is no credible documentary evidence either.
6. On the contrary the documents of the state authorities of
4443
different time, oral evidence of individuals etc. show that
the building in question was a mosque, throughout known
as Babri Mosque, and Namaj was offered therein
throughout.
4087. Adopting the entire arguments of Sri Z. Jilani, Sri
Siddiqui further stated that though he does not dispute that Lord
Rama took birth at Ayodhya, however, there is no evidence that
Lord Rama took birth at the disputed site. There is neither any
evidence to this effect nor there existed any Temple of Lord
Rama at the aforesaid place in 1528 when the construction in
dispute was raised by Meer Baqi, a Commander of Emperor
Babar. He drew our attention to the topography of the land in
dispute and nearby area referring to the two maps of 1885, a site
plan prepared by Court Commissioner Sri Gopal Sahai, Amin,
and, the map and pleadings in Suit No. 95 of 1941, and
Commissioner Sri Shiv Shanker Lal's report. He pointed out that
the report of Sri Shiv Shanker Lal mentions two houj (ri )
showing source and availability of water for Vajoo and also a
place used as urinal at the disputed site. He also referred to the
exhibits A20, A21 and A22 (Suit-1) and exhibit A13 (Suit-4).
According to him, the aforesaid maps show admission of the
parties that the disputed construction was a mosque.
4088. On the contrary, the stand of all the counsels
appearing for Hindu parties whether plaintiff or defendant in all
the suit is common. They collectively submit that there is
enough material to show that since time immemorial the
disputed place being a part of fort of lord Rama or King
Dashratha was held, treated, practised and worshiped as the
place of birth of lord Rama as an incarnation in human form of
4444
lord Vishnu.
4089. Taking lead in support of the issues relating to site
of birthplace and worship by Hindus, Sri R.L. Verma said that
the place in dispute is the same where Lord Rama was born
several thousands or lacs of years ago. It is a very pious, holy
and religious place for Hindu, has been worshipped by them
since time immemorial and a fine temple of Lord Rama existed
which was demolished by Mir Baqi to construct a mosque. He
sought to place before us as source of history, Vedas, Puranas,
Ramayana and other religious and historical literature and books
and also the statements of several witnesses.
4090. On behalf of the defendant no. 20 (Suit-4), Sri P.N.
Misra and Km. Ranjana Agnihotri, advocates, made their
submissions at length placing certain extracts from Rigveda
Samhita, Taittiriya Sanhita, Yajurveda Samhita,
Atherva-Veda ka Subodh Bhasya, Atharva-Veda
Samhita, Skanda-Purana, Shri Narsinghpuranam, Sri
Ramacaritamanasa, History of Dharmashastra by P.V.
Kane. It is contended that Ayodya, Lord Rama and their
relationship is duly recognised since ancient time which shows
that the Lord Rama was born at the place in dispute and there
cannot be any reasonable doubt in this regard which is in the
memory, faith and belief of Hindu people since several centuries
handed down to them from generations to generations.
4091. Expanding the above submission of Sri Verma, Sri
Ravi Shankar Prasad, Sri P.R. Ganapati Ayyiar, Senior
Advocates, etc. all the learned counsels placed before us in
detail various Hindu scriptures, Indian Books, Gazetteers and
other documents to show that throughout Hindus have believed
4445
and worshipped the place in dispute as a place where lord Rama
was born. They submit that the matter of birth of lord Rama
being several thousand and lakhs of year old, it is imprudent to
expect any direct evidence on the subject. In the matter of faith
and religion, the Court will have to form an opinion and
adjudicate the matter on the basis of preponderance particularly
if it found the evidence of continuous faith of the entire
community to several hundred and thousand of years i.e. beyond
the memory of mankind and if it is found that there has been a
continuity in such a faith with respect to such a place, no further
adjudication by asking for direct evidence would be necessary
and the Court will have to uphold such faith which has
continued for time immemorial. Some of the details of the
argument of the learned counsels in this regard and the material
they placed, we have already referred to.
4092. Sri M.M. Pandey in respect to the Issues No. 14, 22
and 24 (Suit-5) has made submissions as under:
(A) Hindus hold Lord Ram to be incarnation of Lord
Vishnu, claim that Ram was born at the place where
disputed structure (in short 'DS') was erected and that
before its construction, there stood a Hindu Temple; this
temple was demolished and in its place DS was
constructed. The birthplace has been held by Hindus as a
highly sacred place and constitutes to be Swayambhu
Deity, worshipped as such since time immemorial.
(B) In the nature of things, the place of birth cannot be
proved by 'direct' evidence; indeed no living being is
capable of proving the birthplace of any of his parents, 4
degrees or more remote in the line of ascent. The fact,
4446
therefore, has to be judged in accordance with the
meaning of word 'proved' u/s 3 of Indian Evidence Act.
The significant expression is: 'the Court either believes it
to exist or considers its existence so probable that a
prudent man ought .. to act upon the supposition that
it exists'. So 'belief' and 'supposition' are perfectly legal
and acceptable states which may lead to 'proof'. Herein
lies the legal relevancy of 'Faith' of the concerned people,
to wit the Hindus, which is the essential foundation of
most of the Spiritual Doctrines. Birthplaces of God's men
have always been treated sacred in all religions. Paper no.
3 of Ramlala's documents is Historical Sketch of Faizabad
in 1870 (Ext. OOS 5: 49) by P. Carnegy,
Commissioner/Settlement Officer of Oudh; in page 5, it is
mentioned that 'Ayodhya is to Hindus what Mecca is to
Mohammedans and Jerusalem to Jews'. In the History of
Dharmashastra Governmental Oriental Series Vol III
at page 177, P.V.Kane records from Visnu-dharmottara
that Ayodhya 'was endowed with hundreds of parks; it
celebrated festivals and held gatherings of peopleit
always resounded with music of lutes, flutes.it
resounded with the recitation of the Vedathere was
not a man who was wretched, dirty or emaciated; it
stretched for three yojanas on the Banks of the Saryu and
was ten yojanas in the middle.' Apart from lot of
documentary evidence, including admissions by some
Muslims, OPW1 Paramhans Ramchandra Das deposed
(Page 7) that birth of Lord Ram in Ayodhya is mentioned
in Balmiki Ramayan, its boundaries are mentioned in
4447
Ayodhya-Mahatma Chapter of Skandha-Puran, that
Birthplace & Garbha-griha is the site of Disputed
Structure (DS) where Bhagwan Ramlala is seated
presently (P 8, 54) and in Atharva-veda mention of
Ayodhya of Ashtachakra-Naodwar is made in a mantra
and the names of Deities (Deota) of the 8-Chakras is
mentioned in a Shloka of Rudrayamal which states the
Deity of the first-Chakra to be Ram Janmabhumi (P.103).
OPW2 Deoki Nandan Agarwal (at P. 39), OPW4 Harihar
Prasad Tewari (P. 2 & 3), OPW6 Hausala Prasad Tripathi
(P.5, 12,13 & 77), OPW 7 Ram Surat Tewari (P. 4, & 6),
have deposed about the DS being Birthplace of Shriram as
incarnation of Bhagwan Vishnu and faith, worship
darshan, Parikrama and pilgrimage thereof by Hindus
since ancient times. OPW 12 Kaushal Kishore Mishra
deposed that Ramchandra ji was born in Mohalla Ramkot
in Ayodhya within DS in the garbh-griha central dome of
the 3-domed 'temple', and that Ramkot was the palace of
Dashrath ji which contained the garbh-griha (P.42 & 43).
OPW 16, Jagatguru Ram Bhadracharya, a great scholar of
literature relating to Lord Ram has elaborately deposed
about the DS to be the birthplace of Bhagwan Shriram as
mentioned later in these arguments; significant
documentary evidence will also be placed later. SB's
witness PW 12, Ram Shankar Upadhyaya, stated (at page
49) that when he went to DS, he did not carry flowers,
wreath (mala) or Prasad, but he had received Prasad from
the mandir from the pujari.
(C) In OOS 1 of '89 (of Ram Gopal Visharad), para 27
4448
of WS dt. 21.2.1950 by Muslim Defdts. 1 to 5 (including
Mohd. Faiq & Zahoor Ahmad, who are co-plaintiffs in
Sunni Board's OOS 4 of '89), states that in 'Ayodhya a
Temple named Mandir Janmasthan Shri Ram Chandra ji,
established long ago, has been in existence at the
birthplace of Ram Chandra ji and Idols of Shri Ram
Chandra ji and others are Virajman therein'. In OOS 3 of
'89 (of Nirmohi Akhara), Defdt. No. 6 (Haji Pheku),
Defdt. No. 7 (Mohd Faiq) and Defdt. No. 8 (Achchan
Mian alias Ahmad Hussain) pleaded similarly in para 28
of their joint WS, filed through Sri Mohd Ayub, Advocate,
on 28.3.1960 that in Ayodhya a temple named as 'Mandir
Janmasthan Shri Ram Chandra ji, established long ago,
has been in existence at the birthplace of Ram Chandra ji,
and Idols of Shri Ram Chandra ji & others are Virajman
therein'. This pleading is the same as was taken by Mohd
Faiq etc in para 27 of their WS dt 21.2.1950 as indicated
above and was confirmed by their lawyer, Sri Mohd Ayub,
on 17.5.1963 under Order X R. 1 CPC which establishes
that (i) there is birthplace of Shri Ram Chandra in
Ayodhya and (ii) a Temple existed at the birthplace. In
OOS 4 of '89 (of Sunni Board), Plaintiff No. 4 Mohd Faiq
is also Defdt in Visharad's suit and is Defdt No. 7 in
Nirmohi Akhara's suit; he verified Sunni Board's Plaint
which was also signed and filed by said Mohd Ayub,
Advocate, on 28.8.1963. These statements made by Mohd
Faiq and Advocate Mohd Ayub, and Defdt. Zahoor Ahmad
in Visharad's suit (and co-palintiff in Sunni Boards' suit)
are binding and conclusive against Sunni Board and
4449
Muslim Defdts in Visharad Suit and in Nirmohi Akhara's
suit: Sec. 17 & 18 Evidence Act. 1960 SC 100, Narayan
Bhagwat Rao Gosavi Vs. Gopal Vinayak Gosavi , 1967
SC 341, Basant Singh Vs. Janki Singh, and 1945 Mad
361, Obanna Vs. Gangaiah, hold that persons jointly
interested in a suit are bound by the admission made by
any one of them. 1947 All 110, Beni Madho Vs Major
A.U.John and 1997 All 122 (at 133) Talat Fatima Hasan
Nawab Syed Murtuza Ali lay down that an admission
made by a Party's Pleader is binding. The Sunni Board
stated in para 32 of their WS dt. 24.2.1989 in reply to
Visharad's suit (i.e. 17 or 18 years after their own Plaint)
that 'there already exists Ram Janmasthan Mandir in the
northern side of the property in question at a short distance
(60-70 steps, vide their PW 12 Ram Shankar Upadhyay at
P.50 & PW4 at P. 55) from the pathway passing from the
side of the Babri Masjid'. [This confirms Shri Ram
Chandra ji's Temple at the birthplace by Mohd Faiq,
Zahoor Ahmad and Mohd Ayub in 1950, 1960 and again
in 1963]. Thus, existence of Shri Ram Chandra's
birthplace in today's Ayodhya and of Temple at birthplace
stands admitted; the only fact which requires further proof
is whether site of DS is at the birthplace and temple had
existed there in the past which was destroyed and replaced
by DS. It is significant that concerned Muslims did not put
up a case/plea at the earliest available opportunity that
Ram Janmasthan Temple at Ram's birthplace existed
separately at a distance of 60-70 steps from DS. That
opportunity existed in Mahant Raghubar Das suit of 1885
4450
when Mohd. Asghar, Mutawalli of DS, filed a written
statement and signed the site plan prepared by Pleader-
Commissioner appointed by Court, but did not plead, nor
pointed out to Pleader-Commisioner, that Ram
Janmaasthan Mandir mentioned above already stood at a
separate spot. It shall appear later in these arguments that
the Janmasthan Mandir aforesaid seems to have been an
effort by Hindu community/devotees to establish a
birthplace temple in the name of Lord Ram, as close as
possible to the demolished Temple replaced by DS, in the
circumstances prevailing through centuries of Mughal
invasion, repression and use of force since 1528. It will be
seen that in 1786 Tieffenthaler found the platform (later
called Ram Chabutra) inside the disputed area campus, the
DS and the periphery of DS (parikrama) being worshipped
by Hindu devotees. It will also appear that in 1853
Hindus forcibly occupied DS, that in 1855, the British
administrators separated the DS from the rest of the
campus by erecting a partition wall through the platform
of DS so that Muslims could offer namaz inside DS
whereas Hindus could remain in possession of the rest of
the campus, that through the vicissitudes of Mandir-
Masjid conflicts, effort by Mahant Raghubar Das of
Nirmohi Akhara in 1885 to erect a temple on Ram
Chabutra failed because a self-impleaded Muslim Defdt
(Mutawalli of DS) opposed erection of Temple thereat and
Courts found co-existence of Masjid and Mandir within
the disputed area to be fraught with danger of bloody riots
and so on.
4451
(D) Authority of ancient times about the birth of Ram in
Ayodhya is contained in Balmiki Ramayan (Paper OOS 5:
261C/1,2) which contains inherent evidence of its period
contemporary to Ram. Balmiki Ramayan, written by
Maharishi Balmiki, seems to satisfy the definition of word
History given at page 459 of The New Lexicon
Websters Dictionary of the English Language 1987 Edn,
published by Lexicon Publications Inc. New York.
'History' is defined as a record of past events usually with
an interpretation of their cause and an assessment of their
importance; a narrative of real or fictitious events
connected with a particular person, country, object.
Balmiki Ramayan, fulfils this criterion; it is a description
of Ram and specific events of his life. Being a
contemporary version, Narad (the Rishi) places Ram as
just a man to poet Balmiki who asked him to identify a
person who possessed all the virtues of Man. Balmiki
closely watched and followed the deeds of Ram and wrote
about the birth of Ram in verses 8th, 9th and 10th of 18th
Sarg and describes Ram as the Lord of Universe. The fact
of Ram's Manifestation is borne out in Chapter X verse 31
of Shrimad Bhagwad Gita (Ext. OOS 3: 20) where Lord
Shri Krishna has mentioned that among 'warriors I am
Ram'.
(E) Closest in point of time immediately preceding
Babar's invasion, is evidence of the darshan of the
Idol/Temple of Ram by Guru Nanak Dev on his
pilgrimage to Ayodhya. It is proved by the testimony of
Rajendra Singh DW 2/1-1 that Guru Nanak started on
4452
pilgrimage in 1507 and had darshan of Ram Janmabhumi
Mandir between 1510 & 1511. In his affidavit in
examination-in-chief, Annexure 3 and 4, he has deposed
respectively about contents of 'Adi Sakhian' (1701) and
'Puratan Janma Sakhi Shri Guru Nanak Dev Jiki' (1734),
which record that during his pilgrimage Guru Nanak Dev
went to Ayodhya, among other places, and had darshan; he
mentioned about the record in 'Pothi Janma Sakhi Gyan
Ratnawali' (1730) Annexure 5 - that Guru Nanak Dev on
reaching Ayodhya said to his disciple Mardana: 'Mardania
this is Shri Ram Chandra ji's city, hence let us proceed to
have darshan, and he got down at the bank of the river'.
The witness deposed about the record of actual darshan of
Ram (i.e. Idol of Ram) by Guru Nanak Dev in Guru
Nanak Vansh Prakash (1829) Annexure 7 - by Baba
Sukhbasi Ram Bedi, who was a descendant in 8th degree
of Laxmi Chand (one of the sons of Guru Nanak Dev),
that 'accompanied by Mardana, Sadguru proceeded and
arrived in Ayodhya, drank the water of river Saryu and had
darshan of Ram closely'. Finally, the witness deposed
about Bhai Baleywali-ki-janma-sakhi (1883) Annexure 6,
where Guru Nanak pointed to Bhai Baley ji, his disciple,
on visiting Ayodhya that it was Shri Ram Chandra ji's city
where He Manifested and performed life's tasks. SB filed
'Janma Sakhi Bhai Bale Wali', Paper No. 208C1/1 to 3
Ext. OOS4: 68 which records Guru Nanak Dev's visit to
Ayodhya and advising both Mardana and Baley, but there
is no mention of Guru Nanak Dev's darshan of Shriram or
Ram Temple. The document does not appear to be reliable
4453
because paper Nos 208C1/1&2 are title covers of which 1
bears no year and 2 bears year of publication to be 2000
AD; on the contary, Ann 6 filed by the witness is of the
year 1883.
(F) Besides extensive cross-examination, SB confronted
the witness with pages 5 to 8 and 33 to 36 of
W.H.McLeod's 'Sikhs & Skihism' (1999), paper 210C1/1
to 210C1/10 Ext. OOS 5: 69, which mentions some other
Janma-Sakhis but not any of the ones named by the
witness. This is irrelevant because the book does not
mention that there were no other Janma-Sakhis. On the
contrary, page 5 mentions that his 'sources for the life of
Guru Nanak .. are generally unreliable .but it is
possible to set out..a brief outline of his life'. Thus
McLeod's account is neither reliable nor substantial. He
admitted the contents of Adi Granth, complied by Guru
Arjan Dev to be authentic (pages 5 & 7), which contained
very little material regarding events of Guru Nanak's life,
hence "we resort to our only other available sources, the
traditional biographies called Janma-Sakhis". He further
mentioned that Janma-Sakhis are hagiographic
(=saintly/holy) accounts of life of Guru Nanak each
consisting of series of separate incidents or chapters (page
8). At the same time he mentioned that there being
'nothing better', Janma-Sakhis have to be used although
they are 'thoroughly inadequate sources' (page 33). It will
be appreciated that 'inadequate' is not 'untruthful', and
there would be no reason to record accounts untruthfully
in 1701, 1730, 1734, 1829 and 1833 about matters which
4454
are treated to be 'saintly/holy'. Further, there is no
inconsistency inter se these Janma-Sakhis spread over a
century and a half recorded by sources that are natural &
trustworthy.
(G) It is admitted by McLeod that starting from
Sultanpur in Punjab, Guru Nanak travelled in all
directions, East/West/North/South (page 34). He even
went on pilgrimage to Mecca (page 35); so the probability
is that in India itself he would have gone on pilgrimage to
Ayodhya which, admittedly, is a Holy Place of pilgrimage
since ancient times. Page 228C1/3, filed by SB, is extract
of British Encyclopaedia mentioning that in his voyage to
East, Nanak went 'as far as Assam'; so why not Ayodhya
too. Moreover, McLeod's account of contents of Janma-
Sakhis (in pages filed by SB) is extremely sketchy. In less
than 2 pages (34-35), he disposed of the accounts recorded
by Bhai Gurdas and in less than 1 page (36) he disposed of
the accounts contained in Puratan Janma-Sakhis.
(H) A very significant narration by McLeod may be
noticed. While referring to Adi Granth or Guru Granth
Sahib (page 7), he has mentioned about 'famous references
to Babar, the so-called Babar vani .do indicate
that Guru Nanak witnessed something of Babar's
depredations ..at the sack of Saidpur', and that 'in the
case of Babar vani, we may confidently assume that he
witnessed something of the devastation caused by Babar's
Army'. This is what witness Rajendra Singh DW2/1-1,
deposed on the basis of contents of Guru Granth Sahib
describing Babar as 'Satan Incarnate' and his army 'Storm
4455
of Sin'. The veracity of the witness, therefore, cannot be
doubted.
(I) SB relied upon some Sikh religious literature to
establish that Ram could be no Manifestation of God. On
the contrary, Paper No. 212C1/1 to C1/4 Ext. OOS 4: 86
extract of Adi Guru Granth Sahib, filed in cross-
examination of Rajendra Singh DW2-1/1 has paper No.
212C1/3 where Guru Nanak Dev acknowledged 'Self-
Manifestation' of God. J.S.Grewal's "The New Cambridge
History of India", Paper No. 214C1/1 to C5, filed during
deposition of the witness, mentions Grewal's view of Guru
Nanak's 'rejection of Hindu deities and scriptures' and
'repudiation of traditional modes of worship and religious
practices' (p. 214C1/3). This is not a correct appreciation
of Guru Nanak's views. Earlier, at the same page, Guru
Nanak is mentioned to have maintained that 'none of the
Hindu deities could be equated with the Supreme Being.
In fact, everything known to myth, legend and history was
the creation of Guru Nanak's God. The human
incarnations of Hindu Deities, like Krishna, could add
nothing to God's greatness'. The Author has mixed up his
understanding of the teachings of Guru Nanak with their
true content. Having impressed upon the absolute
supremacy of the Supreme Being, Guru Nanak remarked
that human incarnation of Hindu deities like Krishna
"could add nothing to God's greatness", so they could not
be equated with Supreme Being and were creation of God.
A correct understanding of these teachings is that human
incarnations do take place like Krishna but they cannot be
4456
equated with God Himself; indeed they Manifest with all
the limitations of a human being. What is mentioned by
Grewal as 'rejection' is in fact sublimation of the concept
of incarnation into Godhead. Similarly SB relied upon the
remark of Guru Nanak that 'there was no merit in the
worship of images' (p C1/3); this remark misses the
recognised rule of Hindu worship that the Hindu does not
worship the 'material in the image' but the Spirit of God
behind the Image (See Para 36 below). Guru Nanak's
criticism of 'practices of those who worship Krishna and
Rama', concerns practices , not the essence of the Faith of
Hindus in God and Incarnations. Grewal fell into same
error over the teachings of Guru Nanak at page 214C1/4;
his inference that with 'rejection' of idea of 'incarnation' it
is 'impossible to treat Rama and Krishna as deities'
concern only the practices of worship of Ram & Krishna
without affecting their Divinity; the fact of happenings of
Self Manifestation are already established by extract of
Guru Granth Sahib contained in page 212C1/3 referred to
above. Grewal committed the same error while
mentioning about Quran at page 214C1/4. It is interesting
that page 228C1/5, extract of British Encyclopaedia filed
by SB dealing with views (of Sikhism), mentions that
Sikhism forbids representation of God in pictures and
worship of idols, but admits that Adi Granth itself has
become an object of intense ceremonial reverence and as
such is known as Granth Sahib (the Granth personified) so
that it is "roused" in the morning and in the evening it is
"put to rest for the night". This is very similar to the
4457
manner in which the worship of a Hindu Deity is
performed by the Pujari and has been judicially
recognised. This also reflects the spiritual commitment of
the Devotees/followers of a Faith which transforms an
object of reverence into a Deity even if the followers
commitment does not strictly conform to the teachings of
the Founder.
(J) Chronologically, the next account filed in the case is
in Ain-e-Akbari (paper 107C1/. ) Ext. OOS 5: 76
written by Abul Fazal, a courtier of Akbar, in 1598. The
extract on record is the one printed in 1881 by Nawal
Kishore Press, Lucknow. The text at page 78 records that
Avadh, one the bigger towns of Hindustan, is counted as
an ancient place of worship. It was stated to be the place
of residence of Raja Ramchandar who, as indicated above,
"combined in his own person both spiritual supremacy and
kingly office".
(K) In modern times, Mahatma Gandhi, Father of the
Nation, treated Ram as God. In "MAHATMA", Gandhi's
biography written by D.G.Tendulkar, at page 93 of
Volume VIII, mention is made of Gandhi holding that God
was known by many names and He had many attributes
and that 'Ram and Rahim, Krishna & Karim' were all
names of one God. Again, page 137 mentions Gandhi
saying that Man calls God by many names Ram, Khuda
etc; and page 162 mentions Gandhi saying that God is
known to Hinduism as Ram. His famous bhajan in daily
evening prayers, r6upit ra6v rajaram, pitt pavn sIta ram, is
too well-known. Paper No. 110C1/96 (filed by Sunni
4458
Board) contains, at page 183, an account by Abul Fazl
(Akbar's Courtier) in 1598 that Ramchandra 'who in Treta
age combined in his own person both the spiritual
supremacy and kingly office'; clearly perceived Ram to
possess 'spiritual supremacy' which could place him in the
category of God's incarnation. Paper No. 4 of list d.
5.11.1989 filed by Madan Mohan Gupta of Deft. Akhil
Bharatiya Sri Ram Janma Bhumi Punardudhar Samiti is
extract of translation of Ain-e-Akbari by Col. H.S.Jarret in
1891 recorded a foot-note that Ram Chandra was '7th
Avatar and as incarnate Rama is the hero of famous epic
that bears his name'.
(L) OPW 16, Ram Bhadracharya, who has stood
searching cross-examination on his authority on Lord Ram
has consistently deposed about the birthplace of Ram with
reference to Ramtapniyopnishad and Ayodhya Mahatma in
Skandh Puran (Vaishnav Khand). Jagadguru Ram
Bhadracharya, OPW 16, also deposed about the place of
Rams birth in Ayodhya in paras 25 and 27 of his affidavit
citing the authority of Chapter X of Skand-Puran
(Vaishnav Khand) and of Yajurved. In para 23 of his
affidavit, he asserted that the expression sarvalok
namskrutam in Sarg 18 (verse 10) signifies the disputed
area in these suits as the birthplace of Ram. In para 24 of
his affidavit read with pages 39 and 40 of cross-
examination, he cites the authority of Ramtapniyopnishad
and Atharva-ved to establish the birthplace of Ram to be
in Ayodhya. Refuting the suggestion that Ayodhya
Mahatm of Skand-Puran is a later interpolation, he
4459
asserted at page 53 that the spot which has been
mentioned in Skand-Puran as Janmabhumi is the very spot
which is the disputed site in this case. At page 54, he
described the boundaries of Janmabhumi as mentioned in
Skand-Puran; most of these boundaries tally with the
present location of Disputed Area in Plans I & II of Shiv
Shanker Lal. Add to these, paper no 17 of Documents filed
on behalf of Bhagwan Shri Ramlala in OOS 5/89, the
witness spoke about the situation of temple of
Vighaneswar Bhagwan and said that Janmasthan is at
North-East angle of Vighaneshwar, is towards North of
Vashistha Kund and towards West of Lomash Kund; he
reaffirmed those very situations on further cross-
examination by different angles. All these situations are
corroborated by couplet nos. 16, 18 and 19 of Skand-
Puran Mahatm extract in paper no 17 (of Ramlalas
documents referred to above. Jagadguru Ram
Bhadracharya made a very emphatic and important
statement in para 62 of cross-examination: liln -i
-n i l| --ii i- -l in - l| ii-
i -n - r| i| - r| ni ni l l| -l i
n - -l i- ii ini r | This cross-
examination was done by Z. Jilani for Sunni Board and
the reply totally excludes the theory of Janmasthan
Temple towards North of DA across the Pakka Road
(pleaded by pro-Masjid Parties) as Rams birthplace or
antiquity of that temple.
(M) Babarnama (as translated by A.S.Beveridge) Ext.
OOS 5: 16, which is first hand account his
4460
exploits/adventures by Babar himself (1528), does not
contain any account of Ram, Mandir or Masjid. On
Babar's capturing Delhi Sultanate after defeating Ibrahim
Lodi on 21.4.1526, some local Governors of Lodi rebelled
against Babar to establish their own rule. Babarnama
mentions at page 544 that his son, Humayun, having been
entrusted with subduing the rebels, took Jaunpur,
Ghazipur, Kharid (Jaunpur), and placed Sheikh Bayazid
Furmuli into the charge of Aude(=Oudh). Page 589
mentions that on 26.12.1527, troops were sent against
Bayazid, signifying that Bayazid also rebelled in the
meantime. On 21.3.1528, Babar visited Lucknow, and
crossed Gomti and on 28.3.1528 Babar and his army
dismounted at some distance 'above the junction of rivers
Gaghra & Sird' (pages 601-602). His men, including Mir
Baqi Shaghawal, chased Bayazid who ultimately escaped.
Having stayed at the camping place, Babar left for hunting
on 2.4.1528 (page 602). Admittedly, no account of the
period after 2.4.1528 till 18.9.1528 is found in
Babarnama. It is futile to guess about the missing
contents; the significant fact is that a possible 'instant, first
hand account' about the events relating to DS is not
available in Babarnama; Babar did not even retrospect
about this important event even later in Babarnama.
(N) The next record of disputed spot is available in
William Finche's account of Ayodhya (paper no.
107C1/95-96, Ext. OOS 5:19) during his travels in 1608 to
1611, which finds mention also in SB paper 110C1/96 at
page 183. It records: "Here also the ruins of Ranichand's
4461
castle and houses (the footnote mentions that Ranichand is
a typographical error for Ramchand) which the Indians
acknowledge for the great God, saying he took flesh upon
him to see the tamasha of the world". This supports the
popular perception of incarnation of Ram and existence of
Castle of Ram in Ayodhya. The locality of Castle of Ram
is known as Ramkot. Kot means fort (See Para 19). The
DS and the surroundings are situated on this Ramkot;
Contour Map [Fig.1 of ASI Report after GPR Survey
under High Court Orders dt.13.12.2002 read with report
(page 13)] shows the height of the mound-top on which
DS stood to be 108.48 M above sea-level while the
surrounding area sloped 'sharply' down to 103 M within a
short distance and further sloped down 'gradually' to 101
M moving farther away from the top. The ASI has
reported that 'the contour map itself suggests that the
deposits at the site are no less than 8.0 M'; they further
mentioned that the site 'contains the cultural deposits and
debris accumulated for centuries'. This configuration of
the locality fits in with structural pre-existence of
'Ramchand's Castle and houses' as recorded by William
Finche. In natural course of things, persons are born in
their 'houses' which, in the case of Royal families could
well be the 'Castle'; hence this high raised site could be the
birthplace of Ram.
(O) The next material available, in point of time, is a
Jesuit Missionary Le Pere Joseph Tieffenthaler's
"Historical and Geographical Description of India"
published in 1786 paper No. 107C1/96 to 104. Those were
4462
the times when rivalry was hot between the French and the
British over establishing their supremacy/empire in India.
The account of Tieffenthaler was presented by the
publisher Jean Burnoulli in French to the French King
(paper No. 107C1/97). Translation of pages 252 to 255
(paper nos. 107C1/98 to 103) into English language by
Government of India, under orders of the High Court, are
part of the record and the following portions are of much
significance:
(i) At page 252 - Avad , called as Adjudea (obviously,
'Ayodhya') is very ancient; it mentions founding of
Bangla or Pesabad (obvioulsly, 'Faizabad') as 'as a new
city where the Governor established his residence a
great number of inhabitants of Oude settled there'.
(ii) At page 253 From 'Sorgadoori'' (=Swargadwar
Temple), Ram took away all inhabitants of the City to
Heaven; the City was brought back to its earlier status
by Bikarmajit (=Vikramditya), the famous king of Ujjain
(The translator has mentioned Bikarmajit as the famous
king of Oude erroneously; the text mentions the locality
to be 'Oudjen' i.e Ujjain). Aurangzeb got the Temple
demolished and replaced it with a Mosque and 2
obelisks (Minarets?).
-A place specially famous, called Sitha Rassoi, i.e.,
'table of Sita wife of Ram', adjoining to the City in
the South situated on a mud-hill ('mud-hill' is the
area of Ram Chand's houses and Castle mentioned
by William Finche).
-Aurangzeb got a fortress called Ramkot [this name
4463
has continued throughout in modern records]
demolished and got constructed at the same place a
Muslim Temple with 3 domes. Some believe it was
constructed by Babar. [This is the DS]. 14 black
stone pillars there, skilfully made, existed at the site
of the fortress; 12 of the pillars support the interior
arcades of the Mosque. [The translator has not
translated the height of these pillars mentioned as 5
'empans'- which, according to Court Commissioner
of 1950, was 6 feet each].
-A square box raised 5 'inches' above the ground
with borders made of lime, with a length of more
than 5 'inches' and 'height' of about 4 'inches' can be
seen there. [We find the unit of measurement in
'inches' and mention of 'height' by the Translator to
be incorrect. Firstly, having earlier mentioned the
height of the square box to be 5 inches which is
correct- there could be no occasion of mentioning
height again to be 'about 4 inches'. Secondly, the
English translation of the French units of
measurement and of one dimension mentioned in the
French text is not correct. The French text mentions
the height of the box to be 5 pouces which is
correctly translated as 5 inches; but the dimension of
length in French text is 5 aunes and dimension of
width in French text is mentioned in continuation of
dimension of length as 'large rout au plus de 4'
which means wide more than 4 aunes (per context).
A French aunes = 1.20 M. French Dictionary, Le
4464
Petit Larouse Grand Format (1996 Edition)
mentions at page 105 that aunes is equivalent to 1.20
M; page 812 mentions pouce to be equivalent to
27.07mm = English 'inch'. The correct dimensions
of the box-structure, thus, was 6 M (1.20x5) in
length, more than 4.8 M (1.20x4) in width and 5
inches in height; this establishes the dimensions of
the structure to be 19.68 feet x 15.744 feet x 5
inches. [In the Gazetteer of 1854 written by Edward
Thornton, paper No. 1 of Bhagwan Shri Ramlala in
OOS 5 of 1989, mention is made of 'a quadrangular
coffer of stone protruding 5" or 6" above ground
pointed out as a cradle of Ram as 7th Avatar of
Vishnu and is abundantly honoured by pilgrimages
and devotion of Hindus'. This is the very platform
mentioned by Tieffenthaler]. Shiva Shanker Lal,
Pleader-Commissioner has mentioned (1950) the
dimensions of Ram Chabutra to be 21 feet x 17 feet
x 4 feet. Tieffenthaler's record of length and breadth
of the box-structure is substantially similar to that of
Court-Commissioner; increase in the height of the
structure from 5 inches to 4 feet during 150 years
after Tieffenthaler's visit is consistent with the
complaint of Muslim parties in 1885 Suit of Mahant
Raghubar Das that the latter had been raising
various types of structures in the disputed area
including construction of the Chabutra; incidentally,
the structural changes would establish effective acts
of possession of Hindu devotees/pujaris over very
4465
significant durations in the disputed area.
(iii) At page 254- The Hindus call the square box as
Bedi, i.e.the Cradle. The reason for this is that once upon
a time, there was a house in this place where Beschan
(Lord Vishnu) was born in the form of Ram besides his 3
brothers. Subsequently, Aurangzeb, or according to
another belief Babar, got this place destroyed in order to
deny them (Hindus) the opportunity of practising their
superstitions. [It is to be appreciated that the word
'superstition' is mentioned by a Jesuit-christian who treat
Hindu Faith to be 'superstitious', but so far as the Hindus
are concerned, it is Faith which transcends reason, and
that is the practice which Tieffenthaler found to be
prevailing at that time.]. However there still exists some
superstitious cult in some place. For example, in the
place where the native house of Ram existed, they go
around 3 times and prostrate on the floor. [This is the
ritual of Parikrama commonly associated with worship
at Hindu Temples. ii lii iii Samvat 2007 at
page 794, gives the meaning of Pa rikrama as the 'path
around all sides of a Temple or Pilgrimage-place for
circumbulation'. One is amused at the Parikrama made
by Babar 3 times around the sick-bed of his son
Humayun while praying to Allah to restore Humayun to
health and in lieu thereof to take his life; it is said that
Allah accepted the prayer of Babar so that while
Humayun started recovering, Babar's health started
declining ending in his death. Such is the spiritual power
of Parikrama!]. The two spots are surrounded by low
4466
crenellated wall. (The two spots, signify the 3-domed DS
and the Platform; the low crenellated wall is the
surrounding boundary of both and signifies the premises
as a whole. The expression, "in the place where native
house of Ram existed they go around 3 times and
prostrate on the floor" interpreted with the immediately
following sentence 'the two spots are ..' shows
that Parikrama was being done of both DS and the
platform, hence the entire premises were being
worshipped. It is also remarkable that Teiffenthaler
described the premises to be a Muslim Temple; this
means that even the Muslim structure was being treated
like a Temple. Equally remarkable is his mention of 12
pillars supporting 'interior arcades of the Mosque.
Appreciating the use of distinct expressions, 'Muslim
Temple' and 'Mosque', it means that while the DS was a
Mosque, the entire premises, including DS was treated
also as a Temple.)
At another place, not far from the Bedi, are found
buried 'grains of black rice turned into small stones'
hidden under the earth since the time of Ram [This is
'fossilised' rice, called Akshat in the rituals of worship;
fossilisation of substances 'represents a past geological
age that has been preserved in the Earth's Crust' (page 73
of Volume 4 of Britannica Ready Reference
Encyclopaedia) which proves the antiquity of the
locality. It also supports the ASI finding, mentioned
above, that the site 'contains the cultural deposits and
debris accumulated for centuries', and also establishes
4467
continuity of the locality during the fossilisation period
of 'ages', may be from that of Ram. As mentioned in para
1 (above), all Muslim Parties in these Suits have
admitted now that present time Ayodhya is at the same
place as indicated in Balmiki Ramayan.]
In the month of 'Tschet' (= Chaitra month of Hindu
Calendar) big gathering of people gather here to
celebrate the Birthday of Ram so famous in entire India.
(P) Tieffenthaler's account has a special importance in
this case. While most of the material on record establishes
that Ram was born in Ayodhya the particular place of birth
in Ayodhya, namely the site of DS, is fixed by
Tiefenthaler's account earliest in point of time. He
mentioned the platform 19.68 feet x 15.77 feet x 5 inches,
situated within the disputed area (the Campus of the
Babri Masjid) to represent the place where Ram and his 3
brothers were reputed to have been born. 'Muslim temple'
with 3 domes is Babri Masjid at Ramkot, the fortress; the
platform is within the precincts of Babri Masjid and in the
month of Chaitra people gather here 'to celebrate the
birthday of Ram so famous in entire India'.)
(Q) The next document of accounts is "A Historical
sketch of Tahsil Fyzabad, Zilla Fyzabad" including
"Ajudhia & Fyzabad" by P. Carnegy of 1870 (see para 4
above, Ext. OOS 5: 49), i.e within 84 years of
Tieffenthaler's account and 13 years after British Queen's
Proclamation of 1858. The British power stood fully
consolidated while French & Portuguese had been
marginalised and the British rulers proceeded to establish
4468
effective governance. P. Carnegy was appointed not only
as Commissioner but also as Settlement Officer to conduct
survey and prepare records of the territories of Ayodhya &
Fyzabad. The contents of this document, therefore, assume
great importance regarding the contemporary facts and
events. At page (i), he mentions that a writer of History of
Ayodhya 'must master all that has been written of the 3
distinct ages..'; at no 3, he mentions Ajudhya Mahatam,
with its Epitome in Appendix B 'taken from the
PURANS'. Ajudhya Mahatam is in Skanda Puran (See
Para 14). At page (ii) of the Epitome, it is recorded that at
the 'heart of the city lies the great Ramkot, the fort of Ram
on its western side is the Janma Bhum or Janam
Asthan, the birthplace of the hero'. Page (iii) records 'Just
beside the birthplace of Rama is the "Kitchen" of Janki-ji.'
At page 6 (of the main narrative) Carnegy records that
'with the fall of the last of Rama's line, Ajudhia became a
wilderness', that to Vikramajit 'the restoration of the
neglected and forest-concealed Ajudhia is universally
attributed the different spots rendered sacred by
association with the worldly acts of deified Rama, were
identified, and Vikramajit is said to have indicated the
different shrines to which pilgrims from afar still in
thousands half-yearly flock'. At page 7, he records about
Ramkot: 'The most remarkable of those was of course
Ramkot, the stronghold of Ramchandar. This fort
covered a large extent of ground .. within the fort
were 8 royal mansions where dwelt the Patriarch Dashrath
and his wives, and Rama his deified son .' Serial
4469
No. 6 of these mansions records 'Janam Asthan (Rama's
birthplace)'. Page 20-21 mentions 'The Janamasthan and
other temples'. It is recorded: ' It is locally affirmed at the
Mahomedan conquest there were three important Hindu
shrines.the 'Janmasthan' the 'Swargadwar Mandir'
also known as Ram Darbar and the 'Treta-ke-Thakur'. On
the first of these the Emperor Babar built the mosque
which still bears his name, A.D.1528. On the second
Aurangzeb did the same, A.D. 1658-1707; on the third that
sovereign, or his predecessor, built a mosque according to
the well-known Mahomedan principle of enforcing their
religion on all those whom he conquered. The Janmasthan
marks the place where Ramchandra was born'. At page 21,
it is mentioned that in 1855 a great rupture took place
between the Hindus and Mahomedans, the former
occupied the Hanuman Garhi in force, while the
Mahomedans took possession of the Janmasthan. The
Mahomedans actually charged up the steps of Hanuman
Garhi, but were driven back with considerable loss. The
Hindus then followed up this success, and at the third
attempt, took the Janmasthan at the gate of which 75
Mahomedans are buried in the Martyrs' grave (Ganj-
shahid). Several of the King's regiments were looking on
all the time, but their orders were not to interfere. It is said
that up to that time, the Hindus and Mahomedans alike
used to worship in the mosque-temple. [This reminds of
Tieffenthaler's description of the disputed structure as
Muslim-Temple. See para 17(ii)(2) and 17 (iii) of these
Arguments]. Carnegy goes on to add that since the British
4470
rule, a railing has been put up to prevent disputes, within
which in the mosque the Mahomedans pray, while outside
the fence the Hindus have raised a platform on which they
make their offerings. At page 27, Carnegy, giving a brief
list of 'buildings' existing at that time, mentions at No. (5)
Babar's mosque with stone inscriptions in 'Ajudhia', date
1528, and stone columns of infinitely greater antiquity,
i.e., of much older period than DS; hence DS could be
from the earlier temple demolished. There is no reason to
hold any of these accounts to be erroneous.
(R) Annexed to page 27 of Carnegy's Record is
Appendix A setting out "List of Sacred Places in and
about Ajudhia". Drawn in Tabular form, Col. No. 2 is for
'Name of sacred place', Col. No. 3 is for 'Name of founder
or restorer', Col. No. 4 is for 'Number of years since it was
founded or restored', Col. No 5 is for 'Number of
generations since founded or restored', Col no. 7 is for
'How obtained', Col. No. 9 is for 'Sect and special object
of veneration', Col. No. 11 mentions page no. 'for
particulars' of the item and Col No. 12 is for 'Remarks'.
The Appendix lists 209 'sacred places'. All of them are
Hindu sites; Appendix C is the 'List of old Mahomedan
places of Note..' While 'Janam Asthan' is mentioned at
serial no. 1 of Appendix A with particulars at page 20,
'Mosque of Emperor Babar' is mentioned at serial no. 3 of
Appendix C with particulars at page 21.
(S) Janam Asthan at serial no. 1 of Appendix A, carries
the name of 'Ramdas ji' as 'founder or renovator', 'founded
or restored' since 166 years of 7 generations, 'obtained' as
4471
'given by Mir Masumali Mafidar' related to 'Gudar,
Ramchandar' by 'sect & special object of veneration'.
Referring to 'particulars' at page 20 (per Col. No. 11),
larger picture emerges. While according to Appendix A,
the Janam Asthan could have existed only since 1704
A.D., established by 'grant' from a Mafidar, the particulars
at page 20-21 lay down that on Janmasthan 'Emperor
Babar built the mosque which still bears his name, A.D.
1528', marks the place where Ram Chandr was born, had
'a fine temple at Janmasthan' and 'many of its columns are
still in existence, having been used by the Mahomedans in
the construction of the Babri Mosque', the columns are
'black stone called by natives Kasoti (literally touchstone)
and carved with different devices'. Obviously, the
'Mosque' could not be described as Janmasthan because as
the structure stood, it was a Mosque, not a temple; the site
on which the Mosque stood could be the Janma Bhumi of
Ram, but could not be visible in the structure. At the same
time, the only visible structure bearing the nomenclature
of Janmasthan was the one mentioned at Serial No. 1 of
Appendix A. Further, Appendix B 'Ayodhya Mahatma', at
page (ii) mentions "Janam Bhumi or Janam Asthan, the
birthplace of Ram". On a consideration of all this record,
in totality, the reasonable conclusion is that, on the
findings of survey by P.Carnegy, while a visible standing
structure associated with Ram's birth was the Temple since
1704 mentioned at serial no. 1 of Appendix A, the Janma
Bhumi was the invisible site on which the Babri Mosque
stood since 1528. At the same time, the details of 'Mosque
4472
of the Emperor Babar' (serial no. 3 of Appendix C) as at
page 21, clearly mentions that the mosque which Emperor
Babar built in 1528 AD was built on the Janmasthan. The
probability is that Janmasthan structure mentioned at
serial no. 1 of Appendix A was the result of politico-
religious compulsion faced from the devotees of Ram, so
that a temple of Ram's birthplace was managed to have
been erected with the leave/license of the Muafidar
because Hindus were prevented throughout from erecting
a Ram Janam Bhumi Temple anywhere within the
precincts of Babri Masjid campus, so much so that when,
in 1885 Mahant Raghubar Das sued for permission to
erect a Temple on the Ram Chabutra, it was objected to by
contesting Muslims and refused by the concerned
authorities, including the Court, at Ayodhya. This
probability is strengthened by the 'Remark' recorded by
Carnegy in Col no. 12 of Appendix A as follows: "Great
astonishment has been expressed at the recent vitality of
Hindu religion at Ajudhia, and it was to test the extent of
this chiefly that with no small amount of labour, this
statement has been prepared. As the information it
contains may be permanently useful, I have considered it
well to give it a place here". This 'recent vitality of Hindu
religion' is reflected in the 'great rupture' of 1855
mentioned above. It was facilitated by the collapse of
tyrannical rule of Mughal Aurangzeb, followed by slightly
humane rule of the local Governors (Subedars), styled as
Nawabs, who may have realised the injustices caused to
Hindu devotees so much so that, according to Carnegy,
4473
when the 1855 episode occurred, "Several of the King's
regiments were looking on all the time, but their orders
were not to interfere." Following the growing influence of
British East India Co since Lord Wellesley's 1801 treaty,
establishment of British Resident of Oudh, coupled with
ill-governance of Oudh, the Company accomplished
annexation of Oudh, formally proclaimed by Outram on
13th February 1856; Wajid Ali Shah, the last ruler of
Oudh, was deported to Calcutta where he died (See page
762-63 of Majumdar, Raychaudhari & Kalikinkar Dutta's
"Advanced History of India", supra). Carnegy has
mentioned about annexation of Oudh in 1856 at page 13.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah had a great liking for Hindu
culture, Art, Dance & Music, and could well have directed
his regiments 'not to intervene' in the 1855-rupture.
(T) The next important Document reflecting upon
'recent vitality of Hindu religion' mentioned by P.
Carnegy, is Barabanki Gazetteer by H.R.Nevill (1902),
paper no. 9 of Bhagwan Sri Ramlala's documents (Ext.
OOS 5: 52), mentions at page 168-169 that shortly before
annexation of Oudh by British an event happened in 1853,
and records: "The cause of occurrence was one of the
numerous dispute that sprung up from time to time
between Hindu Priests and Musalmans of Oudh with
regard to the ground on which formerly stood the Janma
Asthan Temple which was destroyed by Babar and
replaced by mosque. The ground being particularly sacred
to Hindus was at once seized by Bairagis and others". This
shows that Hindu-Bariagis took possession of DS in 1853
4474
as site of Ram's birthplace. The document adds that
Moulvi Ameer Ali, resident of Amethi (then in Lucknow),
at once proceeded to declare Jihad in the city. The King
sent orders to Faizabad to inquire into the matter, but
nothing was done. Ameer Ali then collected a large and
well-armed force of Mahomedans; but the King
summoned Ameer Ali and proclaimed that no violent
action should be taken, and that the Mosque should be
restored. When Ameer Ali collected more men, the King
on receiving the news thereof, summoned Sir James
Outram, the Resident, and left it to him to put a stop to
Ameer Ali's movement in any way he could. As already
mentioned, according to Carnegy, the 'rupture' took place
in 1855. Page 174 of Faizabad Gazetteer of 1905, filed per
list dt. 5.11.1989 by Defdt. Madan Mohan Gupta (Ext.
OOS 5: 11) mentions that although Muslims re-occupied
the place in 1855, the Hindus made a made a counter-
attack and stormed the Janmasthan. So, the Bairagis and
other Hindus captured DS/DA in 1853 and re-captured it
in 1855 from Muslims after a fight in which several
Muslims were killed and 75 were buried around the
Masjid. Ext. A-26, the Judgment of Sub-Judge in Mahant
Raghubar Das suit mentions Hindu-Muslim riots of 1855
after which the British constructed a wall separating the
areas of possession of Hindus & Muslims over DS
referred to by Carnegy. These documents confirm the DS
to be the site of Ram Janmabhumi on which stood Janma
Asthan Temple. Admittedly, the British authorities erected
a partition wall on the platform of DS towards East of DS
4475
in 1855 and provided that the portion on the West of the
partition wall would remain in possession of Muslims
whereas that on the East thereof, including the platform
mentioned by Tieffenthaler, would remain in possession of
Hindus.
(U) In 1858 (i.e.3 years after the events of 1853-55) a
Sikh Fakir Khalsa, Nihang Singh, took possession of DS
itself, installed Nishan Shri Bhagwan in the Central Dome
of DS and performed Puja-Havan. Ext. 19 of OOS 1 of
1989, is a report (application) of SO Sheetal Dubey of
local PS lodged on 28
th
November, 1858 that a Nihang
Singh (Sikh) Fakir Khalsa r/o Punjab installed NISHAN
SHRI BHAGWAN (NISHAN is pillar with a flag at the
top as symbol of a Temples Deity) with 25 Sikhs helping
to protect and install the NISHAN, and Hawan and Puja
was performed in the name of Guru Govind Singh inside
"Masjid Janmasthan". That is the beginning of Masjids
nomenclature describing its situation at Janmasthan, the
birthplace. Two days later (on 30.11.1858), Mohd Salim
Muazzin (the person who makes Azan to call Muslims for
prayer in Masjid) filed an application (Ext. OOS 1: 20) in
connection with Ext. 19, stating that the Nihang Singh of
Punjab and Sikhs and Bairagis of Janmasthan are bent
upon committing rioting and in the middle of Babri
Masjid near arch (Mehrab) and pulpit (Mimbar) made a
mud chabutra 4 angul high, dug a pit , lighted fire and
perform Puja and Hom, and also planted NISHAN 1
yards tall and installed Idol; word Ram-Ram has been
written by charcoal at various places in the Masjid. This
4476
confirms that in 1858, DS was claimed by Sikhs-Hindu
Bairagis and described by the jurisdictional local Police
Officer too as Birthplace of Ram (the police describing it
as Masjid Janmasthan). Exts 21, 22, & 23 of OOS 1 of
1989 demonstrate the same situation.
(V) Of these, Ext. OOS 1: 23 is the application dt.
9.4.1860 of one Mohd. Isa with reference to SO's report
regarding "installation of Nishan by Sant Tek Singh Fakir
Khalsa in Masjid Janmasthan ". This is an admission and
confirmation by a concerned Mohammedan in 1860 that
DS was Masjid at Janmasthan. In the Order dt. 3.1.1870
Ext. A19 (of OOS 1 of 1989) the Settlement Officer
ordered payment of Annual Endowment Grant for support
of Janmasthan Mosque to Mohd. Asghar (the Mutawalli
of DS) and Mohd. Afzal Ali. Following it, Mohd Asghar
and Mohd Afzal filed a Suit through Plaint dt. 22.8.1871,
Ext. 26 and described Babri Masjid 'to be situated in
Janmasthan Avadh' and claimed to be owner of 21 Imli
trees situated at darwaza of Babri Masjid which is
situated in Janmasthan. The claim was upheld by the
same day's order Ext. 25. Ext 15, Dy. Commissioner's
Report dt 14.5.1877 read with Ext. 16, Commissioner's
Order dt. 18.12.1877 in an Appeal filed by Mohd Asghar
show that in November 1873 an Idol was placed on
'platform of Janmasthan', that in May 1877, the Dy.
Commissioner got a door opened in the Northern wall of
the Campus and recorded that 'the new door was opened
not in the Mosque but in the wall of Janmasthan. Mohd.
Asghar's Appeal was dismissed by the Commissioner's
4477
above Order (dt. 18.12.1877). In Ext. 18, an application
dt. 2.11.1883 by Mohd Asghar filed in the Court of Asstt.
Commissioner, Faizabad, Mohd Asghar admitted the
rights of Mahant Raghubar Das on Chabutra
Janmasthan. These documents constitute important
confirmation by the Police, the Dy. Commissioner and the
Commissioner, and important admissions by Muslim-
claimants regarding DS (Mohd Asghar, Mohd Afzal and
Mohd Isa) that Babri Masjid stood at Janmasthan and
came to be called as Masjid Janmasthan, i.e. Mosque at
the birthplace (of Ram). It was never mentioned by any of
the Muslim-claimants that there stood any 'Mandir
Janmasthan' towards North of DS beyond the East-West
rasta situated on the North of DS (a case now taken by
Sunni Board/Muslim parties in these Suits), although P.
Carnegy had mentioned in 1870 about Janmasthan since
166 years and construction of Masjid by Babar in 1528 on
Janmasthan where formerly a temple had existed (See
Para 21).
(X) Other significant documents are:
(i) Paper No. 1 of Ramlala's documents (OOS 5:5)
are pages 739-740 of Edward Thornton's Gazetteer of
1854 mentions 'extensive ruins of Fort of Ram, King of
Oudh, highly celebrated' and 'quadrangular coffer of
stone protruding 5 or 6 inches above ground pointed
out as Cradle of Ram as 7th Avatar of Vishnu, and is
abundantly honoured by pilgrimages and devotion of
Hindus'. This is what Tieffenthaler had recorded seen in
1786.
4478
(ii) Paper no. 4 of Ramlala's documents (OOS 5:7) is
Volume 1 of Oudh Gazetteer of 1877; at page 7 it
mentions that on Janmasthan, Babar built a Mosque.
(iii) Paper no. 5 of Ramlala's documents (OOS 5:8)
contains paragraphs 666 to 669 of A.F.Millet's Report of
Settlement of Land Revenue, Faizabad, in 1880,
describing Janmasthan and other temples of Ayodhya
and mentions erection of mosque by Babar on
Janmasthan.
(iv) Paper no. 6 of Ramlala's documents (Paper
107C1/31-32) contains page 67 of Chapter X of Report
of Archaeological Survey of NW Provinces and Oudh
1889 which mentions that Babar's Masjid at Ayodhya
was built in AH 930 or AD 1528 by 'Mir Khan on the
very spot where the old temple of Janmasthan of Ram
Chandra was standing.
(vi) Paper no. 7 of Ramlala's documents (OOS 5: 9)
contains page 297 of ASI publication of 1891 by A.
Fuhrer of Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions in
NWP & OUDH stating that in the very heart of city
(Ayodhya) is "Janmasthan or birthplace of Ram" and
Mir Khan built a Masjid during the reign of Babar on
Janmasthan.
(vii) Paper no. 8 of Ramlala's documents (OOS
5: 10) contains page 389 of Imperial Gazetteer of India
Volume II of 1901 mentioning that at one corner of the
present town of Ayodhya a vast mound known as
Ramkot or the Fort of Ram is the holy spot where Ram
was born, that most of the enclosure is occupied by a
4479
mosque built by Babar from the remains of an old
temple and an outer portion of a small platform and
shrine marked the birthplace.
(Y) After the installation of an Idol in November 1873
on the platform of Janmasthan (vide Exts. 15 and 16
supra), an important Suit was filed by Mahant Raghubar
Das Vs. Secretary of State, RS 61/280 of 1885 for
permission to erect a temple on the platform (mentioned
by Tieffenthaler in 1786 which came to be known as Ram
Chabutra situated in the South-Eastern corner of the
premises of disputed Babri Masjid). Ext. A22 is plaint dt.
19.1.1885; Para 1 mentions that BHUMI JANMASTHAN
is situated in the city of Ayodhya of which Mahant
Raghubar Das is Mahant, Para 2 mentions CHABUTRA
JANMASTHAN with a small temple placed on it, and
Para 3 mentions that Mahant Raghubar Das is in
possession thereof. Thus Raghubar Das claimed that
Chabutra Janmasthan (containing a small Temple) is
situated in Bhumi Janmasthan and that the Chabutra
Janmasthan had been in his possession. In the Written
Statement, Ext. A23, Mohd Asghar/Mohd Javed as
Mutawalli of Babri Masjid stated that the Masjid was
constructed by Babar, that the Chabutra was constructed in
1857 which Muslims had complained of and applied for
demolition and orders were passed for its demolition (but
it continued to exist), Plaintiff and other Hindus used to
have ingress/egress into the campus of the Masjid and had
been assembling/dispersing, coming/going and making
offerings ( li in r ) as they do at other religious
4480
places like Imambaras/Masjids for their spiritual benefit.
The concept of offerings for spiritual benefit is relevant
acknowledgment of Deity-nature of DA. An important
circumstance is that Mohd Asghar etc. never pleaded that
Janmabhumi was situated elsewhere, viz. further North of
East-West Rasta which runs towards North of DS (as
pleaded in the current litigation), the record of P. Carnegy
in 1870 about Janmasthan in the name of Ramdas and
another Janmasthan with Babri Masjid thereon was
already public (See Paras 20 and 21 supra). Their
statement that the Chabutra was constructed in 1857 is
absolutely false because Tieffenthaler's account of 1786
records its existence. Another important feature contained
in Court-Commissioner's Site Plan, Ext. A25, which bears
signatures of Mohd. Asghar, is that all around the Babri
Masjid there existed Parikrama (circumambulation path)
which is a typical feature of all Hindu Temples; Shiv
Shanker Lal Court Commissioner in these very Suits
found the Parikrama all around the DS. It shows that
throughout hundreds of years, Hindus worshipped the
entire DA as Ram Janmabhumi.
(Z) The trial Court dismissed the Suit of Mahant
Raghubar Das on the ground that grant of permission to
construct a Temple within the campus of Masjid would be
laying foundation for quarrel and riots (vide Judgment
Ext. A26). Mahant Raghubar Das filed an Appeal to the
District Judge. The District Judge made a local inspection
of the locality and in his judgment, Ext. A27, delivered on
the very following day (18.3.1886) he recorded that "it
4481
was most unfortunate that the Masjid should have been
built on land specially held sacred by Hindus". He further
recorded that the 'platform or Chabutra of masonry'
occupied by Hindus 'is said to indicate Birthplace of Ram
Chandra'. He dismissed the Appeal on the ground that
since the event occurred 356 years earlier, it was too late
to remedy the grievance, and that in fact or law there was
'no injuria' as District Magistrate's Order in his
administrative capacity to maintain law and order in
exercise of sovereign power could not give a right to the
Plaintiff to challenge the same; hence status quo ought to
be maintained. The observation that Ram Chabutra was
'said to indicate' birthplace of Ram, reflects Mahant
Raghubar Das's anxiety & effort to assert Ram's birthplace
to sustain continuity of Worship of birthplace of Ram
since time immemorial despite 3-4 centuries
Mughal/Muslim violence and use of force on a place of
Hindu worship as Islamic Jehad mentioned by Babar
himself in Babarnama. District Judge's finding that there
was no injuria, establishes that no civil rights of Parties
were decided, hence res judicata could not be applied.
(AA) Encyclopaedia Britannica (ED V) Volume 1, 15th
Edition (1980), page 693 deals with Oudh and mentions
that out of a few surviving monuments of antiquity, there
is Rama's Birthplace marked by a Mosque erected by
Mughal Emperor Babar in 1528 on the site of an earlier
temple.
(AB) Considered in totality, the above material
overwhelmingly establishes that the disputed area is the
4482
birthplace of Ram and the DS stood at that birthplace. It
is admitted that the area was seized by Babar's army under
Mir Baqi, his General. In the normal course of human
behaviour having regard to the Islamic concept of Kafir,
Jehad etc to which Babar was deeply devoted (vide his
own writings in Babarnama), the Hindu devotees of Ram
could never have opportunity to maintain their own place
of worship after demolition of Hindu Temple and erection
of Babri Masjid at its site by use of force and physical
might. Cruelty of Babar's hordes during raid in Ayodhya
against Sheikh Bayazid is revealed by Babar himself in his
Babarnama record that on Saturday 7th Rajab
(=28.3.1528) Bayazid and his force, stationed to the other
side of River Saryu, "being unable to stand their ground
took to flight and our people brought down some of them
and cut off their heads which they sent to me". It would
have been impossible for Hindu devotees at that time to
preserve/maintain any vestige of the Temple.
Nevertheless, when Tieffenthaler wrote the History &
Geography of Ayodhya in 1786, he found a platform about
19 feet x 15 feet x 5 inches inside the campus of DS and
Hindu devotees used to worship at the platform and also
throughout DS [see para 17(iii) above]. The record does
not show when this Chabutra (platform) was erected.
Humayun succeeded Babar on his death in 1530, but in
1539 he was defeated at Chaunsa near Buxar and finally
on 17.5.1540 was defeated by Sher Khan and his Afghan
followers at the battle of Ganges/Bilgram (whereupon
Sher Khan assumed the royal title of 'Sher Shah' with
4483
territories extending from Kannauj to hills of Assam and
from Himalyas to Jharkhand & Bay of Bengal) and
Humayun just managed to escape and had to lead the life
of a wanderer for 15 years and the Moghul sovereignty of
Hindustan passed to the Afghans (vide page 431 of "An
Advanced History of India" by R.C.Majumdar,
H.C.Raychandani & Kali Kinkar Dutta, 4th Macmillan
Edn 1978). At page 433, the Historians write that in the
spirit of an enlightened despot, Sher Shah "attempted to
found an empire broadly based upon the peoples' will".
That could have afforded an opportunity to Hindus to get
into possession in portions of campus of DS. This
opportunity, perhaps, could not be broadened to take
possession of DS itself in total exclusion of Muslims from
the Mosque. It is likely that, in the prevailing situation, the
Hindus content themselves with possession over Chabutra
while continuing their efforts to extend rights and
possession over different portions of the Campus of DS.
Indeed, in application dt. 2.11.1883, Etx. 18, Mohd Asghar
admitted possession of Mahant Raghubar Das not only on
the Chabutra Janmasthan but also on Sita Rassoi abutting
towards North of DS which is mentioned by Tieffenthaler
too [see para 17(ii)(i) above]. Existence of Sita Rassoi,
venerated by Hindus as sacred, immediately abutting DS
and the Chabutra show that Hindus were constantly trying
to extend their physical possession in the campus of Babri
Masjid with passage of time. Indeed Register of Muafi
dated 29.6.1880, Ext. 2 of SB Suit, wherein grant of
Sahanwa land in lieu of cash maintenance amount for
4484
Babri Masjid was recorded, clearly records that this is the
Masjid in Ayodhya for possession of which Hindis and
Muslims fight and are rival claimants. Humayun
recovered the Indian territories with the aid of Shah of
Persia and reoccupied Delhi in July 1555 (vide page 438
of history book supra). He died on 24.1.1556 and was
succeeded by his 13 year old son Akbar (vide page 438).
There is nothing to show that Humayun or Akbar
undertook any military exercise in Ayodhya. Indeed,
Akbar was liberal in his religious views and promulgated
Din-e-Ilahi, compounded from various elements taken
partly from Quran, Scriptures of Brahmins and Gospel of
Christ; a firm believer in the policy of universal toleration,
Akbar made no attempt to force his religion on others but
appealed to the inner feelings of men (vide page 452).
Akbar abolished Pilgrim Tax in the 8th year and Jizia in
the 9th year of his rule (vide page 455). He had great
veneration for Guru Ramdas and granted land to him
containing a pool where the famous Amritsar Golden
Temple stands (vide page 492). Perhaps affairs moved in
the same direction during the rule of Jahangir and
Shahjehan. Shahjehan fell ill in September 1657. Terrible
war of succession broke out amongst his sons and finally,
Aurangzeb captured the throne of Hindustan, seized Agra
Fort on 8.6.1658, proceeded to Delhi and crowned himself
as Emperor on 21.7.1658, while all efforts by Shahjehan
for amicable settlement failed. Aurangzeb confined
Shahjehan in Agra Fort where he died on 22.1.1666 at the
age of 74 (vide page 477). A champion of Sunni
4485
orthodoxy, Aurangzeb tried to enforce strictly the Quranic
law under which every pious Muslim was to exert himself
in the path of God, i.e. to carry on Jihad against non-
Muslim lands. He re-imposed Jizia tax in 1679 on non-
believers (pages 489 & 490). Tieffenthaler wrote that
Aurangzeb got demolished the Temples of Swargadwar
and Treta-ka-Thakur and got Mosques built at their site,
but there is no indication that he caused any violence at
Sita Rassoi. Aurangzeb died on 3.1.1707 at Ahmadnagar
disheartened, anguished and unhappy; he wrote to his son
Azam: "I came alone & am going alone. I have not done
well to the Country & the people, and of the future, there
is no hope" (vide page 500-501). Only 60 years later
Tieffenthaler found the platform and discovered that
Hindus had been worshipping not only at the platform but
also at the DS. So, it is quite likely that Hindu devotees
possession and worship in the campus of DS had been
going on even from the times of defeat of Humayun.
4093. Though the range and scope of argument has gone
beyond what actually needs to be considered necessarily in
relation to the three issues as noticed above but we shall
concentrate only on such matters and aspects which are related
with these issues and not beyond that. In fact in respect to other
arguments covering other matters we have already considered
and recorded our findings while deciding other issues.
4094. The investigation of the material on these issues
really travels in an uncertain extent of period of the past which
we can, for convenient purposes say history though some of the
expert historian witnesses in their statements have tried to
4486
dispute these issues compelled to peep into history leaving no
option with us, as already said the length of history ranges from
several thousand to several lakhs of years (B.C.).
4095. We shall first find out what are the recognised
sources to know history and in particular that of Indian sub-
continent.
4096. In The History and Culture of Indian People
The Vedic Age Vol.-I published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
Mumbai- Sri R.C.Majumdar, A.D.Pusalker and A.K.Majumdar,
6
th
Edition 1996, Chapter II discusses in brief the sources of
Indian History. The learned authors, for the above purpose, have
divided the period of Indian History in three : (1) from the most
ancient times to the end of the twelfth century A.D.; (2) from
thirteenth to eighteenth century; and (3) the subsequent period.
4097. Three sources are mainly mentioned in regard to
ancient times:
A. Literary Sources
B. Archaeology
C. Foreign Account
4098. In the category of Literary Sources, the learned
authors have referred to Vedic Literature, local chronicles,
Biographies, Poetical Epics like Ramayana, Mahabhartha,
Gaudavaho and Vikramanka-deva charita etc. In the category of
Archaeology, the learned authors have taken into account the
archaeological excavations, Inscriptions, Numismatics (Coins),
Monuments etc. The Foreign Account consist of the
information provided by the foreign writers visiting the
continent. It consist of the Greek writers Herodotus; Ctesias;
Megasthenes (who accompanied Alexander to India and lived
4487
for some time in the court of Chandragupta Maurya as an
ambassador of Seleucus); and anonymous author of Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea who made a voyage to the Indian coast
about A.D. 80, was a Greek and settled in Egypt, and left a
record of its ports, harbours, and merchandise; Ptolemy; Arab
sailor and merchants like Sulaiman, Al Mas'udi, Al-Beruni,
Chinese travellers i.e. Fa-hien (about fifth century A.D.), Hiuen
Tsang, and I-tsing (seventh century A.D.).
4099. In the Mediaeval period, the most reliable sources
are contemporary political and other chronicles regarding
political events of the country like Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (by Minhaj-
ud-din, thirteenth century A.D.); Ta'rikh-i-Firuz Shahi (by Ziya-
ud-din Barani and Shams-i-Siraj 'Afif'); Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi (by
Muhammad Qasim Firishta); Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar-nama (by
Abu'l-Fazl); Tabaqat-i-Akbari (by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad) and
Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (by Abd-ul-Qadir Budauni). Besides,
there is autobiographies of Mughal emperors Babur, Jahangir,
Shahjahan, Aurangjeb etc. and the English historians work like
The History of India as told by its own Historians compiled
by Elliot and Dowson. There are some Foreign Account also
during this period that is of Marco Polo, who visited India and
other parts of Asia towards the close of the thirteenth century;
Ibn Batuta, an African Muhammadan, who spent several years
in the court of Muhammad Tughlaq and returned to his native
country in A.D. 1349; Nicolo de'Conti, the Venetian, visited in
fifteenth century, a number of European travellers like
Tieffenthaler, Willium Finch, Minouchi etc..
4100. The third period i.e. subsequent to eighteenth
century is called as Modern Period and during this period, the
4488
written record of various transactions etc. of the Rulers are
available in various forms including Gazette and Gazetteers,
History Accounts, official records kept in record offices etc.
4101. Several witnesses produced by the parties have also
made certain statements about what constitute sources of
history, and, in brief, some of such statements are noted below.
4102. P.W. 29, Jaya Menon while being cross examined
by Sri R.L. Verma, at page 48, explained difference between
history and archaeology and also said about the sources for
knowing Ancient Indian History :
From my point of view Archaeology is a different subject
from history but both of them have the same aim of
understanding the human past. I would say that
Archaeology was introduced later on as a subject it was not
present from the very beginning of the knowledge of the
history.
The sources of knowing Ancient Indian History are
texts, inscriptions, coins and archaeological evidence.
Vedic Literature is significant for knowing the Vedic
period.
4103. However, she did not accept Puranas as a source
for knowing Vedic period and says at page 49 :
Besides Vedas there is no other source to know
about the Vedic period. So far as Puranas are concerned
they are not a source for knowing Vedic period. I have
heard the name of Smritis. I know about Manu Smriti but I
have not read it. Manu Smriti is one of the texts which tells
about society. For knowing the later Vedic period,
Brahmanas, Aranyaks and Upnishads have significance. I
4489
have very little knowledge about Vedangas. I have heard
about six parts of Vedangas but I do not know much about
them. Upnishad is the end of Vedas. Volunteered, it is also a
text in which early philosophical ideas are present.
Upnishads were written by various people at various times
who were Rishis and Brahmins.
4104. PW 29 gave some information about Smrities and
Puranas at pages 48 to 52 :
There are 18 Puranas known to Ancient Indian
Culture. The name of Puranas are Vayu Puran, Matsya
Puran and many others...
I have heard about Mahabharat which is written by
Vedvyas but I have not read it. I have also heard about
Valmiki Ramayan but I have not read it. During study of my
M.A. Classes, I have heard about Mahabharat and Valmiki
Ramayan. I do not know whether Mahabharat and Valimiki
Ramayan are referred to as part of Puranas. Lord Rama is
hero of the book which is called Valimiki Ramayan. I
disagree that Valimiki Ramayanwas written in the lifetime
of Lord Rama. Volunteered, Ram is a mythological figure
so he could not have lived in the time of Valmiki. I came to
know about it on the basis that both these stories of
Ramayan and Mahabharat were written at different points
over a long period. Mahabharat is considered older than
Ramayan. Roughly the earliest part of Mahabharat could
date to one thousand B.C. But it was written down by about
fourth century A.D. and the Ramayan from about fifth
Century B.C. Till about fourth century A.D.
Vedas came into written form probably in Fourth
4490
Century A.D.
I disagree that customs, traditions and legends are
sources for understanding the past.
The period of Rig Ved is called early Vedic period.
According to me chronologically there is difference
between Rig Ved and other Vedas.
Period of Rig Ved in history is called early Vedic
period. After prevedic era, Vedic period starts. I do not
think that Smritis are connected with Vedas. Manusmriti
has different information than Vedas. I do not agree that
the Smrities in any way help to understand Vedas. There is
no terminology which may be said to be 'Pauranic era'.
The Puranas are basically dated to fourth century A.D.
Puranas are supposed to be written in Gupta period i.e.
between four to six century A.D.
4105. PW 28 Dr. Sita Ram Roy, expert (Archaeology)
having further specialisation in Epigraphy and Numismatics
in his examination in chief, at page 6 has expressed his views
that Atharvaved was written between 10th- 8th century B.C.
4106. On pages 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 30, 31, 32 and 33,
he (PW 28) said, about sources of ancient history, as under :
r -| r i| ;lnri i i l in-
si -i n r | ; lnln ilrl- -i n r , -i i| -i n
r | ( s)
"It is true that archaeology is a good source to know
ancient history. Besides this, there is a literary
source;customs are also a source."(E.T.C.)
r -| r l l i i llin ;lnri i r| r ,
i i ;lnri i l r| -i n in- r | ;|
nr ri i ~ i i i -i n in- r| r | ii
4491
i r i i i l r-i i ilr- i
inil- i i - in i r | ii i r ;l i
i r| r | ri i| ll ~ii r i | r| n;
r | i-- in| ll - i r | r r r
li l ll - lii ni r | ii i r ;lnri i
i l i , ilr- i s l ilr- i r |
l ilr- ni- r lrni ir-i, , li| i- ii-
l ilr- - r| ini r | - i- i i| - ;lnri i
-i n -ini r | r -| r l |n i| i li n i| ;lnri
i i -i n r | ..............l-- -l i| ;lnri i i i
-i n r , ;| i - i ii- i| rn r | ( s)
"It is true that archaeology is the only source to know the
history of a period not having written history. In this very
manner, archaeology alone is a source to know the
'Harappan culture'. To know about the pre Ashokan period.
Both the literary and archaeological sources are available
with us. Inscriptions anterior to the Ashokan period are not
available. Only the Harappan script is available which has
not been deciphered. 'Dhammpad' is available in
devanagari script. But first of all it is written in Cylonic
script. The Bauddha literature and some of the Vedic
literature is available to know the history of pre-Ashokan
period. The Vedic literature means 'Samhita Brahman'and
'Aranyak'. Scriptures are not comprised in the Vedic
literature. I take traveller's account as well to be a source
of history. It is true that epigraphy and palaeography are a
source to know history. Numismatics is also of history and
this very subject is also called 'Science of Coins'. "(E.T.C.)
ilrl- -i ni - llin -i n r| i in r | -ili in
-ii nn n in r |
4492
i li, l i - ll, r i r
lnril -i n -i in r | n i ii i ; i|
llin o| | o|o r r| l-n | ; r
ln i -- ln -i- i i in i | o| | o|o
r ;lnrii i lnril -i n -in i ,
| i ; lii ni r| i|| ( o)
"Only the written sources are comprised in literary
sources. Oral things are included in customs.
The Vedas and Upnishads are taken to be historical
sources since the time they were scripted. As per
information available so far, no Veda preceding the 10
th
century AD is found in written form. Before the said time
they were retained by way of 'Shrutis' and 'Smritis'.
Historians of pre-10
th
century period take them to be their
historical sources but they had no particular
name."(E.T.C.)
ii | ii| - n r | r -| r s ii r |
iii | i i oo o|o s| ini| n r | - n
| ii| r i - i i| r | i r ri ~n
r i -i i- , i i r | i i -
li r | i - in r i in nr, -i i in -i i
i-il -n i ii, il i ~ i r | i - i i i
i l-i n - r |
- ;lnrii - i i ;lnri i i-ili
n i r| -ini r | ( s)
"I have knowledge of Puranas. It is true that there
are 18 Puranas in all. The composition of Puranas spans
from 400 AD to 19
th
century. I have knowledge of the Vedas
and I have also gone through them. Vedas are four in
number. The first one is Rigveda and other ones are
4493
Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. I have studied
Atharvaveda. Atharvaveda deals with general things, that
is to say, it mentions about places, that is about social
status etc. of human beings. Ayodhya finds mention as a
mythical town in Atharvaveda.
As a historian I take Atharvaveda to be an authentic
book on history."(E.T.C.)
i - ln n-i| i-il n r| lnril
-i n -i in r | - ; i- ii- l l- i-ili n i
r| -ini r |
i - ii ~n r | ;i ii l,ii
i roo |o|o li r| -ii ni r | ......... ~n
i i- ini r | ;i ii zoo |o|o -ii ini r |
;- ni nii iil- |lni -lin i r | ( )
"Only the then existing social facts mentioned in
Atharvaveda are taken to be historical sources. I do not
take it to be an authentic book from scriptural and Vedic
points of view.
Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas. As per scholars, its
compostion is attributed not later than 1500 BC. . . . . .
Samveda follows Rigveda. Its composition is attributed to
1200 BC. It has description about singing and religious
manners. "(E.T.C.)
i ii ir i i |o|o | ri
ini r | ..... r -| r i in i-i -| i li r l
; | n r | ~ n - | i | i i
r | ( c)
"The composition of Yajurveda stated to be between 1100
BC to 1000 BC. . . . . . It is true that the adherents of
Sanatan Dharma (eternal Hinduism) believe that the Vedas
4494
are God made. Rigveda describes about the river Saryu
and about its water."(E.T.C.)
- -ir ii r , li ii, inn ii, -i ii,
r-i ii, li i-i -n ii, r - n ii il r | ......... -
i nii i ili l,ii -ni i iii | i
n ni ii n ; i | i i| ini| i r| r|
ini| n iii | i ri n| r|| ( /)
"There are 18 Puranas such as Vishnu Purana,
Bhagwat Purana, Skanda Purana, Brahmand Purana,
Vishnu Dharmottar Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana etc. .
. . . In my opinion and as per that of other Puranic
scholars, the composition of Puranas continued from the
Gupta period, that is, the fourth century AD to the 16
th
-
17
th
century."(E.T.C.)
i| iin| ;lnri i l in- i i| n i
i i r | i| ;lnri i l ilr-
in r, r i- i n r| r | i| ;lnri i i l
- n in- r| iii r | iin i i| ;lnri i
l i| in- - i n r | ilr- - i| n i, l i| ili
ii i nii li i r i ni i iin -i -
i i r , r i| ilr- - ini r | iil- n i i| ilr- - in
r | l ilr- - i ; n iil- n i r| r, l~ i| -
s s iil- ini | i r | ( so)
"The study of archaeology and ancient treatises is
necessary to know ancient Indian history. For the
knowledge of ancient history, literature is a source but not
the first one. For the knowledge of ancient history,
archaeologu alone is basically a basis. Archaeology is a
primary source also for the knowledge of ancient history of
India. Literature compprises ancient treatises, travelling
4495
accounts of foriegn travellers as also the description about
India of emissaries who came from abroad. Religious
books are also comprised in literature. In the Vedic
literature, there is no separate religious book, but all have
discussion about religious things to some extent."(E.T.C.)
ii i| i| n i nn n in r i r i| ;lnri
i i n -ii i ni| ii i| l ;lnri i i i n ri
n| r , l r ii - li| r ; ri | ............ inil- i n i
- iii -i in -n r | ( s)
"Bhashya (commentaries) also fall under ancient
treatises and they will also taken to be a source of history.
Customs may also be sources of the knowledge of the Vedic
History, if that custom is mentioned in the Vedas. . . . . .The
main basis of archaeological source is the things
discovered from excavation."(E.T.C.)
| ii| ril l i ni | ii|
ri i i r| r | i n i i - li ~, liii, ii,
l n s r | ( sz)
"To acquire the knowledge of Vedas, it is not
necessary to have knowledge of Vedangs. Vedang means
'Kalpas', 'Shiksha', 'Vyakaran' and 'Vilupt
Chhandas'."(E.T.C.)
r r| r l i~-|l i-ii - i i ~ i r |
( ss)
"It is true that the Valmiki Ramayan mentions of the
Vedas."(E.T.C.)
4107. What constitute Vedic literature is the next aspect. In
the context of India, the Vedic literature comprises of two i.e.
one related with Hindus and to be more precise Sanatan Dharma
i.e. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upnishads, Puranas, Vedanta,
4496
Vedangas etc. and another is the religious literature of Jainizm,
Buddhism etc. This literature since beginning alleged to be not
available in written form for the reason that Vedic knowledge in
India was considered to be so precious that it ought not to be
placed on a perishable writing material like Berchbar and Palm
leaves. The transmission of sacred knowledge of Vedas appears
to have been primarily by words of mouth usually from father
to son, generation after generation. The four Vedas consist of
about 20358 verses running in approximately 2000 printed
pages and surprisingly have survived in such a unique system
having been passed down by birth to special families within the
Brahmin communities.
4108. The other category of the derivative literature can be
kept broadly in the category of Smrti (memorized) and Shruti
(what is heard). There are certain other literature termed as
Sutras and then several work of explanatory and subsidiary
scripture.
4109. In brief, we may first consider as to what construe
the above "vedic literature".
4110. Vedas : The Sanskrit word 'Vedas' means literary
knowledge or wisdom. According to Hindu traditions
'Vedas' existed in their eternal and perfect form from the
beginning of time. They are primary scriptures of Hinduism
revered as apaurusheya, "not of human origin", and are
honoured by epithets usually reserved for the Gods as eternal,
imperishable, infallible and indestructible. Primarily there are
four Vedas, (1) Rig-veda, (2) Yajur-veda, (4) Sama-veda and (4)
Atharva-veda.
4111. Hindu World-An Encyclopaedic Survey of
4497
Hinduism by Benjamin Walker, first published in 1968 by
George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London and the first Indian Edition
was published in 1983 by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
Pvt. Ltd. (hereinafter referred to as the "Hindu World") (Book
No. 12) Vol. II at page 556, gives information about Vedas; and
on page 557 says:
"According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas existed in
their eternal and perfect form from the beginning of time.
At the end of each kalpa or aeon, Isvara (God) uttered the
original Veda as he remembered it. Since God himself
shared with all other beings in the universal disintegration
concomitant with the descending kalpas, he remembered
less and less. At the beginning of the dvapara-yuga (the
age preceding our own) the Veda consisted of I00,000
verses and had four divisions. By the beginning of the kali-
yuga (our present age) these had become confused. Much
was lost and much perverted. From this disordered mass
the sage Vyasa salvaged as much as he could, arranged the
material in its present form under four headings, and
passed them on to his four principal disciples: the Rig-veda
to Paila; the Yajur-veda to Vaisampayana; the Sama-veda
to Jaimini; the Atharva-veda to Sumantu (or Angires)."
4112. Rig-veda has been explained in Hindu World
(supra) Vol. II at page 294 as under:
Rig-veda:, the most important of the four vedas, and
regarded as the Veda, since the Yajur and Sama Vedas are
merely different arrangements of the Rig-vedic hymns for
ritual purposes, while the Atharva-veda was composed
some time between 1500 BC and 900 BC and had a fixed
4498
text from about 300 BC. Some scholars date the Rig-veda
earlier; Max Muller put the date at 1200 BC, Keith at
1400, Pargiter at 1500, Weber at 2000 BC. H. Jacobi after
examining the Indian calendrical system and the position
of certain stars and constellations as described in the old
texts, placed its composition at 4000 BC. B.G. Tilak, also
on astronomical evidence, placed it at 5000 BC.
There are points of similarity between the hymns of the
Rig-veda and those of the Avesta, and some of the Rig-
vedic legends show a resemblance to the great Yashts of the
Avesta. The latter, it is to be remembered, were composed
before the Rig-veda. Some authorities claim that Book VI
of this Veda was composed before the Aryan tribes entered
India. But generally the language of the Rig-vedic hymns
shows a good deal of borrowing from the Prakrit
languages. It is difficult to distinguish the Indo-European
from the purely Indian portions, and the Hindus themselves
have long lost the tradition of its true origins. Substantial
parts of it were composed by sudras, outcastes and even
women.
The Rig-veda is a collection of miscellaneous
fragments of old legends, chants and hymns, some of them
of great beauty, put together comparatively late. Twenty-
one recensions of the Rig-veda, representing the rituals of
different schools and even different families, are known to
tradition. The Charana-vyuha (Exposition of Schools), a
supplementary work of the sutra period mentions five
sakhas or branches of the Rig-veda, representing the five
chief schools based on the different recensions. These were
(I) the Sakala, the only recension that has been preserved,
4499
(2) Vashkala (or Bashkala), which incorporated some
additional hymns, named after a non-Aryan teacher, (3)
Asvalayana, which recognized as canonical the group of
eleven Valakhilya hymns, (4) Sankhayana, which also
recognized the Valakhilya, but not all the eleven hymns,
and (5) Mandukeys; the recension recognized by this
school is not known. Fragments of some of these
recensions (e.g. the Vashkala) have been inserted into the
present mandalas, but all the remainder are lost or
forgotten. The canon of the rig-veda was probably not
closed till about 500 BC, and the present text fixed about
300 BC. The special hierophants of Rig-vedic ritual are
known as the hotri.
The Rig-veda is divided into ten books called
mandala 'circles', or into eight parts called ashtaka,
'octaves' (or khanda 'trunks' i.e. divisions). These books are
subdivided into adhyaya or chapters, and eighty-five
anuvaka, 'sections', containing a total of 1028 sukta or
hymns (actually 1017 original hymns plus the II
apocryphal Valakhilya hymns, mentioned below, of the
eighth mandala), 2006 vargas or classes, 10417 rich or
verses, 153,826 pada or words, and into many thousands of
akshara or 'imperishable' syllables.
The Rig-veda thus consists of ten books or mandalas
composed of hymns and psalms of praise to the gods,
among them Agni, Indra, Surya, Dyaus, Aditi, Varuna,
Ushas, the Asvina, Prithivi, the Maruts, Rudra, Yama and
Soma. There are also a number of magical hymns and
poems dealing with social customs, ethical questions,
riddles, MANTRAs, myths and legends. In the opinion of
4500
Prof. B. K. Ghosh, it contains a mass of dry, stereotyped
hymnology, but 'of natural outpourings of the heart there is
not much to be found in the Rig-veda' (VII, p.226). The
priestly prayers are not so much for spiritual
enlightenment as for victory, power, wealth, food, wine and
women, and according to Bhandarkar, 'are saturated with
selfish sordid aims'.
Mandala I is an 'eclectic ceremonial liturgy, and a
veritable prayer book of the ancient priests'. Traditionally
ascribed to eighteen rishis, although sometimes the same
hymns occur under different authors, and distinct
fragments are put together as a single piece. Most of the
hymns are simple invocations to fire, water, the sky, etc.
This first book includes one unusually long hymn known as
the asyavamiya, which poses the earliest metaphysical and
mystical questions of the Indian mind, anticipating the
Upanishads. 'Who saw that First when it was born? What
is the Formless that upholds the form? From the earth are
breath and blood; wherefrom the Soul?
Mandalas II and VII, the 'Family Books', are credited
to rishis of various important families such as Bhrigu,
Visvamitra, Gritsamada, Angiras, Vasishtha, Atri,
Vamadeva, Bharadvaja. Book VI contains the poetry of the
period before the tribes entered the Indian subcontinent.
Mandala VIII, a book of miscellaneous and
supplementary hymns, mostly by members of the Kanva
family. Following verse 48 of this mandala, eleven hymns
of an apocryphal character were later interpolated.
These khila (apocrypha) are called the Valakhilya, after the
1
4501
children of the rishi Kratu.
Mandala IX, a unique book inasmuch as it is almost
exclusively devoted to a single deity, Soma. Its
arrangement is also peculiar, as the first 60 hymns are set
up in the order of diminishing length; the remainder,
however, show no signs of order.
Mandala X, differs from the other nine in subject and
language. Linguistically this tenth book belongs to a later
period than the rest, and in many respects forms a
transition to the other Vedas. Many of the hymns are highly
philosophical, some sacerdotal and legendary, others
divinatory or designed for magical purposes, including
charms for averting miscarriage, curing consumption,
securing the destruction of a rival, and so on. About a
dozzen hymns contain dialogues foreshadowing the
dramatic and epic poetry of later times. There are prayers
to the greater and lesser gods, to cows, rivers, dice and
rain. The Purusha Sukta, which makes an allusion to the
distinctions of caste, is found in this mandala, and so also
is the famous hymn of creation, commencing with the
words, 'In the beginning there was neither nought nor
aught'. Also included in this Book is the hymn on the
burning of a corpse which starts, 'Let the eye repair to the
sun, the breath to the wind. Go thou to heaven or to earth
according to thy merit'.
An interesting feature of the Rig-veda is what is
known as the samvada (conversation) hymns, about twenty
in number, scattered through the various books. They have
no specific ritualistic application and were either treated
4502
as ballads, or as ceremonial dramas. Many autho0rities
trace the origin of the Indian drama to the samvada hymns.
Another set of hymns, the so-called danastuti (gift-
praising), are panegyrics commemorating the generosity of
kings and other wealthy patrons towards the priests
employed by them and describing the amount and nature of
the gifts. Of late date, the danastuti hymns possess some
literary merit, and are important since they furnish
historical data about the families and genealogies of the
composers, their patrons, and the Vedic tribes. In these
hymns are to be traced the beginnings of the future epic
narratives in praise of princes and heroes of battle.
For the above descriptions, learned author had
referred to the books Some Aspects of Ancient Indian
Culture, Madras, 1940 by Bhandarkar, D.R., The Hymns
of the Rig-veda, 1889-92 by Griffith, R.T.H., The
Religion of the Rig-veda, Oxford, 1923, by Griswold,
H.D., Sacred Literature, Landon, 1905 by Hurst, G.I.,
The Rigveda, Boston, 1886 by Kaegi, A., Hymns of the
Rig-veda, Landon 1922, by Macdonell, A.A. (Tr.), The
Vedic Age, London, 1951 by Majumdar, R.C. (Ed.), The
Rigveda Hymns, Oxford, 1891-7, by Muller, F.Max, and
Oldenberg, H. (Tr.), Samhita of the Rigveda, 1833, by
Stevenson, J. (Tr.), Researches into the Antiquity of the
Vedas, 1893, by Tilak, B.G. Orion, The Arctic Home of
the Vedas, Bombay, 1903 by Tilak, B.G. and The
Rigveda, 1859 by Wilson, H.H. (Tr.)
4113. The Sacred Scriptures of India, Swami
Chidatman Jee Maharaj, first published in 2009 by Anmol
4503
Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi says that Rigveda consist
of 1,017 or 1,028 hymns. This contain a total of about 10,600
stanzas, which give an average of ten stanzas to each hymn. The
shortest hymn has only one stanza, while the longest has fifty-
eight. It says that the knowledge of Richas or Suktas itself is the
literal meaning of Rigveda. 'Rit' means an incantation that
contains praises and Veda means knowledge. Rigveda is the
oldest veda. It comprises of 10 Mandals, 102 Suktas and
containing 10,555 mantras.
4114. Yajurveda has been dealt with in Hindu World
(supra) Vol. II at page 613 as under:
Yajur-veda (?700-?300 BC), the second Veda,
compiled mainly from Rig-vedic hymns, but showing
considerable deviation from the original Rig-vedic text. It
also has prose passages of a later date. The Yajur-veda,
like the Sama-veda samhita (collection), introduces a
geographical milieu different from that of the Rig-veda. It
is not so much the Indus and its tributaries any more, but
the areas of the Satlej, Jamna and Ganges rivers. Along
with this we find new development of religious and social
life, an age when the Epic tribes contended for supremacy
in the Indo-Gangetic plain, and the castes were already
clearly divided. The Yajur-veda represents a transition
between the spontaneous, free-worshipping period of the
Rig-veda and the later brahmanical period when ritualism
had become firmly established.
The Yajur-veda is a priestly handbook, arranged in
liturgical form for the performance of sacrifices (yaja), as
its name implies. It embodies the sacrificial formulas in
4504
their entirety, prescribes rules for the construction of
altars, for the new and full-moon sacrifices, the rajasuya,
the asvamedha, and the soma sacrifices. Strict observance
of the ceremonial in every detail was insisted upon, and
deviations led to the formation of new schools, there being
over one hundred Yajur-vedic schools at the time of
Patanjali (200 BC). Much of the sakha literature grew up
out of variants of the Yajur-vedic texts.
In the Yajur-veda the sacrifice becomes so important
that even the gods are compelled to do the will of the
brahimns. Religion becomes a mechanical ritual in which
crowds of priests conduct vast and complicated ceremonies
whose effects are believed to be felt in the farthermost
heavens. Its under-lying principles were so ridden with
superstition and belief in the power of the priests to do and
undo the cosmic order itself that critics have likened their
formulas to the ravings of mental delirium. The priest
especially associated with the Yajur-vedic ceremonial was
the adhvaryu.
The Yajur-veda now consists of two samhitas, which
once existed in one hundred and one recensions. Both the
samhitas contain almost the same subject matter but
differently arranged. The Taittiriya Samhita, commonly
called the Black Yajur-veda for its obscurity of meaning,
was known in the third century BC, and is the older of the
two. It has been described as an 'undigested jumble of
different pieces', and as having 'a motley character'. In this
samhita the distinction between the Mantra and the
Brahmana portions is not as clear as in the other Vedas.
4505
The Vajasaneyi Samhita, or the White Yajur-veda, was
communicated to the sage Yajasaneti Samhita by the sun-
god in his equine form. It has a much more methodical
arrangement and brings order and light, as opposed to the
confusion and darkness of the Black Yajur-veda.
For the above descriptions, learned author had
referred to the book The Texts of the White Yajur-veda,
1899 by Griffiths, R.T.H.
4115. To Yajurveda, in Sacred Scriptures of India
(supra), on page 207 it says that Yajurveda inspires humans to
walk on the path of Karma and that is why it is also referred to
as Karma-Veda. The essence of the Yajurveda lies in those
mantras (incantations) that inspire people to initiate action. It
further says that there are many branches of Yajurveda but two
branches, namely, Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda have gained
relatively more prominence, i.e., Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla
Yajurveda. Besides it, it says that Yajurveda was later on named
as Taitareya Samhita.
4116. Samveda is discussed in Hindu World (supra) Vol.
II at page 343 as under:
Sama-veda (c. 700-300 BC) (saman, 'melody'), the
third Veda. Its samhita or principal part is wholly metrical,
consisting of 1549 verses, of which only 75 are not
traceable to the Rig-veda. The stanzas are arranged in two
books or collections of verses.
The Sama-veda embodies the knowledge of melodies
and chants. The samhita of this Veda served as a textbook
for the priests who officiated at the Soma sacrifices. It
indicates the 'tunes' to which the sacred hymns are to be
4506
sung, by showing the prolongation, the repetition and
interpolation of syllables required in the singing. The
Sama-veda also contains a detailed account of the soma
rites. The hierophants associated with the Sama-veda are
known as the udgatri.
Many of the invocations in the Sama-veda are
addressed to Soma, some to Agni and some to Indra. The
mantra part of the Sama-veda is poor in literary quality
and historical interest, but the Brahmanas belonging to it
are important. Of the once numerous samhitas of the Sama-
veda (the Puranas speak of a thousand) only one has
reached us, in three recensions, namely: the Kauthama,
current in Gujarat, the Ranayaniya which survives in
Maharashtra, and the Jaiminiya in the Karnatic.
For the above descriptions, learned author had
referred to the books The Samaveda, Banaras, 1896 by
Griffith, R.T.H.(Ed.) and The Samaveda, 1843 by
Stevenson, J.
4117. Samveda has been discussed in Vol. 2 of Sacred
Scriptures of India (supra) on page 1 and onwards and it says
that the compilation of Richas (Shlokas) is known as Sama.
Sama is dependent on the Richas. The beauty of speech lied in
the Richas. The beauty of Richas lie in the sama and the beauty
of the same lies in the style of pronunciation and singing. The
knowledge of sama, therefore, is Samaveda. This refers to
Geeta-10/22 where Sri Krishna has stated the importance of
Samaveda in the following manner :
Vedamana Samavedo Asmi meaning I am samaveda
myself amongst the Vedas.
4507
4118. There are two parts of the Samaveda (1) Purvarchik
(2) Uttararchik. In between both of them is 'Mahanamnayarchik
which comprises of 10 incantations. There are four parts of
Purvarchika Aagneya, Aendra, Paavmaan and Aasanya.
4119. Atharvaveda is considered in Hindu World (supra)
Vol. I at page 94 as under:
Atharva-Veda, the fourth Veda, of whose origin
there has been much contentious speculation. It is also
referred to as the Brahma-veda because it served as the
manual of the chief sacrificial priests, the brahmins. A
great deal is said in the Atharva-veda hymns about the
brahmins and the honours due to them. One-sixth of the
work is not metrical, and about one-six of the hymns are
also found among the hymns of the Rig-veda, mostly in the
first, eight and tenth books. The rest of the subject matter is
peculiar to the Atharva-veda, This Veda was once current
in nine different redactions, of which only two, the
Pippalada and Sunaka recensions are extant, the former in
a single unpublished 'Tubingen manuscript' discovered by
Roth.
The Atharva-veda embodies the magical formulary of
ancient India, and much of it is devoted to spells,
incantations, chants and charms. In general the charms
and spells are divided into two classes; they are either
bheshajani, which are of medicinal, healing and peaceful
nature, dealing with cures and herbs for treating fever,
leprosy, jaundice, dropsy and other diseases; this class
includes prayers for successful childbirth, love spells,
charms for fecundity, for the recovery of virility, hymns for
4508
the birth of sons, and a quaint chant to put the household to
sleep while the lover steals into the girl's home at night. Or
else they belong to the abhichara class, which are of a
bewitching and malevolent nature; these include spells for
producing diseases and bringing ill-luck to enemies.
Among them is a spell that a woman may use against her
rival to make her remain a spinster; another spell is meant
to destroy a man's virility, and so forth. There are hymns to
serpents and demons, and incantations replete with
witchcraft, sorcery and black magic.
One of the reputed authors of the Atharva-veda was
the rishi Atharvan, of Maga of Persian ancestry. But
certain parts, especially the verses dealing with the rites of
sorcerers and wizards were attributed to the rishi Angiras,
of pre-Aryan, probably Dravidian stock. The hymns were
said to have been collected by Sumantu, a rishi of great
antiquity who bequeathed the material to Vyasa for
arranging.
The Atharva-veda is the most interesting of the sruti,
for it has preserved to a great extent a solid core of pre-
Aryan and non-Aryan tradition. It is unique among the
texts of Vedic period and 'an important source of
information regarding popular religious belief, not so far
modified by priestly religion.' It reveals in fact a vast
substratum of indigenous doctrine that is not only non-
Vedic but at times contra-Vedic.
Scholars trace Mesopotamian influences in the
Atharva-veda, among them Dr. Bhandarkar, who discerns
in it the magical lore of the Asuras. Others see evidence of
4509
Vratya and Maga Doctrines. The Vishnu Purana and the
Bhavishya Purana speak of the Angiras as one of the four
Vedas of the Magas. The foreign words occurring in the
Atharva-veda, which Tilak traced to Chaldea, may have
been only strange to Sanskrit, and may well have formed
part of the regular vocabulary of the Maga priests.
For centuries the Vedid Aryans held all practitioners
of astrology in disrepute and regarded them as 'unclean',
and excluded them from the sraddha rites. They also
ostracized from their social environment those who
followed the profession of physician. Both these sciences,
be it noted, were associated with the Magas, and are
prominent in the Atharva-veda. Some authorities claim that
this Veda represents the oldest stratum of Indian liturgy and
belief, and embodies the creeds of the pre-Aryans. It thus
constitutes a record of non-Aryan aboriginal or popular
religion before the arrival of the Aryans on the scene.
For long the Atharva-veda was not included among
the other three Vedas. Although the Vedas are now said to
be four in number this was not the originally recognized
number of the compilations. Max Muller held the view that
the original division of the Vedas was a threefold one. The
oldest records refer to only three Vedas, namely, the Rig,
Sama and Yajur. Manu speaks of these as the trayi (triad)
milked out from the fire, air, and sun, and the Atharva-veda
was not even acknowledged in his time. There is no
reference to it in the Chhandogya Upanishad; the
Brahmana texts mention only three Vedas; the Jatakas
know of only three.
4510
This would seem to indicate not that the Atharva-
veda was non-existent at the time the other Vedas were
composed, but that it did not for several centuries form
part of the sacred scriptures of the Aryans. Of its canonical
status today it has been said that 'influential scholars of
South India still deny the genuineness of the Atharva-veda'.
For the above descriptions, learned author had
referred to books Some Aspects of Ancient Indian
Culture, Madras, 1940 by Bhandarkar D.R., The
Atharvaveda, Strassburg, 1899 by Bloomfield M., The
Hymns of the Atharvaveda, Oxford, 1897 by Bloomfield
M., The Hymns of the Atharvaveds, Banaras, 1895-96 by
Griffith R.T.H. (Tr. & Ed.), The Atharvavedic
Civilisation, Nagpur, 1959 by Karambelkar V.W. and
Atharvaveda, Cambridge, Mass., 1905 by Whitney W.D.
& Lanman C.R. (Tr.).
4120. The fourth Veda Atharvaveda has been discussed
in Vol. 2 of Sacred Scriptures of India (supra) on page 25 and
onwards. The meaning of the word Atharveda (Atharva) is
devoid of movement or concentration. The word Tharva means
fickleness or movement and accordingly the word Atharva
means that which is unwavering, concentrated or unchanging.
That is why it is said :
Tharva Gati Karma Na Tharva Eti Atharva
4121. The philosophy of Yoga speaks that:
Yogash Chitta Vritti Nirodhah, which means
controlling the different impulses of the mind and senses
in Yoga. The Gita re-iterates that when the mind is free
from impulses and flaws, the mind becomes stable and the
4511
person becomes neutral when the impulses of the mind
and the other senses are in control, then only the mind is
freed from instability and purterbances. The word
Atharva therefore refers to neutrality of personality.
The Atharvaveda speaks more about Yoga, the human
physiology, different ailments, social structure,
spirituality, appreciation of natural beauty, national
religion, etc. This knowledge is practical and is worth
bringing in use.
4122. The Atharvaveda is a fusion of prose and poetry
together. A number of facts related to Ayurveda are seen here,
that is why Ayurveda is considered to be the Upaveda (Sub-
Veda) of this Veda.
4123. The idea of spiritual and symbolic interpretation of
Vedas is articulated in Brahmana and Upnishad. The term
"Upanisads" has also been explained on page 312 of Dictionary
of Hinduism (supra) and the relevant extract is as under:
"Upanisad(s) From upa, 'supplementary', 'additional', and
ni-sad 'to sit down near a teacher', from whom a pupil
received esoteric knowledge. But grammarians differ about
the meaning of the word, some defining it as 'tattvajnana',
the knowledge of reality; others as 'rahasya', secret
doctrine. The Upanisads themselves indicate that the
knowledge contained in them was esoteric and therefore to
be imparted only in secret. But most of the two hundred or
more so-called Upanisads contain neither esoteric doctrine
nor teaching imparted in secret. Of all these texts, whether
individual or part of a collection, only thirteen--or
fourteen, according to some authorities-- actually contain
4512
esoteric teaching. The remainder are late compositions
which mainly represent the views of Vaisnavas, Saivas and
Saktas. Winternitz divides them into six classes, which deal
with the following subjects respectively: 1. Vedanta
doctrine; 2. Yoga; 3. the ascetic life (sannyasa); 4. Visnu;
5. Siva; 6. other cults.
The dating of the thirteen (or fourteen) classical
Upanisads is conjectural, but internal evidence suggests
that they were composed between 700 and 300 B.C., some
of them revealing changes of style and views, and of
repeated revision. Their composition may be assigned to
three periods. Six belong to the earliest; six to the middle,
regarded as pre-Buddhist and pre-Panini; the last two to a
time shortly after the establishment of the Buddhist Order.
The first group consists of the Aitareya, Kausitaki,
Taittiriya, Brhad-Ar., Chan, and Kena; the second,
Kathaka, Svetasvatara, Maha-Narayana, Isa, Mundaka,
and Prasna; the third, Maitrayaniya and Mandukya. Those
of the first group resemble Brahmanas in language and
style, a simple, slightly clumsy prose, but by no means
lacking in beauty. Some of the second group are mainly
composed in verse, and unlike those of the first group,
reflect Samkhya and Yoga views, though their inclusion
may be the result of late recensions. Those of the third
group are definitely post-Vedic, both in language and
views.
The fourteen Upanisads, as well as other 'forest
compilations' called Aranyakas, were subsequently
attached to particular Brahmanas, which in turn were
4513
attached to a particular Veda. Thus the Brhad-Ar. Up.,
itself probably a collection of earlier compositions, was
attached to the Satapatha Brahmana, which was attached
to the White Yajurveda.
That the Aranyakas and Upanisads originated as a
reaction against the stereotyped views of professional
sacerdotalists can hardly be doubted. This is indicated by
ksatriyas being numbered among the composers or the
Upanisads, and also by the choice of forest retreats for the
discussion and teaching of esoteric doctrines. Once begun,
the speculative mood became general and resulted in the
formation of other groups opposed to brahminic
fundamentalism, such as the Carvakas, Jainas and
Buddhists. Even some priestly schools appear to have been
influenced and to have contributed to the final recension of
the earliest Upanisads, which may account for some of
their inconsistencies. The Upanisads have thus been
criticized adversely for some of their views and the use of
the false analogies. The explanation lies perhaps in the fact
that they are not a single co-ordinated collection but
separate compositions, the work of minds not always
equally well-equipped for the task.
Nonetheless, the fact remains that the Upanisads
generally present an objective view of the universe and a
rational approach to the problem of reality far in advance
even of the flashes of intuitive knowledge that illumine
occasional passages of the Vedas and Brahmanas. Thus the
expression 'as if' or 'as it were' (iva) in the Brhad-Ar. Up.
(II.4, 14), accords well with the modern scientific view that,
4514
despite the manifold appearances of the phenomenal world,
the entire universe, both known and as yet unknown,
essentially one.
'The practice of taking what is actually not an
Upanisad as an Upanisad appears to have been in
existence from the time of Panini' (Bhattacharyya,
Agamasastra of Gaudapada, P. xxxvi)."
4124. The term "Brahmana" is explained on page 166 of
Hindu World (supra) as under: -
Brahmana. Broadly speaking the post Rig-vedic
philosophy shows two trends, discernible in the Brahmanas
and in the Upanishads. Though belonging to the Vedas they
are considered apart from the Vedas, as they express
notions that have a character and quality of their own and
render them convenient for separate consideration.
The Brahmanas are theological manuals composed
by and for brahmins, and have been referred to as 'the
Hindu Talmud'. They were composed later than the
mantras, dating from about 600 BC, and are mainly
textbooks of ritual and prayer for the priests, serving as
commentaries on the Vedic hymns, describing in detail the
sacrificial ceremonial, and giving many curious
explanations both linguistic and legendary of the origin
and meaning of the rituals. They seem to codify the
ritualism of the aboriginal rather than the Aryan
priesthood, since it is inconceivable that their fantastic
ceremonies were ever put widely into execution, least of all
by the robust, unsophisticated Aryans of the Vedic age,
Written throughout in prose, they represent the oldest prose
4515
in any Indo-European language, although they do not have
great literary merit.
The Brahmanas stress the importance of prayer,
sacrifice, ritual, liturgy, formalism, textualism, and
emphasize the observance of caste and the asramas.
Sacrificial rites are regarded as all powerful, controlling
the processes of nature and even the gods. This led to an
elaborate formulary and to the domination by the brahmin
priesthood who conducted vast and elaborate rites and
attached cosmic significance to the smallest minutiae. Says
the Satpatha Brahmana, 'Verily there are two kinds of
gods; the gods themselves who are assuredly gods, and the
priests who have studied Vedic lore'
Professor B.K. Ghosh refers to the Brahmanas as 'an
arid desert of puerile speculations on religious ceremonies
marking the lowest ebb of Vedic culture' (IV, p. 225), while
Max Muller with unkind emphasis declared that one could
not read ten pages of the Brahmans without revulsion, and
that for pedantry and absurdity they could hardly be
matched anywhere. 'These words', said the great German
scholar, 'deserve to be studied as the physician studies the
twaddle of idiots and the ravings of madmen.'
Each of the Vedic samhitas has its Brahmanas, which
reflect as it were the character of the samhita with which
they are associated. The Brahmanas also often give the
name to the related Upanishad. The Rig'vedic Brahmanas
include; the Aitareya Brahmana (c. 600 BC) perhaps the
oldest of them all. Its author was Mahidasa the son of a
sudra mother. It deals principally with the great some
4516
sacrifies and the different ceremonies of royal
inauguration. The Kausitaki, also called the Sankhayana
or the Asvalayana Brahmana, contains much material
common to the Aitareya and treats of various sacrifices.
The Brahmanas of the Yajur-veda include; the
Taittirriya Bharmana of the Black Yajur-veda the origin of
which is linked with the name of the sage Yajnavalkya. The
satapatha Brahmana (Hundred-paths Brahmana),
belonging to the Vajasneyi samhita of the White Yajur-
veda, is an important source of information for sacrifical
ceremonies, theology and philosophy. Next to the Rig-veda
it is the most important work in Vedic literature, and is
ascribed to Yajnavalkya. It is found in two recensions,
namely, the Madhyamdina and the Kanva.
The Bhahmanas of the Sama-veda are eight in
number. Included among them are; the Prauda Brahmana,
consisting of twenty-five sections, hence also called the
Pancha-vimsa. It contains the famous vratya-stoma ritual
by which non-Aryan converts were admitted into the Aryan
fold. Shad-vimsa (Twenty sixth) Brahmana, so called
because it was added to the twenty-five sections of the
Prauda. The Sama-vidhana Brahmana, the third Brahmana
of the Sama-veda, devoted entirely to magic. It gives the
chants to be used for various spells. Tandya (or Tandaka),
the most important Brahmana of the Sama-veda, sometimes
confused with the Prauda. It is concerned with sacrifices in
general, and with particular rites like the Sattras, vratya-
stomes, and others. The Adbhuta Brahmana, a manual
treating of omens and auguries, marvels and miracles. It is
4517
sometimes regarded as part of the Shad-vimsa and is often
classed with it. The Chhandogya Brahmana, famous for the
Upanishad names after it.
The Atharva-veda has only one Brahmana, namely,
the Gopatha, a very late work composed largely of material
gathered from previous sources, including the Satapatha
and the Aitareya.
For the above descriptions, learned author had
referred to the books Satapatha Brahmana, Oxford,
1882-1900 by Eggeling J (Tr.), The Rig-vedic
Brahmanas Cambridge, Mass., 1920 by Keith A.B. (Tr.),
The Brahmanas of the Vedas, Madras, 1901 by Mac
Donald K.S., The Vedic Age, London, 1951 by
Majumdar R.C. and Chips from a German Workshop,
London, 1867 by Muller F. Max.
4125. Smrti: Its dictionary meaning is 'remembered',
'recalled'. In Hindu religion this term has been applied to the
whole corpus of sacred lore remembered and handed down by
traditions. It is thus distinguished from the truths of the Veda
which were heard (sruti) by the ancient risis but the term
denotes secondary works i.e. the one written in the subsequent
generation based on memory. They are considered to be
supplement to Vedas. They are on the subjects of Smrti, Smarta,
Sutra; Dharmasastras of Law books; Itihasas or legendary
poems and the Kavyas, Puranas and Niti-sastras.
4126. Smrti-Sutra: Any Sutra work based on Smrti is
called Smrti Sutra but principally such Sutras are concerned
with family and domestic rites.
4127. Dharmasastras: It is a general name of Law book
4518
or Code of Laws and widely known are the course of Manu,
Yajnavalkya, Apastamba, Gautama, Vasistha and Baudhayana.
4128. Itihasa: Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) says about
Itihasa on page 121 as under:
"Itihasa (-iti-ha-asa, 'so indeed it was') A class of
'literature' of a popular character, associated with another
class called 'purana' (not to be confused with the post-
Vedic Puranas). Both itihasas and proto-puranas were
current in the early Vedic period, but were apparently not
of sufficient importance to be generally included in the RV.,
though it appears to allude to some of them, and even to
include a complete story, i.e., the gambler's lament (RV.,
X.34). The earliest references to itihasa and proto-purana
occur in the AV. (XV. 6,4,et seq.) and to itihasa alone in the
Brhad-Ar. Up. (II.4, 10, etc.). The Chan. Up. (III. 4, 1, 2,
etc.) declares that itihasas and proto-puranas constitute a
fifth Veda, while the Sankhayana Srauta sutra (XVI.2.21,
27) regards them as two distinct Vedas, as does the SBr.
(XIII.4.3, 12-13). The Tait. Br. (II.9) also regards them as
two classes of literature."
4129. Puranas: Puranas means ancient. They are part of
Smriti (non Vedic Scriptures). Benjamin Walker in Hindu
World (supra) has dated Puranas composition between 6th
Century A.D. to 16th Century A.D. It is said that Puranas are
Veda of the common folk. There are said to be 18 great Puranas
i.e., Mahapuranas on which six relates to Lord Vishnu, six are
devoted to Lord Shiva and six to Lord Brahma. These
Mahapuranas have been narrated in brief in Hindu World
(supra) (page 255-257, Vol. -II) and it would be appropriate to
4519
reproduce the as under:
"THE SIX VISHNU PURANAS, sattvic in quality:
(I) Vishnu Purana, consisting of 7,000 stanzas and
bearing all the 'lakshana' of the true Purana. Legend has it
that it was first communicated by Brahma to Ribhu, who
revealed it to the sage Pulastya and Pulastya passed it on
to the sage Parasara, who in turn made it known to his
disciple Maitreya, and the text takes the form of a dialogue
between Parasara and Maitreya. Its basic teaching is that
Vishnu is the creator, sustainer and controller of the world;
it is in him that the world exists as a harmonious system,
and in truth Vishnu is the world. This Purana is the most
perfect and best known of all the works of this class. It
gives much valuable information about the Maurya
dynasty.
(2) Narada Purana (or Naradiya Purana), of 3,000
stanzas, in which the sage Narada describes the essential
duties of man. Another related work, known as the Brihan,
'Great' Naradiya, consists of 3,500 verses. These Puranas
belong to the period after the Muhammadan conquest, and
do not bear the marks of a genuine Purana.
(3) Bhagvata Purana (or Srimad Bhagvatam), the most
celebrated of the Puranas, is a voluminous work of 18,000
stanzas in length, divided into twelve skandha or books.
The most popular part is the tenth book, which narrates the
life story of Bhagavata or Krishna, especially of his
boyhood. The Bhagvata Purana is written in the form of a
dialogue between a sage and a king. The latter is doomed
to die within a week for having unwittingly killed a holy
man, and to ensure his salvation he spends the week
4520
listening to the Bhagavata Purana. It lays great stress on
the doctrine of bhakti or faith, and makes the love of the
gopis (milkmaids with whom Krishna sported), symbolic of
spiritual devotion. The name of his favourite gopi, Radha,
does not appear in this Purana. Some authorities believe it
was written in South India, and it was once held to be the
work of the grammarian Vopadeva (c. AD 1250) friend of
Hemadri who flourished at the court of the raja of
Devagiri. A few authorities place it as early as AD 900.
The favourite tenth book of this Purana has been translated
into all the Indian languages.
(4) Garuda Purana, of which there are several versions,
although it is doubtful if a genuine original version is in
existence. It is named after Garuda the vulture vehicle of
Vishnu, but there is nothing in its contents to justify the
name. It deals with the rites held over the dying, the death
moment, the funeral ceremonies, the ritual building up of a
new body for the preta or deceased, the judgment, the
various after-death states till rebirth. It also deals with sun-
worship and astrology and is probably Indo-Zoroastrian in
origin.
(5) Padma Purana, an extensive work, divided into six
books, which tells of the time when the world was a golden
lotus (padma), and goes on to describe the Creation, and
the spheres of earth, heaven and the underworld. To this a
supplementary book on Devotion has been added. The
whole work dates no earlier than about AD 1100.
(6) Varaha Purana, has about 10,000 stanzas, and is not
older than AD 1000. It was revealed by Vishnu to Varaha
4521
(the Boar).
THE SIX SIVA PURANAS, tamasic in quality:
(1) Matsya Purana, bears some of the marks of the
genuine Purana. A heterogeneous mixture, borrowing much
from the Vishnu and Padma Puranas, and from the
Mahabharata. It was related to Manu by Vishnu in the form
of a fish (matsya). It contains some information about the
Andhra dynasty.
(2) Kurma Purana, dated about AD 900. Vishnu as a
tortoise (kurma) explains the purpose of life. It glorifies the
worship of Siva and Durga.
(3) Linga Purana, dated about AD 700. In this work Siva
explains the meaning of virtue, wealth, pleasure and
liberation, and the spiritual significance of the linga
(phallus). It is largely ritualistic.
(4) Vayu Purana, the oldest of the Puranas dated about
AD 500. It is devoted to Siva and his many attributes, and
contains material about the sacredness of Gaya. A
variation of the Vayu, known as the Siva Purana, gives
information about the reign of Chandragupta I.
(5) Purana (c. AD 550), related by Skanda, god of war.
The longest of the Puranas it is said to consist of over
80,000 stanzas, although it does not exist in composite
form, but only in fragments. Such, for example, is the Kasi
Khanda, describing Banaras and the Saivite temples there,
and the Utkala Khanda, giving an account of Orissa.
(6) Agni Purana (c. tenth century AD), also called the
Agneya Purana, was originally communicated by Agni, god
of fire, to the rishi Vasishtha. It is an encyclopaedic
4522
compilation containing, besides some original material,
many extracts from other works, relating to ritual worship,
cosmology, dynastic chronology, the art of war, and a
section on law taken from Yajnavalkya, a chapter on
medicine taken from Susruta, and selections from Pingala
and Panini on grammar, rhetoric and prosody.
THE SIX BRAMHA PURANAS, rajasic in quality:
(1) Brahma Purana (c. AD 1300), also called the Adi
Purana or first Purana, since it generally stands first in all
the lists of Puranas. It is also known as the Saura Purana
because it is devoted to Surya and sun-god. It was
revealed by Brahma to the sage Marichi. Apart from
sections devoted to the cosmologies, ritual worship,
descriptions of the temples of Orissa and so on, it
promulgates the worship of Krishna as Jagannatha (partly
taken from the Vishnu Purana). The last part, known as the
Brahmottara Purana is of a later date, and celebrates the
sanctity of Balaja river.
(2) Brahmanda Purana, expounds the magnificence of
egg (anda) of Brahma, and describes the future aeons. Like
the Skanda Purana this does not exist as a composite work,
but only in parts and fragments. The popular Adhyatma
Ramayana is one such part of this Purana. The authorship
of the Adhyatma Ramayana is ascribed to Vyasa, and in it
Rama is described as a saviour god and a deliverer rather
than a mortal hero.
(3) Brahma-Vaivasvata Purana (or Brahma-Vaivarta),
related by Manu Savarna, son of Vivasvat, to the rishi
Narada. It is of comparatively late date, and enjoins the
4523
worship of Krishna and Radha, making this couple
husband and wife so that their love is not adulterous but
conjugal.
(4) Markandeya Purana (c. AD 900), quite different in
tone from all the other Puranas. It is related by the sage
Markandeya and is heard by certain fabulous birds who
are versed in the Vedas. These birds repeat it to the sage
Jaimini. It has little to do with sect, ceremonial, or worship
of Brahma as such, but is a succession of legends, secular
in tone, recommending no particular doctrine, and
consisting mainly of original compositions, superior to the
Puranas in general. An episode of this Purana the Durga
Mahatmya (variously called Devi Mahatmya, Chandipatha,
Chandi Saptasati) is older in date (c. AD 700) than the rest.
It is a poem of seven hundred verses in thirteen chapters,
devoted to the glorification Sakti as mother-goddess, who
descends to earth from time to time to rid the world of
demons and monsters. This section is recited at many
Hindu religious functions.
(5) Bhavishya Purana, the title, meaning 'future' Purana,
seems to have been arbitrarily bestowed. It is mainly a
handbook of rites and ceremonies, for the greater part very
unpuranic in character and content.
(6) Vamana Purana (c. AD 1500), contains an account of
a dwarf (Vamana) incarnation of Vishnu. It divides its
homage between Siva and Vishnu."
4130. Besides above, there are certain lesser Puranas
called Up-Puranas some of which are listed in Hindu World
(supra) Vol. II page 257 as under:
4524
"The eighteen lesser Puranas, called the Upa-
Puranas are variously listed, but usually drawn from the
following:(1) Aditya, (2) Ascharya, (3) Ausanasa (from
Usanas), (4) Bhaskara (or Surya), (5) Devi, (6) Devi-
Bhagavata, a Saiva Purana, sometimes listed with the great
Puranas, (7) Durvasasa, (8) Kalika (c. AD 1350), a Sakta
text, the source of much Tantrik material (see human
sacrifice), (9) kalki, (10) Kapila, (11) Mahesvara, (12)
Manava, (13) Marichi, (14) Nandikesvara, (15) Narada or
Vrihan, (16) Narasimha, (17) Parasara, (18) Samba, (19)
Sanathkumara, (20) Sivadharma, (21) Surya or Bhaskara,
(22) Suta-samhita, a devotional Purana, Like the
Bhagavata, but devoted to Siva, (23) Usanas or Ausanasa,
(24) Varuna, (25) Vaya, (26) Vrihan (see Narada), (27)
Yuga."
4131. It is said that Vedangas are the limbs of Vedas and
treated as auxiliary to and in some sense as part of Veda. In
Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) on page 329 it says about
Vedangas as under:
"Vedanga(s) Lit. 'limbs' (angas) of the Veda, comprising
six treatises 'regarded as auxiliary to, and even in some
sense, as part of the Veda'. Their original purpose was to
ensure that each part of the sacrificial ceremonies was
correctly performed.
The process of ritual development must have been
gradual, so that the formulation of the Vedangas may be
assigned to a period between that of the later Brahmanas
and the early Sutras, the latter being the style used for the
Vedangas. The Vedangas deal specifically with the
4525
following six subjects; Siksa, correct pronunciation;
Chandas, metre; Nirukta, etymology; Vyakarana,
grammar; Jyotisa, astronomy; and Kalpa, ceremonial, i.e.,
the general rules governing sacrificial ceremonies."
4132. Siksa has been explained on page 277 of Dictionary
of Hinduism (supra) which is as under:
"Siksa One of the six vedangas or sets of rules governing
the performance of the sacrifice. Siksa was a sophisticated
system of phonetics which included the correct value of
each letter, its accent and quantity, and the proper method
of articulation, so as to ensure correct pronunciation
(pratisakhya) especially in the recital of sacred passages of
the Vedas."
4133. Chandas has been explained on page 61 and 62 of
Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) and reads as under:
"Chandas 'Metre.' The name of one of the six Vedangas,
which lays down rules intended to ensure the correct
performance of sacrificial procedure, and especially of the
use of the appropriate metre in the chants. In Indian
prosody chandas denotes a succession of poetical feet
(padas) arranged in regular order, according to certain
types recognised as standards, in verses of a particular
length. A metre may consist of long or short syllables,
ranging from a minimum of four to a maximum of twelve.
Next to language, metre is significant in determining
the age of the Vedic hymns, their metres indicating the gap
that exists between them and those of classical Sanskrit
poetry, the latter retaining little trace of the numerous
metres of the Veda. On the other hand, classical Sanskrit
4526
poetry has metres having no prototype in the Veda.
In the oldest Indian metre only the number of
syllables is fixed, their quantity or measure being only
partially determined, the last syllable of each line being a
syllaba anceps, i.e., either a short or long syllable
regardless of the metre of the syllables preceding it. Vedic
verses are generally composed of lines of eight, eleven or
twelve syllables, but only the last four (or five) have a fixed
rhythm. Originally the most popular metre was the gayatri,
after which the gayatri mantra (RV., III. 62, 10) is named,
which is repeated by every devout Hindu at his morning
and evening devotions. Its regular form consists of three
lines each of eight syllables. Contemporary with it was the
anustubh (from which derived the sloka), consisting of four
lines, also of eight syllables each, subsequently the most
popular metre for Epic poetry.
The eleven-syllabled line has a caesura or pause
after the fourth or fifth syllable. The tristubh metre consists
of four such lines. The twelve-syllabled line is called jagati,
and except for its additional syllable follows the same
pattern as the tristubh. Another metre, the dvipada-viraj,
only occasionally used, consists of four or eight five-
syllabled lines. A distinctive feature of Vedic verse is that
two or more metres may occur in a single hymn, as in RV.,
VII. 54, where the metre of the first verse is gayatri, that of
verses 2-4 uparistabrhati, and that of verses 5-8 anustubh.
Metre has always been regarded by Hindus as of the
utmost importance. This is indicated 'by the excessive
cultivation and elaboration bestowed upon their whole
4527
metrical system', some of the most sacred metres vere
personified. Nonetheless, it was not until the second
century B.C. that a treatise (Vedanga) dealing with both
Prakrit and Sanskrit metres appeared, or at least it is the
earliest to have survived. This Vedanga called the
Chandah-sastra, is ascribed to Pingala (or Pingalanaga).
Though metre is an important aid in repeating
passages from the Veda it is not the only one. In his
introduction to the first hymn of the RV. Sayana states that
not only should anyone repeating a Vedic hymn know the
name of the rsi to whom it was revealed, and the name of
the god to whom it was addressed, but also be aware both
of the proper accents to be used and of the correct
interpretation of the mantras. Anyone not knowing these
things and attempting to repeat a portion of the Veda is
called a mantra-thorn (mantra-kantaka) whose ignorance
will assuredly cancel or obstruct the efficacy of its recital.
Injuries can be caused by a particular use of the
metres (Kaus, Br., X15). Also certain metres are connected
with the attainment of power, splendour, etc. (XVII.2). Even
the gods used the metres to reach the heavenly world and
thus by the metres the sacrificer too is enabled to reach
heaven (Ait. Br., 1.9)."
4134. Nirukta has been explained on page 210,
Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) as under:
"Nirukta 'Explanation or etymological interpretation of a
word.' The name of several works, especially of a
Commentary on the Nighantu by Yaska. The Nighantu is a
list of Vedic words handed down by tradition, which with
4528
the Nirukta is the oldest surviving Indian treatise on
etymology, philology and semantics.
Subsequently, the Nirukta led to the systematic
development of etymology and was included among the list
of vidyas or sciences."
4135. Kalpa has been explained on page 139, Dictionary
of Hinduism (supra) and says as under:
"Kalpa I. 'A fabulous period of time, a day of Brahma, or
1,000 yugas, a period of four thousand, three hundred and
twenty millions of years of mortals, measuring the duration
of the world.'
Another Pauranic system divides a kalpa into
fourteen periods called manvantaras, each containing
seventy-one mahayugas and totalling 994 (14x71)
mahayugas. The remaining six, required to make up the
number of 1,000 mahayugas, are distributed amongst the
manvantaras as follows: one krtayuga, 0.4 of a mahayuga,
precedes the first manvantara as a dawn or introductory
period. This manvantara and each of the remaining
thirteen are followed by another krtayuga or twilight
period. Thus the one 'dawn' and fourteen 'twilights'
=15x0.4=6 mahayugas, which with the 994 referred to
above total 1,000 mahayugas or one kalpa. But some
Puranas refer to a 'night of Brahma' and others to a 'night
and day of Brahma', to denote immense periods of time.
Thus a hundred 'days and nights of Brahma' are considered
to constitute the entire span of his existence. This is the
longest period in the Hindu time-scale, and is called a
para, half of which, a paradha, had elapsed when the
4529
present kalpa began. But in theory kalpas succeed one
another ad infinitum."
4136. Jyotisa has been explained on page 130 and 131,
Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) as under:
"Jyotisa One of six Vedangas. In a general sense it denotes
the science of astronomy, but in sacrificial ritual it refers to
the Vedic calendar by which the most auspicious day for
the performance of a particular sacrifice is fixed.
Subsequently such calendrial decisions became a feature of
astrology, so that no important undertakings such as
marriage, building a house, etc., were made without
reference to calendrial omens.
Though there is no Vedic text on the subject, there is
ample evidence in the Vedas of a knowledge of the stars.
The RV. lists a number of them and divides the year of 360
days (savana) into twelve months. The 'moon of later birth'
(Rv., 1.25, 8) is probably an allusion to an intercalary
thirteenth or supplementary month of the luni-solar year,
but other passages lack any precise astronomical
knowledge. A notable effort to remedy this deficiency is
apparent in particular passages of the Aranyakas and
Upanisads, which attempt to interpret the world
objectively, and to establish the relations of similarity,
identity and interdependence, for which the word 'iva' (as
if, or as it were) is used. Although these attempts were an
advance on earlier cosmological views, they were mainly
speculative. It was not until the appearance of the
Jyotisavedanga (Treatise on astronomy), compiled between
300 and 200 B.C., that the subject made use of the
4530
mathematics gradually being evolved. Though failing to
produce a sophisticated stellar theory, the Jyotisavedanga
provided a basis for the subsequent five astronomical
treatises called Siddhantas, of which the only surviving one
is the Suryua Siddhanta (Explanation or Solution of the
Sun). But its scope was limited by attempts to reconcile the
temporal aspect of recurring cosmic cycles with the
mythical unit of time called 'a day of Brahma', equivalent
to a calendar year. The latter was divided into 10,800
'moments', the number of metrical divisions in the RV., each
of which consists of forty syllables, the whole totalling
432,000 syllables.
At the end of the Great Cosmic Cycle, all the stars,
having completed revolutions over a period of 4,320,000
years, were thought to return to their original positions. To
support the authenticity of this grand total, it was subjected
to the following analysis. This begins with the number 108,
i.e., the product of the four phases of the moon and twenty-
seven naksatras (luner asterisms); the second, the product
of the sixteen theoretical parts of the lunar disc, and
twenty-seven lunar phases, totalling 432; and finally the
product of the lunar years, which is 12,000 divine years,
equivalent to 360 calendar years, each of 360 days, making
a grand total of 4,320,000. The assumption that these
figures solved all astronomical problems led to greater
attention being devoted to astrology. But some amends
were made later when the Surya Siddhanta was re-written
and established as the basic handbook of Indian astronomy.
About this time (A.D. 499) the astronomer Aryabhata
4531
produced his great work the Aryabhatiya which mentions
the rotation of the earth and develops the theory of
epicycles. The end of the sixth century marks the birth of
the astronomer Al-Biruni, considered to be the most
accomplished of Indian astronomers despite his refusal to
accept Aryabhata's theory of the rotation of the earth.
Before the introduction of the signs of the zodiac,
solar months were called by the names corresponding to
luner months, and subsequently by the zodiacal sign in
which the sun appeared. Owing to differences in the length
of lunar months and days and variations in the precession
of the equinoxes it became necessary to make adjustments
to reconcile them with the months and signs of the zodiac.
This reconciliation was achieved in the Siddhanta period
when the week of seven days was introduced, each named
after a planet. The months followed the Greek zodiacal
order but with Indian designations. This arrangement
involved changing the three Vedic seasons to six, each
consisting of two months viz:
Vasanta (Spring) caitra (March-April)
vaisakha (April-May)
Grisma (Hot season) jyaistha (May-June)
asadha (June-July)
Versa (Rainy season) sravana (July-August)
bhadrapada(August-
September)
Sarad (Autumn) asvina (September-October)
karttika (October-November)
Hemanta (Winter) margasirsa(November-
December)
4532
pausa (December-January)
Sisira (Frosty season) magha (January-February)
phalguna (February-March)
Astrology has always been closely associated with
astronomy in India as is indicated in the works of
astronomers referred to above. in addition Varahamihira
(sixth cent. A.D.), author of several astronomical treatises,
who also wrote on astrology and divination, the most
important being the Brhat-samhita (Great Compendium),
which describes the motions and conjunctions of celestial
bodies and their divinatory significance. He also wrote two
books on purely horoscopic astrology, in which he
introduced many Greek astrological terms, including hora,
the hour of birth.
The subsequent Moslem invasions and contacts with
Arab science influenced Indian astronomy in the medieval
period, Bhaskara (twelfth century) being one of its most
noted exponents."
4137. Then comes Vedanta, i.e., the end of the Veda, i.e.,
the complete knowledge of Veda. It is explained on page 329 to
330, Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) as under:
"Vedanta 'End of Veda'. i.e., the complete knowledge of the
Veda. It is not an appendage to any particular portion of
the Veda as were the Brahmanas, but a re-interpretation of
its basic truths in the light of aupanisadic revelation. The
Vedanta is thus associated with the Uttara-Mimamsa
'upper or later examination', regarded as one of the six
Hindu darsanas which represented the 'views' of particular
religious groups, and is distinguished from the Purva-
4533
Mimamsa, the conservative and fundamentalist appraisal
of the original parts of the Veda. The Vedanta views, unlike
those of the other darsanas, were not initiated by a
particular teacher, but were derived from the teaching of
the Upanisads. As these presented both a doctrine of pure
monism (advaita) and that of a modified dualism (dvaita),
the expositions differ. It was not until Badarayana
produced his Brahma-sutras (between A.D. 200 and 450)
that particular Vedanta views were systematically
presented. Despite the lack of indisputable evidence, it is
probable that the aupanisadic notion of the atman was
current in the sixth century B.C., as is suggested by the
Buddhist anatta (Skt. anatman) non-atman doctrine, which
by the second century A.D. had become the sunyavada of
the Mahayana Buddhists."
4138. The term "Aranyakas" has also been explained on
page 17, Dictionary of Hinduism (supra) and the relevant
extract is as under:
"Aranyaka(s) 'Forest texts.' these are essentially sacred
esoteric writings which form the core of the Upanisads.
They were considered to be 'of a secret uncanny character,
and spelt danger to the uninitiated', being intended only for
those brahmanas and ksatriyas who had renounced the
world and retired to forest solitudes."
4139. Contemporary Literature of other religion
namely, Buddhist, Jain etc.: Some literature of Buddhist and
Jain religious scholars of the contemporary period referring to
historical events is also available giving information about
social, political and other aspects and they are also treated to be
4534
a relevant source.
4140. Biographies: It is another literary source of history.
Certain writer's took the life of their royal patrons as theme of
their literary works. Though this kind of work may not be
recorded as a genuine history, yet they contain valuable
historical information of contemporary era. Their object was
glorification of king rather than to give a true picture of his life
and times, and mostly they were conceived by their authors not
as historical texts but primarily as medium for showing their
literary skill and ingenuity. Among this category are:
"Banabhatta, that great master of Sanskrit prose,
wrote the Harsha-charita (life of the emperor Harsha), and
two poets, Vakpati and Bilhana, described the exploits of
Yasovarman and Vikramaditya (of the later Chalukya
dynasty) in two epics, the Gaudavaho and the Vikramanka-
deva charita. We have also a curious poetical work, the
Rama-charita, in which the author uses throughout verses
of double entendre, which, taken one way, describe the
story of the Ramayana, and taken the other way, recount
the story of king Ramapala of Bengal.
Among other biographical works may be mentioned
the Kumarapala-charita of Jayasimha, Kumarapala-
charita or Dvyasraya-kavya of Hemachandra, Hammira-
kavya of Nayachandra, Navasahasanka-charita of
Padmagupta, Bhojaprabandha by Ballala, Prithviraja-
charita of Chand Bardai and Prithviraja-vijaya
(fragmentary) by an anonymous writer."
(Vedic Age-Vol 1-Majumdar 1996, Page 49)
4141. Local Chronicles: These are not available from very
4535
ancient time but it appears from the history books that there
were certain local chronicle in different parts of India like
Rajatarangini etc.
4142. Rajatarangini: It is a history of Kashmir written
throughout in verse by Kalhana sometimes in 1149-50 AD.
4143. There were certain chronicles of Gujarat like, Ras-
Mala, Kritikaumudi of Somesvara, Sukrita-samkirtana of
Arisimha, Prabandha-Chintamani by Merutunga, Prabandha-
kosa by Rajasekhara, Hammira-mada-mardana and Vastupala-
Tejahpala-prasasti of Jayasimha, Sukritakirti-kallolini of
Udayaprabha, Vasantavilasa of Balachandra, etc. It is said that
some chronicles were published in respect to Sindh and Nepal
also.
4144. Archaeology: The expert witness (Archaeology),
Dr. Jaya Menon, PW 29 has also stated about archaeology, its
meaning, scope etc. At page 29 of the statement in cross-
examination by the learned counsel for defendant no.20 (Suit-4)
giving the meaning of archaeology she stated:
"Archaeology is a discipline in order to understand the past
through excavation and seeks to understand the material
that is uncovered during excavation. It is correct that the
term, "Archaeology" is derived from Greek and "archaeos"
means old. Logos means study. To me, Archaeology means
much more than a systematic study of antiquities only. The
difference between History and Archaeology is that the
History is a study of past on the basis of written evidence,
whereas the Archaeology signifies a study of material
evidence. It is not correct to say that in India, History is the
mother of Archaeology. In fact, the two subjects are entirely
4536
different disciplines based on different sources. In India,
the history of Archaeology dates back to two million years.
I studied this fact in a book titled as, The Rise of
Civilisation in India and Pakistan, authored by Allchin
and Allchin. The said book was published in the year 1983.
It was published by the Publishers, Select Book Service
Syndicate. The basic aim of Archaeology is to understand
the human past. It is true that the Archaeology is a subject
to understand the changes and development of nature and
humanity.
4145. Further at page 61, P.W.29 states:
The Archaeological history of human beings can be
divided into palaeolithic, mesolithic, neolithic, chalcolithic
and Iron Age.
4146. Inscriptions:The engraved information on stones,
metal has been found to be a source of the highest value for the
reconstruction of the political history of the ancient India. They
are free from the process of tampering to which books and other
documents written on perishable material are liable. The
historians appeared before us unanimously agreed that the
inscriptions as historical evidence take precedence over the
mass of Literature, as age of most of the texts is uncertain and
they all must have undergone considerable modifications in the
course of being preserved in copies through hundreds of years.
4147. Numismatics: The study of coins is called
numismatics.
4148. Monuments: The remains of buildings, statues,
decoratives, fragments, potteries and other objects of
miscellaneous character is also relevant in tracing the history
4537
and evolution.
4149. This brief discussion was only to give some idea
about the sources of history, ancient India's Vedic and religious
literature etc. However, there is a lot of controversy on the
historicity of the above vedic literature in one or the other way.
This we shall discuss a little after.
4150. Whether Lord Rama was borne and was a
personality in history, as a matter of act cannot be investigated
in a Court of Law for more than one reason. According to the
faith and belief of Hindu people, the period when Lord Rama
was there, ranges from several thousand of years to lacs and
crores of years. One thing which has been accepted and
admitted almost universally and before us also that it is the faith
of Hindu people that Lord Rama was incarnation of Lord Vishnu
and was borne at Ayodhya. The identity of Ayodhya though it is
said to be a city of much antiquity with the birth of Lord Rama
but is mainly connected and known with Lord Rama.
4151. The witnesses on behalf of the Hindu parties and in
particular OPW 16, Jagadguru Ramanandacharya Swami Ram
Bhadracharya; DW 3/18, Sri Acharya Mahant Bansidhar Das
alias Uriya Baba; DW 3/13, Mahant Ram Subhag Shashtri; DW
3/20, Mahant Raja Ramchandracharya; DW 3/14, Jagad Guru
Ramanandacharya Swami Haryacharya; DW 2/1-3, Mahant
Ram Vilas Das Vedanti; DW 20/2, Swami Avimukteshwaranand
Saraswati and few others propagating in detail about Hindu faith
on worship of Lord Rama said that he was born thousands and
lacs of years ago and, therefore, to ask for a positive evidence as
contemplated in an enactment by the British Parliament laying
down the procedure of evidence which has continued by virtue
4538
of Article 372 of Constitution would be not only a futile attempt
but is against all the canons of the principles of law which
would have been applicable in such matters. It is suggested that
nobody can dare to ask such questions for the such pious and
reverence beliefs in other religions like Jesus Christ, Prophet
Mohammad Saheb etc. then where is the question of asking such
an evidence in the matter of a religious faith and belief, which is
not a few hundred years old but travels in the history of several
thousands years. They tried to explain the system of timings of
four yugas as contemplated in Vedic texts and which has been
mentioned in detail in Shanti Parva (231.21-22) (Mahabharat) as
under:
The rishis, measuring time, have given articular
names to particular portions [of time]. Five and ten winks
of the eye made what is called a Kastha. Thirty Kasthas
made what is called a Kala. Thirty Kalas, with the tenth
part of a Kala, made a Muhurta. Thirty Muhurtas made
one day and night. Thirty days and nights form a month,
and twelve months form a year. Persons well-read in
mathematical science say that a year is made up of two
solar motions, meaning the northern and southern. The sun
makes the day and night for men. The night is for the sleep
of all living creatures, and the day is for work. A month of
human beings is equal to a day and night of the departed
manes [ancestors who have gone on to the subtle worlds].
That division consists in this: the light half of the month is
their day which is for work; and the dark fortnight is their
night for sleep. A year (of men) is equal to a day and night
to the gods [devas or celestials]. This division consists in
4539
this: the half year for which the sun travels from the vernal
to the autumnal equinox is the day of the gods, and the half
year for which the sun moves from the latter to the former
is their night. [Thus, an earth year is but a day for the
devas.] Calculating by the days and nights of human
beings about which I have told you, I shall speak of the day
and night of Brahma and his years also. I shall, in their
order, tell you the number of years, that are for different
purposes calculated differently, in the Krita, the Treta, the
Dvapara, and the Kali Yugas. Four thousand celestial
years is the duration of the first or Krita age. The morning
of that cycle consists of four hundred years and its evening
is of four hundred years. [Note: This says celestial years,
or years of the demigods on the higher planets. Such years
are much longer than those of planet earth. So 4000
celestial years, with the morning or Sandhya of 400
celestial years and the evening or Sandhyansa, or
intermediate period, of another 400 years, equals 4800
celestial years or 1,728,000 human years.]
Regarding the other cycles, the duration of each
gradually decreases by a quarter in respect of both the
principal period with the minor portion and the conjoining
portion itself. These periods always keep up the never-
ending and eternal worlds. They who know Brahma, O
child, regard this as Immutable Brahma. (Mb, Shanti
Parva, Chap.231, Text 21-22)
This means that as each age appears, from the Krita,
Treta, Dvapara to Kali, each Yuga decreases by a quarter
of the previous Yuga, in addition to the conjoining Sandhya
4540
and Sandhyansa periods with each Yuga. In this way, it is
roughly calculated that a whole cycle of the four yugas,
namely Krita, Treta, Dvapara and Kali-yuga together, total
about 12,000 celestial years in length.
The Mahabharata (Santi Parva,231.29-32)
continues: The learned say that these 12,000 celestial
years form what is called a cycle. A thousand such cycles
form a single day of Brahma. The same is the duration of
Brahma's night. With the beginning of Brahma's day the
universal entities come into being. During the period of
universal dissolution the Creator sleeps in Yoga-
meditation. When the period of sleep expires, He awakes.
What is Brahma's day covers a thousand such cycles. His
night also covers a thousand similar cycles. They who
know that are said to know the day and the night. On the
expiry of His night, Brahma, waking up, modifies the
indestructible intelligence by causing it to be overlaid with
ignorance. He then causes Consciousness to spring up,
whence it originates Mind which is at one with the
Manifest.
4152. There is some confusion on account of a little
difference in Puranas. One calculate the time as contemplated in
Vedic texts in terms of the years in accordance with present
system and this is why the time results in lots of inaccuracy. In
Vedic literature, the time is described in celestial years, or years
of the devas, not according to the time we experience and
calculate on earth:
In calculating the duration of the different yugas,
there are a few differences between the Puranas. The
4541
Brahmanada Purana (1.2.29.31-34) specifically states that
Krita or Santya-yuga is 1,440,000 human years in length,
Treta-yuga is 1,080,000 years, Dvapra-yuga is 720,000
years, and Kali-yuga is 360,000 years in length. The Linga
Purana (4.24-35) also agrees with this except for Treta-
yuga, which it says is 1,800,000 years in length.
However, when explaining the various measurements
of time, the Vishnu Purana (Book One, Chapter Three) and
the Srimad-Bhagavatam (3.11.19), along with the
Bhagavad-gita (8.17) and the Vayu Purana (Chapter 57)
and others, such as the Mahabharata as quoted above, the
measurements of the durations of the Yugas, stands
explained.
In the explanations of the measurements of time
found therein, one cycle of the four yugas together is
12,000 years of the demigods, called divine years. Each of
these years is composed of 360 days, and each of their days
is equal to one human year. So Krita-yuga is 4000 divine
years in length, Treta-yuga is 3000 divine years in length,
Dvapara-yuga is 2000 divine years in length, and Kali-
yuga is 1000 divine years long, with the addition of the
conjoining portions of the Sandhya and Sandhyansa.
In this way, each yuga is preceded by a period called
a Sandhya, which is as many hundred years in length as
there are thousands of years in that particular yuga. Each
yuga is also followed by a period of time kinwn as a
Sandhyansa, which is also as many hundreds of years in
length as there are thousands of years in the yuga. In
between these periods of time is the actual yuga. Therefore,
4542
we have:
Krita-yuga = 4000 divine years, Sandhya = 400
divine years, Sandhyansa = 400 divine years. Total = 4800
divine years X 360 days = 1,728,000 human years.
Treta-yuga = 3000 divine years, Sandhya = 300
divine years, Sandhyansa = 300 divine years. Total = 3600
divine years X 360 days = 1,296,000 human years.
Dvapara-yuga = 2000 divine years, Sandhya = 200
divine years, Sandhyansa = 200 divine years. Total = 2400
divine years X 360 days = 864,000 human years.
Kali-yuga = 1000 divine years, Sandhya = 100
divine years, Sandhyansa = 100 divine years. Total = 1200
divine years X 360 days = 432,000 human years.
This equals 4,320,000 human years in one cycle of
the four yugas together, and 1000 cycles of these yugas
equals 12,000 divine years and 4,320,000,000 human years
in a day of Brahma.
It is also explained that Kali-yuga began with the
disappearance of Lord Krishna from the planet. This has
been calculated to be 3102 B.C.. Since Kali-yuga is
described as being 432,000 earth years in length, with
5,000 years and more already passed, then the age of Kali-
yuga has approximately 426,000 more years to go.
4153. Taking note of this kind of calculation, our attention
is drawn to Exhibit 36 (Suit-5) (Register 32 Page 7 to 113)
which is an extract photocopy of the book Itihas Darpan Vol.
III December 1996 published by Bhartiya Itihas Sankalan Yojna
Samiti, Delhi, which contains its frontispiece and pages 1 to 74.
Its first chapter is The Age and Size of Universe as per Hindu
4543
Calculations. Apparently, the concept of time and period
appears to be exaggerated and may not be relevant for the
dispute but in substance it has some connection with the issues
in hands and will reflect on what the Court is required to do
while considering such issues without appreciating the antiquity,
magnanimity and the lack of appropriate knowledge on this
aspect on the part of the people in presenti to explain the real
concept, may be on account of loss of ancient record in original
etc. or the material having disappeared with time. Some part of
the calculation of learned author would be a matter of interest
and may also reflect what these religious personalities have said
is not something which can be brushed aside easily. It says:
"Professor Arthur Holmes in this masterly work The
Age of the Earth opines "Long before it became a scientific
aspiration to estimate the age of the earth, many elaborate
systems of the world chronology had been devised by the
sages of antiquity. The most remarkable of these occult
timescales is that of the ancient Hindus, whose astonishing
concept of the earth's duration has been traced back to
Manusmriti, a sacred book. According to this compilation
of law and wisdom, the whole past and future of the world
is but a day in the eternal life of Brahma a day of four
thousand three hundred and twenty million years,
throughout which finite beings are created out of Infinite.
The day of Brahma is divided into fourteen great cycles,
each lasting 30,34,43000 years, together with when
Brahma's night begins the finite is destined once more to
merge into infinite. At present the world is in the seventh of
these cycles and according to the Hindu calender recorded
4544
in the Vishnu Purana it is now (A.D. 1947) 107,29,49048
years since the earth came into existence. By a curious
coincidence this characteristically precise assessment is of
the same order as the two thousand million years which
has recently been the most favoured estimate for the age of
the expanding universe."
Since the introduction of the theory of Relativity by
Prof. Elbert Einstein, the concepts regarding the universe
have been revolutionised. According to Einstein the space,
time and matter all are relative. There is nothing which
could be called Absolute. Time and space could not be
separated. The astronomer looking through his telescope is
looking both outward in space and backward in time, for
the light reaching the earth from the states is not of today
but of million of years back. We are looking at them in their
form when the light left them so many millions of years
back and it is quite possible that some of these stars might
have ceased their existence at present. Therefore, Einstein
described the Universe as a space time continuum having
four dimensions-three of space and one of time. Einstein
had shown that the properties of space-time continuum are
disturbed wherever there is matter and motion. A star, a
comet or a galaxy, says Licoln Barnett, a noted physicist
distorts the geometry of the space-time through which it
moves, just as a fish swimming in the water agitates the
surrounding waters. Space becomes bent or curved in the
region of the matter hence the paths of the planet are the
results of moving through space distorted by the Sun.
As we have already seen, the space-time continuum is
4545
bent and distorted by the material bodies in it. If the space
is curved in the region surrounding the heavenly bodies it
is obvious that all matter in the universe must produce the
similar effect- an overall curvature of the whole space-time
continuum. The universe, must be regarded as a close
system finite but unbounded and not infinite as has been
supposed. On the face of it, it is beyond one's imagination
to visualise a finite universe but there is nothing so
mysterious about it. The surface of the earth, for example,
is finite, that is having a limited or measurable area but at
the same, time unbounded, i.e. one could walk around it for
ever without ever reaching the end.
Einstein theorised that the universe is of such size
and shape that a beam of light travelling at 1,86,000 miles
per second would return to its source after about 200
billion years. (One billion is equal to one million million
and the figure comes to 200,000,000,000,000). As the
figure is nothing but the circumference of the universe
using the formula pi 'D(Diameter)= Circumference, we can
calculate the diameter of the universe.
Pi=22/7: Diameter = 200,000,000,000,000x7
22
=100,000,000,000,000x7
11
= about 63,636,363,636,364

Light years
(One light year is the distance travelled by light in
one earthly year at the rate of 1,86,000 miles per second
and is equal to 5.38 million million miles)
Keeping aside for a while the Einsteinian views
about the universe, let us see what the ancient Hindus
4546
concieved about the universe.
In the Hindu puranas the universe was considered a
gigantic egg hence the name Brahmanda'. God who is the
lord of Universe is described as 'Akhilanda Koti
Brahmanda Nayaka' meaning, 'The Lord of the biggest egg
having innumerable cosmic spheres.' The age of the
universe or the life-span of the universe is given in terms of
the life span of Brahma. In Hindu chronology there are two
time-scales; one the earthy scale and the other the divine
scale (Deva Mana). The details of the scales are given
below.
The simplest chronological unit is known as 'Prana'
6 Pranas =1 Vighatika
60 Vighatikas =1 Ghatika
60 Ghatikas = 1 Ahoratra (Day & Night together)
15 Ahoratras (Days) = 1 Paksha (Fortnight)
2 Pakshas (For nights) = I Masa (Month)
12 Masas (Months) =1 Samvatsara (Year)
=1 Divine Day
30 earthly years = 1 Divine Day (Divya Maha)
360 earthly years = 1 Divine year (Divya Vastara)
4800 Divine years or 17,28,000 earthly years = 1
Krita Yuga (including twilight period)
3600 Divine years or 12,96,000 earthly years = 1
Treta Yuga (including twilight period)
2400 Divine years or 8,64,000 earthly years = 1
Dwapara Yuga (including twilight period)
1200 Divine years or 4,32,000 earthly years = 1
Kali Yuga (including twilight period)
4547
12000 Divine years or 43,20,000 years (Sum total of 4
Yugas) = 1 Maha Yuga or Divya Yuga (Great epeoh)
1000 Divya Yugas or 432,00,000 years = 1 Udaya Kalpa
(Day of Brahma)
Another
1000 Divya Yugas or 432,00,00,000 earthly years 1
Kshaya Kalpa (Night of Brahma)
2000 Divine years or 864,00,00,000 earthly years 1 (Full
day of Brahma Brahma dina)
30 such days of Brahma 1 month of Brahma (Brahma
Masa)
12 such months of Brahma 1 year of Brahma
100 such years of Brahma = 1 Life Span of Brahma
By the end of this period the entire Universe, every
galaxy, nedula, star each and every thing perishes. This
period of Universal dissolution lasts for another such life
span of Brahma (100 Brahma Vatsaras) and on completion
of the same vew creation of everything commences again.
This phenomenon is cyclic and has neither beginning nor
end.
Applying this vast time scale let us calculate the age
of Brahma in terms of earthly years.
1 day of Brahma = 864,00,00,000 years
1 year of Brahma = 864,00,00,000 X 360 years
1 Life Span on Brahma = 864,00,00,000 X 360 X 100 years
= 311,040,000,000,000 years (15 digits)
The modern astrophysicists place the age of the
present universe as anything between 10 and 20 billion
years. Let us see what it seems to
4548
1 Million is equal to 10,000,00
1 Billion equals to 1 Million X Million
= 10,000,00 X 10,000,00
= 100,000,00,00,000
10 Billion = 10 X 100,000,00,00,000
= 1,000,000,00,00,000 (14 digits)
20 Billion = 2,000,000,00,00,000 (14 digits)
Now let us calculate the present age of the Universe
as per the Hindu scriptures. At present Brahma has
completed his fifty Divine years of life and is in his fifty
first Divine year.
1 Divine year = 8,640,000,000 X 360 earthly years
50 Divine years = 50 X 8,640,000,000 X 360 years
= 155,520,000,000,000 (15 digits)
A comparison of both the above figures clearly shows
that while the modern astrophysicists, figures are very
conservative the Hindu calculations are most accurate.
During the current fifty first year 1,972,949,096 (By
1995) years were over. Hence the total age of the universe
at present comes to 155,520,000,000,000 plus
1,972,949,096 i.e. 155,521,972,949,096 years.
A comparison of both the above figure shows that
while the figures of the modern astrophysicists are very
conservative, the figures arrived at by the Hindu
calculations are most accurate. The reason is that while the
former are conjectural the latter are based on scientific
facts.
It was already mentioned that as per Einsteinian
view sicne the Universe is such that a beam of light
4549
travelling at a speed of 1,86,000 miles per second would
return to its source after 200 billion years Light rays are
supposed to travel in stright lines. In such a case how it
would be possible for the light rays to undergo several
bends and come back to its original source? Even a third
grade star like the Sun could deflect light rays passing
nearby. Einstein perdicted this and also practically showed
it during a solar eclipse. Thus he proved that light also is
having mass based on which his popular formula e = mv
was conceived. There are billions and billions of stars
which are very very massive than the Sun in the universe.
Many such stars devour the light coming to them becoming
black hole while others deflect that light rays passing
nearby. Thus the light rays undergo several deflections and
finally come to the original source. As per this Einstenian
concept it was calculated that the Universe is having a
circumfrence of 200 Billion light years and the diameter of
63,636,363,636,364 light years. Thus Einstein believed that
the universe is finite having these dimension.
200 billion = 1,000,000 X 100,00,00 X200
= 200,000,000,000,000 (15 digits)
It is curious to note that the life span of Brahma also
is having such a staggering figure.
Life span of Brahma = 311,040,000,000,000 years
(15 digits)
Could it be just a coincidence? Does it indicate the
size of the Universe? If so it is the most accurate
calculation."
4154. This document further appears to have been filed to
4550
show the manner in which the stone inscription of 1992 was
deciphered, but now, in our view, it is wholly irrelevant since
K.V. Ramesh OPW 10 has submitted his own translation and
transliteration in English which all the parties have admitted that
it is the most authentic one and his competence and expertise on
the subject admits no doubt.
4155. F.E. Pargiter tried to find out historicity in the matter
by tracing out the genealogy. In his Ancient Indian Historical
Tradition he collected list of rulers and dynasties based on
traditional Sanskrit sources. He could successfully find the
chronology tracing back about three thousands of years but find
some gaps missing links etc., hence rejected it by observing that
it is entirely a myth. It is normally difficult to a common man to
trace out his own genealogy by five or ten stages back, and, here
a person who had no knowledge of local faith, belief etc., from
here and their tried to find out chronological list of hundreds of
predecessors, going in thousand of years, and yet when find
some alleged manuscripts or some descriptions in certain books
creating some confusion, easily accepted the easier mode of
wriggling out of it by terming it a myth. Probably the reason
might be that they were working under a concept of Christian
methodology at that time that the world itself was created 4004
BCE. He also might be under the conventional wisdom of Max
Muller's theory of Aryan invasion in Indian sub-continent who
presumed that Indian civilization began only when the Aryans
allegedly invaded from the side of Indus in about 1500 BCE. It
is probably for this reason that he was not able to go beyond
that. Something is really disturbing with these kind of dispute.
Doubts normally are not raised or tried to be avoided in the
4551
matters of other religions. The dispute of Al Aqsa in Jerusalem
where the Farmosque is and treated to be the third most pious
place by muslims since they believe that Prophet Muhammad
descended thereat after visiting heaven, nobody even doubt their
faith but one can always ask a question that Jerusalem is not
mentioned in Quran at all while Mecca and Madina words have
been used innumerably then what is the evidence for such belief
but then one must understand and appreciate that in the matter
of faith and religion such things cannot be asked. A religion
itself means if some people believe something and worship as a
matter of right, since the time immemorial, the others must not
raise any doubt. Simple logic is that failing to find evidence to
something does not necessarily result in that the thing does not
exist.
4156. The issues which have been framed and up for
consideration by us are causing a bit complication inasmuch as
issue 11 (Suit-4) says, "is the property in suit the site of
Janambhumi of Sri Ram Chandraji". It does not talk of whether
this question has to be considered in the context of tradition,
faith and belief of Hindus, or, that like an ordinary property
dispute, we are really required to answer where Lord Rama was
borne actually. If this be so, the issue require us to perform an
impossible task. On the one hand, qua the property in dispute
when question arise whether it was actually constructed by
Babar, and whether he actually dedicated or not, the submission
is that the matter travels in history and, therefore, direct
evidence for an event occurred such a long time back may not
be possible, hence the issues must be decided in the light of the
traditions etc. and other circumstantial things. But here, where
4552
the period of Lord Rama ranges in several thousand and lacs of
years, can it be said where he actually borne, be decided by a
Court of Law by collecting positive evidence on this aspect and
any party will be able to do it.
4157. The issues pertaining to history cannot be decided
like this and to us it appears that by necessity we have to treat
the issues 11 (Suit-4), 1 (Suit-1) and 22 (Suit5) as if we are
required to answer the common question whether the property in
suit is the site of birth of Sri Ramchandra Ji according to
tradition, belief and faith of Hindus in general, otherwise this
kind of dispute will create inroads to a very serious and
dangerous arena which we cannot allow.
4158. Let us now proceed to find out as to how Ayodhya
and Lord Rama inter se are considered by the parties before us
and what has been said in brief by their witnesses.
4159. Regarding the identity and importance of Ayodhya,
the statements of some of the witnesses of plaintiffs (Suit-4) are
as under:
(a) P.W. 6 Mohammad Unus Siddiqi
r -| r l lr i n i - ; in | i-ii r l i i
ini i- i- | r ; r |( zo)
"It is true that it is a matter of faith for Hindus that
Ayodhya is linked with the name of Lord Rama.(E.T.C.)
(b) PW 8, Abdul Ajij
r -| r l i i lr i | n|i -i| r | r n
lr i n ri in r | ( ss)
It is true that Ayodhya is a pilgrimage of Hindus.
Hindus come here from far off places. (E.T.C)
(c) PW 10 Mohammad Idris
i i -r| ir r , r lr i i i| -r| ir r i
4553
- -ii i i| -r| ir r | . . . . .r -| r l i i -
-li | i-i r | ( sss)
"Ayodhya is a religious town. It is a religious town for
Hindus and so is it for Muslims. . . . . . . . . It is true that
Ayodhya has plenty of temples.(E.T.C)
(d) PW 21 Dr. M. Hashim Kidwai
r r| r l i- | i - i i - r i ii| r
r| r l lr i n i i - ini i- - -ii i
li in r | ( //)
It is true that the birth of Ram Chandra Ji took
place in Ayodhhya. It is true that from centuries, Hindu
community have been visiting the birthplace of Lord Rama
for Darshan. (E.T.C.)
r -| r l ii lr i | -r- i n|i -i|
r r i| -| r l i i - ini | i- i - r i ii|
i| lr ; in i r| rn l ini i- i - | i l-
r i ii ri i| -l- | r | r -| r l s lr | |
-ini r l r ini | i- | - -i| r | ( ss)
It is true that Ayodhya is a significant pilgrimage of
Hindus. It is also correct that birth of Lord Rama took
place in Ayodhya. All Hindus do not say that the birth of
Lord Rama took place on that very land where Babari
Mosque is constructed. It is correct that some Hindus
believe that it is the birthplace of Lord Sri Rama. (E.T.C.)
(e) PW 25 S.M. Naqvi
i n|i i| i i - i l in r r i
-iii ii i| -l- i i |ni i ; ri ini r
i i- ni ri ini r ri n in r i ,i i
4554
n ri n i ,i i i nii in r | ( r)
Such pilgrims, who come to Ayodhya for 'Darshan'
(offering of prayer by Hindus in temple), apart from other
places, also visit the place called 'Sita Rasoi' &
'Ramchabutara' near Babri masjid and must be offering
their devotion and offer flowers and sweets as per their
devotion. (E.T.C.)
4160. So far as the witnesses of Hindu parties are
concerned, they all have said unequivocally that according to
their faith and belief Lord Rama was borne at Ayodhya and the
disputed site is the place where Lords of Lord manifested. The
relevant part thereof we may refer a bit later.
4161. We are aware that the antiquity, history etc. of a
place or personality would not solely depend the oral statements
of some persons who could not have any personal knowledge of
the matter. This appears virtually admitted on the part of the
muslim parties also and it is probably for this reason, under
Order X Rule 2 CPC, statement was made by all the learned
counsels appearing for Muslim parties, about the faith and belief
of Hindus that Lord Rama was borne at Ayodhya or that it is this
very Ayodhya in respect whereto the above faith exist, they have
no reason to dispute it, and their dispute is confined only to the
site in question as to whether the place of birth of Lord Rama
can be zeroed down thereto or not, legally and otherwise.
4162. The counsel for the parties virtually were unanimous
that these aspects can be seen better in the light of the historical
and other texts which may reflect upon it and give some idea on
the subject. Having considered the issue in detail we find that
the work of Historians and experts as they claim, the recorded
4555
material, which we have in the form of books, can broadly be
categorised in two.
(1) The books written before or till 1600 AD (hereinafter
referred to as pre-1600 AD; and,
(2) The books written after 1600 AD (hereinafter referred
to as post-1600 AD).
4163. The reason for making the above distinction though
to some extent is apparent, but we propose to give its detail. At
this stage, it would be suffice to mention and remind us that the
books falling in the first category, i.e. pre-1600 AD mostly
consist of Hindu, Jain, Baudha and Muslim literature written by
the persons of these communities, in limited may some
chronicles, and also include the published material of certain
travellers from other countries like China etc. In the later
category, i.e. post-1600 AD the published material consist of the
history books mostly written by Europeans as well as English
translation of pre 1600 AD literature, which was originally
written in languages like Sanskrit, Turkish, Persian etc. as also
the travellers account of persons mostly European, visiting
Indian sub-continent.
4164. It is no doubt true that pre-1600 AD literature is a bit
scattered, lack at several places, clarity and specificity, and
leaves at times one to guess or assume something while the
post-1600 AD material is more specific and concrete but tainted
and tampered or written without understanding the true context
and facts. It has to be relied and handled cautiously since it is
more based on informations received by the authors other than
first hand information. When something is written on the basis
of information received, the source from which the information
4556
has been received, the extent of clarity with which the
information is conveyed the credibility of the informant as well
as information, whether the information has been given
impartially or with a biased mind, capacity and extent of
understanding of the person receiving information, his
capability of putting the same on paper, the extent of accuracy
and several other similar factors would have to be considered
otherwise the ultimate inference may result in drastic
consequences.
4165. The Indian history in post 1600 AD has primarily
been written by Europeans claiming that the same is based on an
in-depth study of old manuscripts of Indian Literature as also
the information they have collected from the available Indian
Historians and local people. Though the printed material pre
1600 AD is also available but we cannot term it as primary
source of evidence since the material is published later on and
we have no manner of comparing the same with the primary
source. The original manuscript is not available and in many of
cases cannot be available at all.
4166. Normally one ought to proceed chronologically but
since post 1600 authors have claimed their work to be very
authentic and reliable, we intend to proceed in a reverse manner,
i.e., first to consider and refer some of the historical and other
books written in post 1600 AD and thereafter revert back to pre
1600 AD.
4167. The historical literature in post 1600 AD mostly has
its credit to the people came in India as merchants from England
and turned the entire chapter of history in this part of Asian
Continent. Prior to it, one noticeable event is the visit of Vasco-
4557
da-Gama on 20
th
May 1428 alongwith four ships and 118
sailors. It is said that the route was guided to him by an Indian
sailor. He returned to Lisbon with a cargo, the value of which it
is said, was 60 fold the cost of his voyage to India. This opened
the eyes of Europeans in the entire continent and thereafter
attempts from different countries like England, France etc. were
made to enter into trade with India. On 24
th
September, 1599 a
group of merchants formed an association for entering into free
trade in East Indies. Queen Elizabeth granted a Charter on 31
st
December, 1599 to Governor and Company of Merchants of
London to trade freely in the East. Though it was not necessary
to seek for a charter but the Company had two reasons for the
same. One, to assure a reasonable prospect of success in the
adventure the Company asked for a trade monopoly and special
privileges which by the constitutional practice of the time could
be conferred only by the Crown; and secondly; to make
association sufficiently powerful to negotiate and deal with
Indian potentates, to count on state aid, to drive off European
competitors and to enforce discipline among its own servants.
4168. It is said that to begin with the East India Company
had only 101 shareholders and could collect a sum 30133 ponds,
6 shillings and 8 pence only. Later on it was increased and
reached up to 68373 pounds and number of shareholders
increased to 217. The shareholders included besides merchants
and traders, grossers, lather sellers, dyers, tailors and
goldsmiths. The East India Company was tempted to enter into
trade with Indian continent after being impressed with its
economic prosperity. Some of the comments made by
Europeans supports it. Shakespeare called India as the climax
4558
of the greatest opportunities in the world. The German
philosopher Hegel in his book The Philosophy of History
Newark 1956 Edition, page 142 described it as the land of
desire. The Vasco-da-gama himself called India as Golden
India and Adam Smith said that India was one of the
wealthiest ancient country.
4169. The wealth drained out by the East India Company
is an eye opener. James Mill in History of British India Vol.-
I at page 22-23 has said that English East India Company in a
short span made huge profits. In seven out of eight expeditions
during 1603 AD to 1613 AD it made profits in general more
than 200 times on the capital of the voyage. In 1600, the First
Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth, the company was described
as Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading
into east Indies. It granted exclusive right of trading into and
from the East Indies, in the countries and Ports of Asia and
Africa, and into and from all the Islands, Ports, Harbours, cities,
creeks, towns and places of Asia and Africa, America or any of
them, beyond the cape of Bona Esperenza to the straits of
Magellan for a period of 15 years. This grant was conditional on
the trade proving profitable to the realm. This Charter was
renewed by James First in 1609 AD and made perpetual
subject to determination after three years notice on proof of
injury to the nation. Before 1612 AD, the members attributed
on each occasion towards expenses of the each voyage reaping
the whole profits of his subscription. In 1612 AD Joint Stock
System was introduced and in the next four years, i.e., 1613 to
1616 AD the Company made a total profit of 87.5%. Maurice
Doble in Studies in the Development of Capitalism (London,
4559
1946) at page 192 has mentioned that in 1617 AD the
Company made a total profit of pounds 10 lacs on a capital of
pounds 2 lacs. In 17
th
century AD the Company averaged a rate
of profit of about 100%. The fortune it conferred to British
youngsters was such that they become overnight affluent and
rich. Thomas Pitt (1643-1726 AD), the grandfather of William
Pitt became a multimillionaire in India and used to be called
Diamond Pitt while Elihu Yale (1648-1721 AD) became one
of the richest man in England. It is for this reason that no
occasion of determination of Company did arose and instead the
powers were enhanced from time to time vide Charters of 1661,
1669, 1677, 1683, 1686, 1726, 1753 and 1758 AD. We do not
propose to give British history of India but in order to
understand the mindset, the purpose, the objective, the motive,
the degree of fairness in appreciation or understanding of the
things etc. by the European authors in post 1600 AD probably
each and every factor has to be examined since it has a
cumulative effect which reflects in the mind and opinion of a
person while making an observation in respect to life style of the
natives including religious, cultural and other aspects of a
country like India. Some of the broad features of the Charters
referred above may be reminded at this stage in brief.
4170. Charter of 1661 AD empowers the Company to
appoint Governors and other officers for the Government of
Fortress, the dispatch ammunitions and wire material for
defence of their factories, to erect poles and to appoint
commanders and other officers with power to make peace and
war with non-Christian nations. For better administration of
justice the Governor and Council of each factory were
4560
authorised to judge all persons living under them, in all causes
whether civil or criminal. Charter of 1669 AD granted to the
Company, the Port and Island of Bombay investing it at the
same time with powers of their civil and military government.
The Company was authorised to coin money at Bombay by
Charter of 1677 AD. Charter of 1683 AD granted full powers to
Company to raise military forces, to exercise martial law in case
of foreign invasion or domestic insurrection and to make peace
and war with heathen nations. A Court of Judicature
consisting of one person learned in civil law and two
Assistants was established to adjudge mercantile and maritine
cases. Charter of 1686 AD empower it to raise naval forces, to
appoint Admirals and other sea officers and to coin money in
their Forts. One year thereafter, by virtue of power conferred by
Crown, a Municipality was established at Madras.
4171. The progress and development of the Company
caused some legal battle in England as others were also vying
for entering in trade with East Indies. A question was raised in
1683-85 AD in East India Company Vs. Sandys, whether the
Crown had the prerogative to grant a trade monopoly without
the authority of parliament. The issue was decided in favour of
the Company. Again in 1691 AD the issue was raised before the
Privy Council but decided in favour of the Company. However,
the Company when detained a private ship Red Bridge in the
Thames alleging that it was bound for countries within the
Charter limits of the Company, the legality of detention was
questioned and brought to the notice of Parliament whereupon
in 1694 AD a resolution was passed that all subjects of England
had equal rights to trade with the East Indies unless prohibited
4561
by Act of Parliament. Consequently, by Act of 1698 AD trade
monopoly was secured to the Company in return for loans made
to the State from time to time. In 1708 AD the controversy of
trade monopoly came to an end due to amalgamation of various
companies under the name of the United Company of
Merchants of England Trading with the East Indies and this
name continued up to 1831 AD. The Company had expanded its
activities to much wider fields and for effective management
and operation thereof by Charter of 1726 AD Municipal and
Judicial Institutions at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were
reorganised; Mayor's Courts were established by the Crown by
Letters Patent and the Governor and Council of each Presidency
were conferred powers of legislation in respect of inhabitants of
towns and factories under their control. Charter of 1753 AD
empowered for setting up of Courts on request for trial of petty
cases. Suits and causes in which both the parties were Indians or
non-European were excluded from the jurisdiction of the
Mayor's Courts and directed to be determined amongst the
parties themselves. Act of 1754 made provision for military
forces of the Company corresponding to the provisions in the
English Mutiny Acts. It also made offences committed by the
Company's Presidents and Councils cognizable and punishable
in England.
4172. Then came the moment which marked the process of
English domination in India. The British Company won battle of
Plassey in 1757 AD. This victory laid foundation of British
supremacy in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and paved way for the
conquest in Northern India. Consequently by Charter of 1758
AD the Company was empowered to cede, restore, or dispose of
4562
fortresses, districts or territories acquired by conquest from
Indian princes or Governments. Almost all the historians are in
unionism in observing that this was the situation created in India
by sudden collapse of Mughal empire. Within half a century of
the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire fell to
pieces. Sikhs shattered it in Punjab, Marathas rose to supremacy
in Peninsula, Rajput States declared their independence, the
Governors in Oudh, Bengal and Deccan threw off their
allegiance and Afghan soldier of fortune seized Rohilkhand.
Two Maratha warriors, Holker and Sindhia partitioned Malwa
founding new dynasties. In this state of confusion and anarchy,
two strong European powers though rival, i.e., French and
English East India Company established their foothold. The
French East India Company which was also initially a mere
trading concern, possessed the districts of Pondichary and
Carical as well as a number of factories and forts at Surat, Mahi
and Chandar Nagar. However, its influence in Deccan was
watered down and shattered by the victories of Clive in 1752
AD. The battle of Plassey in 1757 AD made English Company
virtually master of Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa.
4173. In 1760 AD Clive obtained the grant of Northern
Sirkars for the Madras Government and in 1765 AD, to be more
precise on 17
th
August, 1765, Emperor Shah Alam conferred on
the Company Deewani or the right of collecting revenue and
administering civil justice in Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa in return
for any early payment of 26 lacs of rupees. Victory in Plassey
battle made the company sovereign de facto in relation to Bihar,
Bengal and Orissa and grant of Diwani made them sovereign de
jure. This progress of the Company sought to be shared by the
4563
Crown in England and the Parliament passed in 1767 AD five
Acts with reference to Indian affairs.
4174. To begin with, the Company was required to deposit
into English Government's Exchequer an annuity of pound 4
lacs as a tribute to the State in consideration of their retaining
the territorial acquisition and their revenue. In Company India,
A Comprehensive History of India (1757-1858), J. Kumar at
page 65 has observed that Company took advantage of its
becoming de facto de jure sovereign after battle of Palasy and its
servants collect a huge sum inasmuch as within less than a
decade of the battle of Palasy two million pounds sterling from
Bengal reached into pockets of the Company's servants by way
of presents and other means. This resulted in Regulating Act,
1773 and Pitt's India Act, 1784.
4175. The ways in which the Company servants manage
their affairs, Sir William Meredith said merchants sovereigns
are always dangerous for their rule of selling is to take as much
as they please, and the rule by which they bye is to pay as little as
they please. Regulating Act, 1773 appointed a Governor
General and four Councils for the Government of Presidency of
Fort William in Bengal. The Governor General and Council
were given the power of superintending and controlling the
Governments and the Presidencies of Madras, Bombay and
Bencoolen (in Sumatra) which were required to pay due
obedience in matters relating to peace and war and negotiations
of treaties with Indian princes or powers. The Governor General
and Council were also authorised to make an issue, rules,
ordinances and regulations for the good order and civil
government of the Company's settlement and Fort William and
4564
other factories and places subordinate, as were deemed just and
reasonable. These rules and regulations, however, were not to
have the force of law until registered in the Supreme Court with
its assent and approbation. It is said that the object of this
proviso was to secure the conformity of Indian laws with the
fundamental laws of England. The rules and regulations,
however, could further be disallowed by the King in Council.
The Government of two minor Presidency were required to sent
to the Bengal Government copies of all of their regulations and
orders but the Governor General and Council were not
empowered to legislate for the territories of Madras and
Bombay. The Crown was empowered to establish by Charter
and letters patent, a Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William
consisting of a Chief Justice and three other judges, who were
barristers of at least five years standing and were appointed by
the Crown.
4176. We need not to detail as to how the things
functioned under this Act but the history books show that the
sharp controversy between the Governor General and Council
and the Supreme Court made the Governor General powerless
before his own Council, the Council was powerless before the
Supreme Court and the Supreme Court was immune from all
responsibility for the peace and welfare of the country. Lord
North on 9
th
April, 1781 observed in the House of Commons
that it was desirable that the Governor of Bengal might in future
be something more than a mere primus interpares. He further
observed, for his part he was an enemy to absolute power, but if
the genius, the habits and religious prejudices of India were
inconsistent with a free Government, the necessity would justify
4565
Parliament with a degree of absolute power, to be exercised by
him with moderation and distinction.
4177. This resulted in Bengal Judicature At 1781
providing that the Supreme Court had no jurisdiction in matters
concerning revenue or any act done in the collection thereof
according to the usages of the country, or the regulations of
Governor General and Council and that judicial officers of the
Company's Courts were not liable in the Supreme Court for acts
done in judicial capacity. The Governor General and Council
was recognised as having appellate jurisdiction from the
judgements of the Company's Courts. The Governor General
and Council were empowered to make regulations for the
Company's Courts which would not require registration in the
Supreme Court. It provided that Rules and forms for the
execution of process in Supreme Court were to be
accommodated to the religion and usages of the people of India.
The Supreme Court's jurisdiction as regards Indian was limited
to the town of Calcutta. It further laid down that questions of
inheritance and succession to land, rents and goods, and all
matters of contract and dealing between party and party, were to
be determined in the case of Muhammadans by the laws and
usages of Muhammadans and in the case of Hindus by the laws
and usages of Hindus.
4178. Though not directly but here was the time when
simultaneously some other got indulged themselves to
understand the culture & history of this part of the sub-
continent. The first hurdle was language. The literature was in
Sanskrit. Thus process of its translation commenced. The
History of Sanskrit Literature (1859) shows that major part
4566
of the translation work started in the later part of 18
th
century.
Earlier, in 1651 AD Abraham Roger translated Sanskrit poet
Bhartrihari into Dutch. Thereafter Voltaire in his essay Essai
sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations shows his enthusiasm
greeting the lore of the Ezour Vedam, a work brought from
India and introduced to his notice in the middle of the last
century. It is said that this work was later proved to be a forgery
made in the 17
th
century by a Jesuit Missionary. Thereafter one
Dugald Stewart, Philosopher wrote an essay endeavouring to
prove that not only the Sanskrit literature but also the Sanskrit
language was a forgery made by the crafty Brahmans on the
model of Greek after Alexander's conquest. Warren Hastings,
the then Governor General, East India Company viewed in the
advantage of ruling Hindus as far as possible according to their
own laws and customs and caused a number of Brahmans to
prepare a digest, based on the best ancient Indian legal
authorities. An English version of this Sanskrit compilation,
made through the medium of a Persian translation, was
published in 1776.
4179. The first European said to have acquired knowledge
of actual Sanskrit writing is said to be Charles Wilkins at
Benares who got published in 1785 a translation of Bhagwad-
gita, or The Song of the Adorable One and two years later a
version of the well known collections of Fables entitled
Hitopadeca or Friendly Advice.
4180. Thereafter the subsequent historians gives real credit
to Sir William Jones who in his brief stay of 11 years in India
first aroused keen interest in the study of Indian Antiquity by
founding Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784, having acquired
4567
knowledge of Sanskrit, published translation of Shakuntala in
1789 which was appreciated by several other judges like Herder
and Goethe and thereafter he translated Code of Manu.
4181. The first British Historian, who said to have
adventured on the Indian History is James Mill, author of
History of British India. In Autobiography J.S. Mill
London, reprinted in 1958, it is said that Mill was born in 1773
at a village in Scotland. His father (also called James) was a pity
shoe maker and his mother Isabel Fentan was a farmer's
daughter. He got higher education in the University of
Edinburgh at the expenses of a fund established for educating
young men of the Scottish Presbyterian Church. However, he
had forsaken the Church and for a few years was a private tutor
in various prominent families in Scotland. Thereafter, he came
to England where he adopted journalism for his livelihood and
wrote a number of articles in journals and periodicals like,
Edinburgh Review, West Minister Review, London Review,
Annual Review, etc. He also drafted some articles in Volume V
of Encyclopaedia Britannica. In 1808, he came in contact with
Jeremy Bentham. In 1819, he got a job and was appointed as
Assistant Examiner of Correspondence at India House and
served the East India Company till his demise in 1836. Thus,
James Mill had never been in India, knew no Indian language
and lacked personal acquaintance with Indians. His writing,
however, in respect to India consisted of a number of articles,
reviews, voluminous correspondences and despatches to the
various authorities of the East India Company during 1819 to
1836, and a book. Some of his articles, namely, Affairs on
India (1810), Wilk's History of Mysore (1811), East India
4568
Monopoly (1812), Malcolm on India (1812) were published
in Edinburgh Review during 1810-12. His famous work on
India is History of British India. It is said that he started
work on this book in 1806 and in 1817 three volumes were first
published. Again it was published in 1820. It was published in
six volumes in 1826. During 1840-48, it was published in nine
volumes with notes and contents of H.H. Wilson and in 1858
and 1872, it was reprinted in ten volumes.
4182. James Mill set out to display the history, character,
religion, literature, arts and laws of India besides explaining the
influence of the Indian climate. He aimed to look it the
accumulated information of India within a wider theoretical
frame work. The work begins with a preface in which Mill
makes virtues of having never visited India and of knowing
none of its native languages. To him these are guarantees of his
objectivity and he says:
A duly qualified man can obtain more knowledge of
India in one year in his closet in England than he could
obtain during the course of longest life by the use of his
eyes and years in India.
4183. Mill treated his work a monumental one and comes
on in his preface to say that his work is a critical, or judging
history encompassing singularly harsh judgements of Hindu
customs and denouncements of a backward category notable for
superstition ignorance and the mistreatment of human.
4184. In the fifth edition of History of British India
edited by H.H. Wilson, in the preface the editor mentioned
something about the knowledge gained by James Mill for
writing the said book and has commented on the same as under :
4569
He acknowledges that his opportunities of
consulting alleged authorities were sometimes transient
and precarious, i.e., something unpublished documents of
which he had need were not accessible to him; and that in
the later portion of his work which may be regarded as
almost temporary history, he was in want of much personal
information which he believe to accept and might have
rendered his narrative richer and perhaps more accurate in
matters of detail.
4185. The same editor has further commented about the
lack of knowledge of the Country and unacquitance by James
Mill. He has observed Besides the defects occasioned by
incomplete material, the History of British India presumes
inaccuracies both of facts and opinion; which have arisen from
the author's imperfect knowledge of the Country and
unacquitance with any of the language spoken in it. He has
taken great pains to prove that these defects are of no
consideration and that he had never been in India and is
possessing but a slight and elementary acquittance with any of
the languages of the east are to be regarded rather as
qualification then disqualification for the task which he had
undertaken. His arguments are ingenious; they will carry
conviction but to few. It is true that residence in a Country
command of its dilates converseries, with its literature are but
humble elements in the formation of the historical character but
they are elements and cannot be disregarded without injury to the
inconsistencies of incompleteness of the whole. It is also true that
there are many circumstances in the position of the servants of
the East India Company which are unprofitious to the
4570
development and cultivation of the talent and knowledge requisite
to constitute a historian of India; but, although these
circumstances may counter balance in the individual themselves;
observatory benefits derivable from personal observation though
do not therefor invalidate the reality of those benefits or render
local sketch altogether valueless and may be reservation that no
one person of the many who have been engaged in official duty in
India or how have earned distinction as oriental scholar has yet
brought to the attempt to write a history of India, the same degree
of fitness as Mr. Mill; yet it cannot but be felt had Mr. Mill passed
but a short time in the Country or been but moderately versed in
any ...
4186. He further wrote, Acquaintance with the language
and literature of India would have resolved Mr. Mill from some
other mistaken conclusions. He states it as his conviction that
even when he wrote, a sufficient stalk of information had been
collected in the languages of Europe to enable and enquirer to
ascertain every important point in the history of India. As far as
this assertion may be considered applicable to the European part
of Indian history. It is inconsistent with the defense history he had
himself indicated. It is still more incorrect when applied to the
history of the Hindus and Mohammedans of Hindustan. ......In the
journals of several Asiatic Societies and the publications of
various Hindu scholar's information almost entirely new and of
exceed interest has been obtained within the last few years
relating to the religion, philosophy and ancient history of Hindus
whilst their later forbit ion .... has been ... illustrated by the
history of Maratha's and Annals of Rajasthan, until, however,
some of of the Puranas and the chief portion of the Vedas shall
4571
have been translated. It is safe to speculate on the point of scope
and character of the primitive institutions of the Hindus and of
more recent period, it is still essential to extend investigation in
those chronicles of the native States which are known to have
existence. ..
4187. He further observed about prejudices of the author,
Exceptions even more comprehensive may be taken to his
opinion. In many incidents, the intensity of his prejudices has
dimmed the clarity and has blunted the acquittance of his
intelligence.
4188. Then comes Henry Thomas Colebrooke who got
published several text, translation and assay of Sanskrit
literature. Alexander Hamilton, an Englishmen, who it is said
had acquired knowledge of Sanskrit in India happened to be
passing through France on his way home in 1802 AD.
4189. The one longest work running in about 50 volumes
we got is known as Max Muller "Sacred Books of East". He
better known for his extraordinary work in publication of the
series of books under the title Sacred Books of the East
running in 50 volumes. He was born on 6
th
December, 1823 in
Dessau (Germany). His full name is Friedrich Max Muller. His
father Wilhelm Muller, was a romantic poet and his mother
Adelheide Muller was the eldest daughter of a Chief Minister of
Anhalt-Dessau. He entered Leipzig University in 1841 where he
left his early interest in music and poetry in favour of
philosophy. He received Ph.D. in 1843 for a dessertation on
Spinoz's Ethics. He also displayed an aptitude for languages,
learning the Classical languages Greek and Latin, as well as
Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit. In 1844, he went to Berlin to study
4572
with Friedrich Schelling. He began to translate the Upanishads
for Schelling, and continued to research Sanskrit under Franz
Bopp (the gentleman is considered to be a first systemic scholar
of the Indo-European languages). Schelling led Muller to relate
the history of language to the history of religion. At this time,
Muller published his first book, a German translation of the
Hitopadesa, a collection of Indian fables.
4190. In 1845, he moved to Paris to study Sanskrit under
Eugene Burnouf. It is said that it is Burnouf who encouraged
him to translate the complete Reg Veda, using manuscript
available in England.
4191. In 1846, Muller moved to England so as to study
Sanskrit texts in the collection of the East India Company. For
supporting himself, Muller wrote a novel German Love claimed
to be popular in those days. His connections with the East India
Company and with Sanskritists based at Oxford University led
to a career in Britain, where became the leading intellectual
commentator on the culture of India which Britain controlled as
part of its Empire at that time. It is said that this led to complex
exchanges between Indian and British intellectual culture,
especially through Muller's links with the Brahmo Samaj.
Muller became a member of Christ Church, Oxford in 1851,
when he gave his first series of lectures on comparative
philology. He gained appointments as Taylorian Professor of
Modern European Languages in 1854 and as Professor of
Comparative Philology at Oxford. Subsequently in 1860, he was
defeated in the competition for the tenured Chair of Sanskrit but
later on became Oxford's first Professor of Comparative
Theology (1868 1875), at All Souls College.
4573
4192. Muller attempted to formulate a philosophy of
religion that addressed the crisis of faith engendered by the
historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on
the one hand, and by the Darwinian revolution on the other.
Muller was wary of Darwin's work on human evolution, and
attacked his view of the development of human faculties. His
work was taken up by cultural commentators such as his friend
John Ruskin, who saw it as a productive response to the crisis of
the age (compare Matthew Arnold's Dover Beach). He
analyzed mythologies as rationalizations of natural phenomena,
primitive beginnings that we might denominate protoscience
within a cultural evolution; Muller's "anti-Darwinian" concepts
of the evolution of human cultures are among his least lasting
achievements.
4193. Muller shared many of the ideas associated with
Romanticism, which coloured his account of ancient religions,
in particular his emphasis on the formative influence on early
religion of emotional communion with natural forces.
4194. Muller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when
scholars had started to see language development in relation to
cultural development. The recent discovery of the Indo-
European (IE) language group had started to lead to much
speculation about the relationship between Greco-Roman
cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the
Vedic culture of India was thought to have been the ancestor of
European Classical cultures, and scholars sought to compare the
genetically related European and Asian languages in order to
reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic
language, Sanskrit, was thought to be the oldest of the IE
4574
languages. Muller therefore devoted himself to the study of this
language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his
day. Muller believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture
should be studied in order to provide the key to the development
of pagan European religions, and of religious belief in general.
To this end, Muller sought to understand the most ancient of
Vedic scriptures, the Rig-Veda.
4195. Muller was greatly impressed by Ramakrishna
Paramhansa, his contemporary and proponent of Vedantic
philosophy, and authored several essays and books on him.
4196. A 1907 study of Muller's inaugural Hibbert Lecture
of 1878 was made by one of his contemporaries, D. Menant. It
argued that a crucial role was played by Muller and social
reformer Behramji Malabari in initiating debate on child
marriage and widow remarriage questions in India.
4197. For Muller, the study of the language had to relate to
the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to
the view that the development of languages should be tied to
that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were
little-known in the West, though there was increasing interest in
the philosophy of the Upanishads. Muller believed that the
sophisticated Upanishadic philosophy could be linked to the
primitive henotheism of early Vedic Brahmanism from which it
evolved. He had to travel to London in order to look at
documents held in the collection of the British East India
Company. While there he persuaded the company to allow him
to undertake a critical edition of the Rig-Veda, a task he pursued
doggedly over many years (1849 - 1874), and which resulted in
the critical edition for which he is most remembered.
4575
4198. For Muller, the culture of the Vedic peoples
represented a form of nature worship, an idea clearly influenced
by Romanticism. He saw the gods of the Rig-Veda as active
forces of nature, only partly personified as imagined
supernatural persons. From this claim Muller derived his theory
that mythology is 'a disease of language'. By this he meant that
myth transforms concepts into beings and stories. In Muller's
view 'gods' began as words constructed in order to express
abstract ideas, but were transformed into imagined personalities.
Thus the Indo-European father-god appears under various
names: Zeus, Jupiter, Dyaus Pita. For Muller all these names
can be traced to the word 'Dyaus', which he understands to
imply 'shining' or 'radiance'. This leads to the terms 'deva',
'deus', 'theos' as generic terms for a god, and to the names 'Zeus'
and 'Jupiter' (derived from deus-pater). In this way a metaphor
becomes personified and ossified. This aspect of Muller's
thinking closely resembled the later ideas of Nietzsche.
4199. Nevertheless Muller's work contributed to the
developing interest in Aryan culture which set Indo-European
('Aryan') traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was
deeply saddened by the fact that these later came to be
expressed in racist terms. This was far from Muller's own
intention. For Muller the discovery of common Indian and
European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism,
arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan
blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who
speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic
grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier
stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest
4576
Scandinavians".
4200. In 1881, he published a translation of the first
edition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. He agreed with
Schopenhauer that this edition was the most direct and honest
expression of Kant's thought. His translation corrected several
errors that were committed by previous translators. In his
Translator's Preface, Muller wrote, "The bridge of thoughts and
sighs that spans the whole history of the Aryan world has its first
arch in the Veda, its last in Kant's Critique.While in the Veda
we may study the childhood, we may study in Kant's Critique of
Pure Reason the perfect manhood of the Aryan mind.The
materials are now accessible, and the English-speaking race, the
race of the future, will have in Kant's Critique another Aryan
heirloom, as precious as the Veda a work that may be
criticised, but can never be ignored."
4201. Muller's comparative religion was criticized as
subversive of the Christian faith. According to Monsignor
Munro, the Roman Catholic bishop of St Andrew's Cathedral in
Glasgow, his 1888 Gifford Lectures on the "Science of
Religion" represented nothing less than "a crusade against
divine revelation, against Jesus Christ and Christianity". Similar
accusations had already led to Muller's exclusion from the
Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the conservative Monier
Monier-Williams. By the 1880s Muller was being courted by
Charles Godfrey Leland, Helena Balvatsky and other writers
who were seeking to assert the merits of "Pagan" religious
traditions over Christianity. The designer Mary Fraser Tytler
stated that Muller's book Chips from a German Workshop (a
collection of his essays) was her "Bible", which helped her to
4577
create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.
4202. Muller distanced himself from these developments,
and remained within the Lutheran faith in which he had been
brought up. He several times expressed the view that a
"reformation" within Hinduism needed to occur comparable to
the Christian Reformation. In his view, "if there is one thing
which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest
light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is
exposed... Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first
beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it
in its later states". He used his links with the Brahmo Samaj in
order to encourage such a reformation on the lines pioneered by
Ram Mohan Roy.
4203. He was also influenced by the work Thought and
Reality, of the Russian philosopher African Spir.
4204. Munro had argued conversely that Muller's theories
"uprooted our idea of God, for it repudiated the idea of a
personal God." He made "divine revelation simply impossible,
because it [his theory] reduced God to mere nature, and did
away with the body and soul as we know them." Muller
remained profoundly influenced by the Kantian
Transcendentalist model of spirituality, and was opposed to
Darwinian ideas of human development, arguing that "language
forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."
(Muller, F. Max. Three Lectures on the Science of Language,
etc., with a Supplement, My Predecessors. 3rd ed. Chicago,
1899, p. 5)
4205. We have taken all these details of Max Muller from
the following :
4578
1. Lourens P. van den Bosch, Friedrich Max Muller: A Life
Devoted to the Humanities, 2002. Recent biography sets
him in the context of Victorian intellectual culture.
1.Jon R. Stone (ed.), The Essential Max Muller: On
Language, Mythology, and Religion, New York: Palgrave,
2002, ISBN 9780312293093. Collection of 19 essays; also
includes an intellectual biography.
2.Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Scholar Extraordinary, The Life of
Professor the Right Honourable Friedrich Max Muller, P.C.
(1974)
4206. The work of Muller published in 18 volumes is as
under:-
1.A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature So Far As It
Illustrates the Primitive Religion of the Brahmans (1859),
1859
2.Lectures on the Science of Language (1864, 2 vols.),
Fifth Edition, Revised 1866
3.Chips from a German Workshop (1867-75, 5vols.)
4.Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873)
5.Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as
Illustrated by the Religions of India (1878)
6.India, What can it Teach Us? (1883)
7.Biographical Essays (1884)
8.The German Classics from the Fourth to the Nineteenth
Century (1886,2Vols)
9. The Science of Thought (1887,2Vols)
10.Studies in Buddhism (1888)
11.Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy (1899)
12.Gifford Lectures of 188892 (Collected Works, vols. 1-
4579
4)
i Natural Religion (1889), Vol. I, Vol. 2
ii Physical Religion (1891),
iii Anthropological Religion (1892),
iv Theosophy, or Psychological Religion (1893),
13. Auld Lang Syne (1898,2 Vols), a memoir
14.My Autobiography: A Fragment (1901)
15.The Life and Letters of the Right Honourable Friedrich
Max Muller (1902, 2 vols.) Vol I, Vol II
4207. In a letter to his wife, he said:
The translation of the Veda will hereafter tell to a
great extent on the fate of India and on the growth of
millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their
religion, and to show them what the root is, I feel sure,
is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it
during the last 3000 years.
(Mller, Georgina, The Life and Letters of Right Honorable
Friedrich Max Mller, 2 vols. London: Longman, 1902)
4208. His wife, Georgina Adelaide (died 1916) had his
papers and correspondence carefully bound; they are at the
Bodleian Library, Oxford. The Goethe Institutes in India are
named Max Muller Bhavan in his honour.
4209. Some of the other well known authorities made
available to us are Translations in English of Hindu Religious
Scriptures written in Sanskrit, by Maurice Bloomfield, Arthur
Anthony, Macdonell, F. Rosen, Rudolf Roth, F. E. Pargiter
etc. In respect to some of them, a brief biography, we may
mention hereat, which would help us in appreciating the
contents while considering their views on the matter and the
extent of fairness and justness.
4580
4210. Maurice Bloomfield born on 23
rd
February, 1855 in
Bielitz (Polish:Bielsko), in what was at that time Austrian
Silesia (today it is in Poland). Went to the United States in 1867
and graduated from Furman University, Greenville, South
Carolina in 1877. Thereafter he studied Sanskrit at Yale, under
W.D. Whitney. He stayed at Berlin and Leipzig for about two
years and in 1881 returned as Associate Professor at Johns
Hopkins University and was promoted soon as Professor of
Sanskrit and comparative philology. In 1896 Princeton
University bestowed the LL.D. degree upon him. He was
considered as a Sanskrit Scholar and was an American
Philologist. He translated for Max Muller's Sacred Books of the
East, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897); contributed to
the section Atharva-Veda and gopatha Brahmana (1899).
He was first to edit Kauika-Sutra (1890) and in 1907
published in the Harvard Oriental Series, A Vedic
Concordance. In 1905 he published Cerberus, the Dog of
Hades, a study in comparative mythology. The Religion of the
Veda appeared in 1908; Life and Stories of the Jaina Savior
Parasvanatha and Rig Veda Repetitions in 1916. He died
on 12
th
June, 1928.
4211. Macdonell, Arthur Anthony in his book History of
Sanskrit Literature (1900) has said:
Hostalities breaking out afresh just then, a decree of
Napoleon, directed against all Englishmen in the country,
kept Hamilton a prisoner in Paris. During his long
involuntary stay in that city he taught Sanskrit to some
French scholars, and especially to the German romantic
poet Friedrich Schlegel. One of the results of these studies
4581
was the publication by Schlegel of his work On the
Language and Wisdom of the Indians (1808). This book
produced nothing less than a revolution in the science of
language by the introduction on the cooperative and the
historical method. It led to the foundation of the science of
cooperative philology by Franz Bopp in his treatise on the
conjugational system of Sanskrit in comparison with that of
Greek, Latin, Persian and German (1816). Schlegel's
work, moreover, aroused so much zeal for the study of
Sanskrit in Germany, that the vast progress made since his
day in this branch of learning has been mainly due to the
labours of his countrymen.
4212. Macdonall has appreciated the importance of
Ancient Indian Literature in the following words:
The importance of ancient Indian literature as a
whole largely consists in its originality. Naturally isolated
by its gigantic mountain barrier in the north, the Indian
peninsula has ever since the Aryan invasion formed a
world apart, over which a unique form of Aryan civilization
rapidly spread, and has ever since prevailed. When the
Greeks, towards the end of the 4
th
century BC, invaded the
North-West, the Indians had already fully worked out a
national cultural and their own, unaffected by foreign
influences. And, inspite of successive waves of invasion and
conquest by Persian, Greeks, Scythians, Muhammadans,
the national development of the life and literature of Indo-
Aryan race remained practically unchecked and
unmodified from without down to the era of British
occupation. No other branch of the Indo-European stock as
4582
experienced an isolated evolution like this. No other
country except China can trace back its language and
literature, its religious beliefs and rites, its customs and
social customs, through an uninterrupted development of
more than three thousand years.
A few examples will serve to illustrate this
remarkable continuity in Indian civilization. Sanskrit is still
spoken as the tongue of the learned by thousands of
Brahmans, as it was centuries before our era. Nor has it
ceased to be used for literary purposes, for many books
and journals written in ancient language are still produced.
The copying of Sanskrit Manuscripts is still continued in
hundred of libraries in India, uninterrupted even by the
introduction of printing during present century. The Vedas
are still learnt by heart as they were long before the
invasion of Alexander, and could even now be restored from
the lips of religious teachers if every manuscript or printed
copy of them were destroyed. The God Vishnu, adored
more than 3000 years ago, has countless votaries in India
at the present day.
4213. Arthur A. Macdonall was a professor of Sanskrit and
fellow of Balliol at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
4214. The F. Rosen, a German Scholar got published his
work on Rig-veda which actually was brought out in 1838,
shortly after his premature death. But in 1846 Rudolf Roth who
is called the "Founder of Vedic Philology" published On the
Literature and the History of the Veda in 1846.
4215. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition by F.E.
Pargiter was first published in 1922. Pargiter was a member of
4583
Indian Civil Service and retired from the office of Judge, High
Court Calcutta. He sought to examine Puranik and Epic tradition
as well as of the Rig-veda and Vedic literature to find out the
Ancient Indian History. In his preface dated March, 1922 at
Oxford he said that the current view about Ancient India is held
by the scholars based upon an examination of Veda and Vedic
literature but to the neglect of Puranic and Epic tradition.
According to him the view of the scholars at that time was that
Ancient Indian History has been fashioned out of compositions
which are purely religious and priestly, which notoriously do not
deal with history, and which totally lack the historical sense.
Justifying his approach Pargiter said that it began with the study
of the Epics and Puranas for Geographical information about
Ancient India 30 years ago, during the translation of
Markandaya Purana in order to elucidate its Geographical
chapters. Geography included political divisions and lead to an
examination of Ancient Kingdoms and so on to their dynastic
genealogies and traditions-subjects that were generally regarded
as of little or no historical value, and were practically included.
He considered the views expressed in Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal and Journal
of America Oriental Society. He tried to find out the order of
Rishis from the tradition by finding out the Chronological
research from the publication Rig-veda Repetitions by
Professor Maurice Bloomfield. He started with the preconceived
notion that the evidence of language shows that Aryans entered
into very early and established themselves ultimately throughout
North India and in the North West of the Deccan (South).
4216. We may clarify that neither we have any intention to
4584
make adverse comments against anyone nor we would like to
condemn outright what these gentleman have done. We
appreciate and acclaim their work irrespective of the reason,
motive or objective. We cannot loose sight of the fact that their
initiative in making the vedic texts known to public at large by
translating it in English ultimately has got before us the various
facets of such a rich literature which otherwise might have not
known. It is their diligence which has moved the world and has
generated inquest to go for further study and research in this
literature. For our purposes we only intend to say that the
religious old dispute between the two communities in respect
whereto the members of third community, may be in the
capacity of their official position or otherwise, have written
something which has been relied or disputed by one or the other
side in one or the other way and, therefore, while considering
the same we have to exercise due care and caution in reading
and understanding their contents. The facts as stated or noticed
by these authorities if taken on their face value may result if not
in a mistake, than a blunder.
4217. Though learned counsels appearing for Hindu
parties have commenced their submissions placing before us the
Hindu Scriptures starting from Rigveda, the first book said to
have been handed over by lord Brahma to Manu and thereafter
several vedic and other literature but with respect to the
material, which directly reflects upon the issue identifying the
disputed site with the place of birth of lord Rama, we find a
clear mention of these facts in the certain traverller'a account
written after 1600 A.D. as well as the gazetteers published in
18
th
and 19
th
Century onwards. The travellers account mainly
4585
relied in this regard are that Willium Finch, who visited
Ayodhya between 1607 to 1611 and Father Joseph Tieffenthaler
between 1740 to 1760 and Minouchi which we have already
reproduced while discussing the issues relating to date of
construction.
4218. The History of Ayodhya as contained in various
gazetteers has been placed before us in detail. Some of the part
thereof we have referred to while discussing the issues relating
to date of construction of the disputed building. However,
regarding the issue as to the birthplace of Lord Rama at the
disputed site, we may place on record the part of the gazetteers
placed before us to buttress the submissions by the learned
counsels for the Hindu parties. The first gazetteer is that of
Walter Hamilton, first published in1828 (reproduced in 1993
published by Low Price Publications, Delhi under the title East
India Gazetter containing particular descriptions of the
Empires, Kingdoms, Principalities, provinces, cities, towns,
districts, fortresses, harbours, rivers, lakes and, C. of Hindostan
and the adjacent Countries, India beyond the Ganges and the
eastern Archipelago. Before us is the second edition in two
volumes bound in one. On page 348 under the heading 'Oude'
(Ayodhya), it gives the following details :
Oude.
(Ayodhya.)
This is one of the smallest provinces of Hindostan
Proper, and is situated principally between the twenty-sixth
and twenty-eighth degrees of north latitude. To the north it
is bounded by various petty districts tributary to Nepaul,
from which it is separated by a range of hills and forests; to
4586
the south by Allahabad; on the east it has Bahar, and on
the west Delhi and Agra. In length it may be estimated at
250 miles, by 100 the average breadth. The whole surface
of this province is level, and extremely well watered by
large rivers or copious streams which intersect the country,
flowing all nearly in a south-east direction. When properly
cultivated the land is extremely productive, yielding crops
of wheat, barley, rice, and other grains; sugar-cane,
indigo, poppies for opium, and all the richest articles
raised in India. The air and climate are suited to the
spontaneous generation of nitre, from the brine of which an
impure culinary salt is procured by evaporation. Lapis
lazuli is also a mineral production of Oude. The modern
subdivisions are the same as the ancient, detailed by Abul
Fazal in A.D. 1582. Of these Lucknow, Fyzabad, Khyrabad,
Baraitche, with a section of Maniepoor, compose the king
of Oude's reserved dominions, while the district of
Goruepoor belongs to his British allies. The principal
rivers are the Ganges which bound it to the west; the
Goggra, and the Goomty; the chief towns are Lucknow,
Fyzabad, Oude, Khyrabad, Baraitche, and Tanda.
The Hindoo inhabitants of Oude, Banares, and the
Doab of the Agra province, are a very superior race, both
in their bodily strength and mental faculties, to those of
Bengal and the districts south of Calcutta, although the
latter have fully as much acuteness, and more cunning. The
Rajpoots or military class here generally exceed Europeans
in stature have robust frames, and are possessed of many
valuable qualities in a military point of view. From the long
4587
predominance of the Mahomedans a considerable
proportion of the inhabitants profess that religion, and from
both persuasions a great number of the Company's best
sepoys are procured. Their martial habits were kept on the
alert, for until the supervision of Oude was assumed by the
British government the whole region was in a state of
political anarchy. Every individual travelled with the
prospect of having to defend himself against robbers, or of
exercising that vocation himself, for both of which events
he was provided. The peasantry sowed and reaped with
their swords and spears, ready for defence or plunder, as
the occasion offered; and the rents were collected by an
irregular banditti, under the denomination of an army,
which devastated the country it pretended to protect.
Oude is much celebrated in Hindoo history as the
kingdom of Dasaratha, the father of the great Rama,
who extended his empire to the island of Ceylon, which
he also subdued. At an early period after the first invasion
it was subdued by the Mahomedans, and remained, with
different vicissitudes, attached to the throne of Delhi, until
the dissolution of the Mogul empire after the death of
Aurangzabe. The first ancestor upon record of the reigning
family was Saadat Khan, a native of Rishapoor, in
Khorasan, who was appointed soubahdar of Oude during
the reign of Mohemed Shah. He was succeeded by his
nephew Safdar Jung, who died in A.D. 1756, when the
throne was acceded by his son Shuja ud Dowlah, who
reigned until 1775. On his decease his son, Asoph ud
Dowlah, became his successor, and reigned until 1797,
4588
when the dignity was for a short time usurped by a
spurious son named Vizier Ali, whose illegitimacy being
discovered, he was dethroned by Lord Teignmouth, and the
government confided to Baadet Ali, the late nabob's
brother, who was proclaimed visier of Hindostan and
nabob of Oude the 21
st
January 1798.
In A.D. 1790 the dominions of Oude occupied all
the flat country lying on both sides of Ganges (with the
exception of Rampoor) between that river and the northern
mountains; as also the principal portion of the fertile tract
between the Ganges and Jamna named the Doab, to within
forty miles of Delhi. Ever since the pacification between
Lord Clive and Shuja ud Dowlah, in 1765, this territory
had been protected from external enemies, its internal
peace preserved, and its dominions extended by the
assistance of a British subsidiary force, the expense of
which was defrayed by the nabobs of Oude. Subsequent to
the breaking out of the French revolution the exigence of
the times compelled a large augmentation of this standing
army, and the disbursements increased proportionally; but
owing to the mismanagement of the nabob's financial
concerns an uncertainty attended its regular payment,
although his revenues, under a proper administration, were
not only equal to all the necessary expenditure, but
capable, as the result verified, of realizing an enormous
surplus. By a fatality attending the British influence in
Hindostan, it was frequently obliged, in consequence of
remote treaties, to maintain on the throne weak and
profligate princes, who without that support would, in the
4589
natural progression of events, have been supplanted by
some more able competitors. Their dominions in the mean
time suffered by their vices, and their subjects were
abandoned to the capacity of the unprincipled associates of
their low pleasures, who by their cruelty and extortion
depopulated the country, and drove the inhabitants to a
state of desperation. These observations more especially
applied to the Oude territories during the long reign of
Asoph ud Dowlah, and as an opportunity now occurred, the
members of the Bengal presidency deemed it a duty
imposed on them to endeavor to procure for the natives a
better system of government, and at the same time remove
the uncertainty which attended the payment of the
subsidiary force.
In 1807 an extraordinary intrigue was discovered, in
which Saadet Ali's second brother, commonly called Mirza
Jungly, was implicated, which terminated in his removal
from Lucknow to Patna. In 1808 the celebrated eunuch
Almas Ali Khan died, on which event his wealth, which was
considerable, was claimed both by the Bhow Begum (the
nabob's mother) and by the nabob. The first grounded her
pretensions on the circumstances of Almas Ali having been
her servant; while the latter asserted that all the property
having been acquired in the service of the Oude
sovereignty, and from the resources of the country, the
reigning prince was the legitimate heir of a person who
could have no natural ones, and in this view of the subject
he was supported by the supreme Government. Besides
this, many other petty and vexatious disputes arose between
4590
the two begums and the nabob, who always evinced a
strong disinclination to employ British troops in
suppressing the disturbances that occasionally broke out in
the jaghires of the Bhow Begum, the younger Begum, and
other persons under the direct protection of the British
government; indeed he seemed to have no desire that they
should be suppressed by any means. According to the
construction of subsisting treaties, it did not appear that
any other measures on the part of that government were
admissible beyond those of remonstrance, and the resident
was directed to endeavour to convince his excellency of the
impolicy, as well as injustice, of countenancing
disturbances within the lands of his jaghiredars and the
danger to which the general tranquility of his country
would be exposed, not to mention the injury his own
reputation would sustain by tolerating insurrection within
the limits of his own dominions.
Such, exclusive of some petty insurrections of
reminders, were the principal causes of internal irritation.
With his powerful allies of Bengal, various collusion of
interest and authority took place, for the British
functionaries on his frontier, after several years'
experience, found that all their applications to the nabob
for the apprehension of offenders who had sought refuge
within his territories, almost invariably failed of success.
Although on these occasions this potentate issued strict
orders to his officers, they were either mere matters of
form, or so considered by the persons to whom they were
addressed. Of these two conclusions the latter seemed the
4591
most probable, as it would have greatly derogated from his
excellency's character to have supposed him indifferent to
the bringing of public offenders to justice, or that the
orders issued by him on such occasions were not intended
to be authoritative. Yet, when the feeble and inefficient
system of all native administration is considered, it might
reasonably be doubted whether he in reality possessed a
degree of control over his officers sufficient to enforce their
obedience, especially as the granting of an asylum within
jurisdictions of offenders constituted a regular source of
their profits.
On some occasions the nabob evinced a favourable
disposition, by permitting British troops to act within his
territories for the express purpose of apprehending
delinquents; but at other times he proved restive, and
withheld his consent without assigning any reason. The
inconveniences resulting from this line of conduct, and the
obstruction it occasioned to the due administration of
justice within the British districts contiguous to those of
Oude, were such, that one of the first stipulations entered
into with his successor, authorized the British magistrates
to pursue and seize public offenders within the reserved
dominions of Oude. The interior management of Saadet
Ali's territories was also extremely defective, and he was
repeatedly urged by the Bengal government to adopt a line
of conduct more creditable to himself, and more consistent
with the obligations of existing treaties; but in vain, for
although at one time he had given his consent to a reform,
he afterwords retracted it; and as no hopes of success
4592
could be entertained from any further endeavours, short of
compulsion, the further prosecution of the original
arrangement was desisted from, and all attempts at a
modification were put an end to by his unexpected death.
In 1801 a treaty was concluded, by the conditions
of which certain districts yielding a gross annual
revenue of 1,35,23,274 rupees, were ceded to the British
government, in commutation of subsidy and of every other
claim whatever. It was further stipulated, that until the
formation of a commercial treaty, mutually beneficial, the
navigation of the Ganges and of all the other boundary
rivers of the two states should remain free and
uninterrupted. When these arrangements were concluded,
Saadet Ali assumed the uncontrolled management of his
reserved territories, and being a man of abilities greatly
superiors to the generality of native princes, and habitually
disposed to business, he retained the conducting of the
affairs of government under his own immediate direction
until his death.
This event happened on the 11
th
July 1814, when he
was suddenly taken ill, and expired before medical
assistance could be procured, supposed from apoplexy, or
the bursting of a blood-vessel. On this emergency every
necessary precaution was taken by the resident, and the
occasion of the nabob Ghazi ud Deen Hyder took place
without the smallest interruption or disturbance. He
confirmed all the subsisting treaties; acceded with
apparent alacrity to the adjustment of many questions long
pending with the British government; and, agreeably to the
4593
course followed on the accession of his father, Saadet Ali,
assumed the title of vizier, without any reference to the
Mogul at Delhi. In 1814 and 1815 he lent the British
government two crores of rupees at six per cent.,
exhibiting the novel spectacle of a native prince a creditor
of the British government to an amount exceeding to
millions sterling, and regularly receiving the interest
thereon. At a subsequent period the transfer of the terriana,
or low country, acquired from the Nepaulese, was made the
means of redeeming one of the crores borrowed.
For almost half a century the British government had
been endeavouring to prevail on the sovereigns of Oude to
establish an improved system of administration, especially
in revenue matters, within their hereditary dominions, but
uniformly without success. The accession of Ghazi ud Deen
held out another opportunity, and at the recommendation of
the British government tehsildars (native collectors), with a
commission of ten per cent., were appointed, with a view of
making a triennial settlement to ascertain the resources of
the nabob's dominions, and fix the principles on which a
future and permanent settlement should be made. Nazims
(native judicial officers) were also appointed for the
distribution of justice. With these measures, however, the
nabob being very soon dissatisfied, he superseded them,
and promulgated regulations of his own, the result of which
threatened an extraordinary defalcation of the instalments
for the approaching year, and a recurrence to the system of
farming as established in the time of his father. Since that
distant period (1814) to the present day (1827) nothing has
4594
occurred to shew that any improved revenue and judicial
system has been seriously contemplated, far less
established. Recently, indeed, his majesty has admitted the
expediency of abolishing the farming system, and has
expressed his willingness to introduce gradually the plan of
collecting the revenue through officers immediately
responsible to government for the amount of their actual
collections, but no overt act towards the carrying of this
scheme into execution has as yet taken place.
Under an Indian prince the department of acbar
(intelligence) is a system of esplouage, which pervaded
every district of this country, as well as the court and
capital, during the life-time of Saadet Ali, and furnished
daily grounds for the imprisonment of some subject or
servant with a view to confiscation and forfeiture. The
expense of it is nearly equal to an efficient police, and the
channels of corruption and oppression which it opens, by
encouraging false accusations, are destructive to the
morals of the people and of the safety of their property, as
well as of the true interests of the sovereign. On the
accession of Ghazi ud Deen the acbar establishment was
abolished, but the system is so congenial to the habits and
principles of native chiefs, and to the personal character of
the reigning king, that he soon revived it. At the earnest
solicitation of the British government, soon after the
commencement of his reign, he appointed ostensib's
ministers for the transaction of public business; but in
process of time, after much wavering and inconsistency, the
arrangement terminated, first in their suspension, and
4595
afterwords in their dismissal. The inherent fickleness of the
nabob's disposition, his ready and implicit belief in the
scandalous reports of his news-writers, and of the
intriguing persons around him, destroy the confidence and
subvert the authority of his ministers, and preclude the
beneficial exercise of any one of their functions, so that if
one set retire or be dismissed, a similar state of affairs
within a short period of time will be produced with respect
to their successors.
On the 9
th
of October 1810 Ghazi ud Deen, the
reigning nabob, renounced all titular subservience to the
throne of Delhi, assuming the title of king instead of vizier
of Oude, and issuing at the same time a new currency,
impressed with his own name and legend, but of the same
weight and standard as before. This change was cheerfully
acquiesced in by the British government, whose interest it
was to detach the rich and populous province of Oude from
all subordination to the Mogul empire, or sympathy with
the Mussulman cause generally. On this occasion the ex-
nabob assumed many pompous titles, such as king of the
age, and king conqueror of infidels, hitherto peculiar
to the house of Timour, and not at all creditable to his
majesty's common sense, or complimentary to his infidel
allies. While the Marquis of Hastings was Governor-
general he used to address that nobleman and the British
government figuratively as his uncle, and the reply was
addressed to the nabob as nephew; but so much familiarity
appearing inconsistent with his augmentation of dignity, he
requested the form might be abrogated, which was done
4596
accordingly, and he is now addressed as Ghazi ud Deen
Hyder Shah (Padshahi Oude, king of Oude). In 1827 he
lent the British government a crore of rupees.
The reserved territories of Oude occupy an area of
about 21,000 square miles, and contain a population of at
least three millions ; but the sovereignty is too dependent
on the British government to be regarded as one of the
political states of Hindostan. On account of a defective
system the revenue derived from such an extent of fertile
country is very inferior to what it might be made to produce
under a more enlightened system of taxation; but the
income of the Oude sovereigns is to be estimated rather
negatively than positively, rather from the absence of
taxation than the magnitude of the receipts; for being
relieved by their alliance with the British government from
all external alarms, and having no funds or national debt,
their expenses are merely fiscal and personal; and without
diminishing the splendour of his court or the comfort of his
style of living. Ghazi ud Deen might, with the alightest
attention, annually lay aside (as was supposed to have been
done by his father, Saadet Ali) half a million sterling--
(Public MS. Documents, Marquis of Hastings, Major
Baillie, Guthrie, Rennell, & c.)
4219. The above discription from the face of it relates to
Oudh as 'Province' as it stood at that time. The township of
'Oudh' has been narrated later on at page 353 onwards under the
heading "Oude" and states:
OUDE.--The ancient capital of the province of
Oude, situated on the south side of the Goggra, seventy
4597
nine miles east from Lucknow; lat, 26
0
48' N., lon. 82
0
4' E.
By Abul Fazel in 1582 it is described as follows. Oude is
one of the largest cities of Hindostan. In ancient times this
city is said to have measured 148 coss in length and thirty-
six coss in breadth. Upon sifting the earth which is round
this city small grains of gold are sometimes found in it.
This town is esteemed one of the most sacred places of
antiquity.
Pilgrims resort to this vicinity, where the remains of
the ancient city of Oude, and capital of the great Rama,
are still to be seen; but whatever may have been its former
magnificence it now exhibits nothing but a shapeless
mass of ruins. The modern town extends a considerable
way along the banks of the Goggra, adjoining Fyzabad,
and is tolerably well peopled; but inland it is a mass of
rubbish and jungle, among which are the reputed site of
temples dedicated to Rama, Seeta, his wife, Lakshman,
his general, and Hanimaun (a large monkey), his prime
minister. The religious mendicants who perform the
pilgrimage to Oude are chiefly of the Ramata sect, who
walk round the temples and idols, bathe in the holy pools,
and perform the customary ceremonies.
4220. Dr. Buchanan was appointed to make a survey of the
area within the reign of East India Company in early 19
th
century
by an order of Lord Wellesley. Between 1807 to 1814 Dr.
Buchanan surveyed the area which mainly consisted of Bengal,
Bihar and Eastern part of the present U.P. including Ayodhya
and sent his documents to the Head Office of the Company in
London in 1816 but could not complete his report. Subsequently,
4598
it was studied by Robert Montgomery Martin, an official of the
Company at London and he got published Eastern India in
1838 (supra) wherein the details of Oudh were mentioned in
Vol. II, pages no. 331 to 337. The relevant extract of this book
we have already quoted above in para 1600 of this judgment
while discussing the issues relating to the person and period-
who and when constructed the disputed building.
4221. Edward Thornton's Gazetteer titled as A Gazetteer
of the Territories under the Government of the East-India
Company and of the native States on the Continent of India
(in short Thornton's Gazetteer, 1858), first published in 1858
and reproduced in 1993 by Low Price Publications, Delhi (Book
No. 10). Descriptions of Oudh given by Sri Thornton on page
739 (Ex.5 Suit 5) was placed before us to show that it mention
about a Temple at Janamsthan, demolished for constructing
mosque on the site.
4222. From preface of the book it does appear that the
General Courts of the East India Company authorised 'Edward
Thornton', Esq. to compile and publish an authentic Gazetteer of
India. The said author had already prepared a Gazetteer of
India in 1854 in four volumes. Thereafter under the authority
of the Court of Directors of East India Company compiled a
single volume of Gazetteer of the Territories under the East
India Company and of the native States on the continent of
India. The book does not give any information about Edward
Thornton, namely, about his qualifications, position he held at
that time etc. The book which has been placed before the Court
mentioned that it was first published in 1858 and reprinted in
1893.
4599
4223. On page 735 it contains the details of the province
"OUDE" wherefrom it appears that the province Oude covered a
number of divisions and sub-divisions covering, Aldemau,
Pertabgurh, Pachhamrat, Bainswara, Salon, Ahladganj, Gonda,
Bahraich, Sarkar Khairabad, Sandi, Rasulabad and Lucknow.
The details of divisions and sub-divisions contained on page 737
are as under:
"The kingdom contains the following divisions and
subdivisions:--I. Chakla Sultanpore, containing
pergunnahs: 1. Sultanpore, 2. Jagdispore, 3. Chanda, 4.
Isauli, 5. Tappa Asl, 6. Bilahri. II. Chakla Aldemau,
containing pergunnahs: 1. Aldemau, 2. Akbarpore, 3.
Dostpore, 4. Berhar, 5. Tanda. III. Chakla Pertabgurh,
containing pergunnahs: 1. Pertabgurh, 2. Amethi, 3.
Dalipore Palti. IV. Chakla Pachhamrat, containing
pergunnahs: 1. Manglasi, 2. Rat Haveli or Faizabad, 3.
Rampore. V. Chakla Bainswara, containing pergunnahs:
1. Ranjitpurua, 2. Harha, 3. Ateha, 4. Mauhranwa, 5.
Kumranwa, 6. Daundiakhera, 7. Hasnganj, 8. Majranw, 9.
Haidargarh, 10. Rae Bareli, 11. Dalamau, 12. Sarendi, 13.
Bardar. VI. Chakla Salon, containing pergunnahs: 1.
Salon Khas, 2. Parsadipore, 3. Jayis, 4. Ateha. VII. Chakla
Ahladganj, containing pergunnahs: 1. Ahladganj, 2. Bihar,
3. Manikpur, 4. Rampore. VIII. Chakla Gonda Bahraich,
containing pergunnahs: 1. Bahraich, 2. Gonda Khas, 3.
Muhammadabad, 4. Bari, 5. Atraula. IX. Chakla Sarkar
Khairabad, containing pergunnahs: 1. Khairabad, 2.
Nimkharmisrik, 3. Khirilahrpur, 4. Bangar, 5. Muhemdi, 6.
Biligram, 7. Fattehpur Biswa, 8. Sandila, 9. Malihabad,
4600
10. Kakori, 11. Bijnaur, 12. Kasmandi, 13. Kalanwa. X.
Chakla Sandi, containing pergunnahs: 1. Sandi, 2. Pali, 3.
Saromnagar, 4. Shahabad. XI. Chakla Rasulabad,
containing pergunnahs: 1. Safipur, 2. Rasulabad or
Miyanganj, 3. Asiman, 4. Unnaw or Onaw, 5. Muhan. XII.
Chakla Lucknow, containing pergunnahs: 1. Rudauli
Daryabad, 2. Goshaenganj, 3. Dewe-Jahangirabad, 4.
Kursi, 5. Sidhaur."
4224. Thereafter again on page 739 (Ex.5 Suit-5) under the
same title, namely, "OUDE" it has given the details of the town
which we understand and also not disputed by the parties as to
that referred to Ayodhya. The entire description of Oude town
(Ayodhya) in the aforesaid Gazetteer 1858 by Thornton is as
under:
"OUDE.--A town in the kingdom of the same name. It is
situate on the right bank of the river Ghogra, which
Buchanan considers here to be "fully larger than the
Ganges at Chunar," and which is navigable downwards to
its mouth, upwards to Mundiya Ghaut, in the district of
Bareilly. It extends about a mile in a south-east direction,
from the adjoining recent city of Fyzabad; the breadth of
the town is something less from north-east to south-west, or
from the river landwards. The greater part of the site is on
gently-swelling eminences; but to the north-west, or
towards Fyzabad, is low. Most of the houses are of mud,
and thatched, though a few are tiled. Here, in a large
building a mile from the river, is an extensive
establishment, called Hanumangurh, or Fort of Hanuman,
in honour of the fabled monkey-god the auxiliary of Rama.
4601
It has an annual revenue of 50,000 rupees, settled on it by
Shuja-ud-daulah, formerly Nawaub Vizier. It is managed by
a Malik or abbot, the spiritual superior; and the revenues
are dispensed to about 500 bairagis or religious ascetics,
and other Hindoo mendicants of various descriptions; no
Mussulman being allowed within the walls. Other
establishments of similar character are Sugrimkilla, Ram-
Parshad-Ka-Kana, and Bidiya-Kund; maintaining
respectively 100, 250 and 200 bairagis. Close to the town
on the east, and on the right bank of the Ghogra, are
extensive ruins, said to be those of the fort of Rama,
king of Oude, hero of the Ramayana, and otherwise
highly celebrated in the mythological and romantic
legends of India. Buchanan observes, "that the heaps of
bricks, although much seems to have been carried away by
the river, extend a great way; that is, more than a mile in
length, and more than half a mile in width; and that,
although vast quantities of meterials have been removed
to build the Mahomedan Ayodha or Fyzabad, yet the
ruins in many parts retain a very considerable elevation;
nor is there any reason to doubt that the structure to
which they belonged has been very great, when we
consider that it has been ruined for above 2,000 years."
The ruins still bear the name of Ramgurh, or "Fort or
Rama;" the most remarkable spot in which is that from
which, according to the legend, Rama took his flight to
heaven, carrying with him the people of his city; in
consequence of which it remained desolate until repeopled
by Vikramaditya, king of Oojein, half a century before the
4602
Christian era, and by him embellished with 360 temples.
Not the smallest traces of these temples, however, now
remain; and according to native tradition, they were
demolished by Aurungzebe, who built a mosque on part
of the site. The falsehood of the tradition is, however,
proved by an inscription on the wall of the mosque,
attributing the work to the conqueror Baber, from
whome Aurungzabe was fifth in descent. The mosque is
embellished with fourteen columns of only five or six
feet in height, but of very elaborate and tasteful
workmanship, said to have been taken from the ruins of
the Hindoo fanes, to which they had been given by the
monkey-general Hanuman, who had brought them from
Lanka or Ceylon. Altogether, however, the remains of
antiquity in the vicinity of this renowned capital must give
a very low idea of the state of arts and civilization of the
Hindoos at a remote period. A quadrangular coffer of
stone, whitewashed, five ells long, four broad, and
protruding five or six inches above ground, is pointed
out as the cradle in which Rama was born, as the
seventh avatar of Vishnu; and is accordingly abundantly
honoured by the pilgrimages and devotions of the
Hindoos. Ayodha or Oude is considered by the best
authorities to be the most ancient city in Hindostan; and
Prinsep mentions that some of its coins in the cabinet of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal are of such extreme antiquity that
the characters in which their legends are graven are totally
unknown. According to Elphinstone, "from thence the
princes of all other Indian countries are sprung."
4603
Buchanan conjectures that it was founded by Brahmins,
whom he considers as an immigrant race, more advanced
in civilization than the indigenous Indians. "These
personages came from western Asia, introducing with them
the Sanskrit language, generally admitted to be radically
the same with the Persian dialect; while the languages
spoken among all the rude tribes that inhabit the fastnesses
of India, and which are, probably, remains of its ancient
tongue, have no sort of analogy to the languages of the
West." This author supposes the city to have been
founded by Vaiwaswata, one of this race, about 1,366
years before the Christian era. He considers that its
renowned rule Rama perished A.C. 775, involved in the
destruction of his city by the hostile confederacy of his
sons; that being rebuilt, it suffered a similar fate under
the reign of Vridhabala, A.C. 512; and having lain from
centuries desolate, was rebuilt A.C. 57, by Vikramaditya,
the celebrated king of Oojein. Tod, however, and Wilford,
fond of large numbers, place the foundation of Ayodha
in an era more than 2,000 years B.C. The former writer
states, without comment, a tradition that Lucknow, distant
eighty miles from the present city of Oude, was formerly
one of its suburbs. The great decline of Oude is of
comparatively recent date, as it is described in the Ayeen
Akbery as one of the largest cities of Hindostan; and it is
farther stated, "In ancient times this city is said to have
measured 148 cose [perhaps 200 miles] in length, and
thirtysix cose in breadth. It is esteemed one of the most
sacred places of antiquity." With the havili or municipal
4604
district attached, the city is assessed in the Ayeen Akbery at
50,209 rupees, a sum so moderate as to throw discredit on
the previous statement of its being one of the greatest cities
of India. The present population, according to Butter, is
8,000, including 500 Mussulmans. Distant E. from
Lucknow 75 miles, N. from Allahabad 95. Lat 26* 47',
long. 82* 11'." (emphasis added)
4225. Archaeological Survey Of India Four Reports
Made During the Years 1862-63-64-65 by Alexander
Cunningham, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of
India, first edition published in 1871, reprinted in 2000; (Book
No. 43) (hereinafter referred to as Cunningham's Report,
1871) dealt with Ayodhya from page 317 to 327. Ex. 6, Suit-5
(Register Vol. 20 Page 25-34) is a photocopy of the map i.e.
Plate XLIX taken from Archaeological Survey of India Four
Report 1862-63-64-65 Vol. 1 by Alexander Cunningham. It is
sought to be pointed out that in the aforesaid map the disputed
place in Ayodhya has been shown as Janam Sthan and there is
no mention of any mosque existing when the said report was
prepared. We find that in the aforesaid map Sarayu, Lakshmana
Ghat, Janam Asthan, Hanuman Garhi, Mani-Parbat and tombs of
Seth and Job are shown. From Pages 27-34 of Register Vol.20
are the photocopies of the pages No.320 to 327 of Vol.I of
Alexander Cunningham's report i.e. Paper No.107C1/13-16A
i.e. Ex.6, Suit-5. It also gives some description of the birth place
temple of Rama, and other details. However, he mistook the city
of Visakha described by Hwen Thsang or Sha-chi
referred to by Fa Hian same as the Saket or Ayodhya. This
identification has not been found correct in the subsequent
4605
reports.
4226. Cunningham, before embarking upon the aforesaid
work, it appears, submitted a memorandum proposing
investigation of the archaeological remains of upper India and
it's comments in respect to the work done till then regarding
ancient history was mostly unreliable having been prepared
cursorily or without any proper investigation. It would be useful
to refer to his own comments contained on page III and IV of
the Preface as under :
During the one hundred years of British dominion
in India, the Government has done little or nothing towards
the preservation of its ancient monuments, which, in the
almost total absence of any written history, form the only
reliable sources of information as to the early condition of
the country. Some of these monuments have already
endured for ages, and are likely to last for ages still to
come; but there are many others which are daily suffering
from the effects of time, and which must soon disappear
altogether, unless preserved by the accurate drawings and
faithful descriptions of the archaeologist,
" All that has hitherto been done towards the
illustration of ancient Indian history has been due to the
unaided efforts of private individuals. These researches
consequently have always been desultory and unconnected
and frequently incomplete, owing partly to the short stay
which individual officers usually make at any particular
place, and partly to the limited leisure which could be
devoted to such pursuits.
" Hitherto the Government has been chiefly occupied
4606
with the extension and consolidation of empire, but the
establishment of the Trigonometrical Survey shews that it
has not been unmindful of the claims of science. It would
redound equally to the honor of the British Government to
institute a careful and systematic investigation of all the
existing monuments of ancient India.
4227. He also gave a guiding factor, which he would
follow stating that the footsteps of Chinese pilgrim Hwen
Thsang would be the basis of his investigation as is evident from
the following :
" In describing the ancient geography of India, the
elder Pliny, for the sake of clearness, follows the footsteps
of Alexander the Great. For a similar reason, in the present
proposed investigation, I would follow the footsteps of the
Chinese pilgrim Hwen Thsang, who, in the seventh century
of our era, traversed India from west to east and back
again for the purpose of visiting all the famous sites of
Buddhist history and tradition. In the account of his
travels, although the Buddhist remains are described in
most detail with all their attendant legends and traditions,
yet the numbers and appearance of the Brahmanical
temples are also noted, and the travels of the Chinese
pilgrim thus hold the same place in the history of India,
which those of Pausanias hold in the history of Greece.
4228. It is this memorandum of Cunningham, which was
forwarded for appointment by the Governor General of India in
Council on 22
nd
January 1862.
4229. From the Chapter Introduction of Cunningham's
report, 1871, it would appear as to what was the earlier
4607
historical literature available to the English historians which was
considered and available to Cunningham and other persons who
had written Indian history and in particular the ancient. Just in
brief, we propose to refer hereat the material, which was
considered by Cunningham in his report so as to give an idea
about its authenticity, correctness etc. and the depth of his study.
Cunningham has admitted the commencement of work with the
foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 by Sir William
Jones having its first member Warren Hastings and Charles
Wilkins who claimed themselves to be the first Englishman
having acquired knowledge of Sanskrit and cut with his own
hands the first Devanagari and Bengali types.
4230. As already noted Jones translated Sanskrit literature,
namely, Sakuntala and the institutes of Manu. His first work
was to establish a systematic and uniform system of orthography
for the transcription of Oriental languages, which, with a very
few modifications, has since been generally adopted. It was
followed by several essays- On Musical Modes- on the origin of
the game of chess, which he traced to India and -On the Lunar
Year of the Hindus and their Chronology. In his last paper he
made the identification of Chandra-Gupta with Sandrakottos. He
also suggested that Palibothra or Pataliputra, the capital of
Sandrakottos, must be Patna and the Son River, which joins
Ganges only a few miles above Patna, was also known as
Hiranyabahu or the golden-armed, which at once re-called
the Erranoboas of Arrian.
4231. William Jones died in 1794 resulting in disruption of
the work he started. However, it was taken over by the Henry
Colebrooke, who completed Digest of Hindu Law, which
4608
was left unfinished by Jones. In the meantime, Charles Wilkins
had translated several inscriptions in the first and second
volumes of Asiatic Researches, but after the death of Jones,
communication with him stopped. Some work by writing a
paper on Hindu astronomy cycle of Jupiter was performed
by Samuel Davis.
4232. An Engineer Officer, Francis Wilford said to be a
Sanskrit scholar, commenced his work Essay on the
comparative Geography of India but could not finish it due to
his death though his said unfinished work was published in
1851.
4233. Henry Colebrooke referred above had a good
knowledge of Sanskrit language. Besides translations of Visala
Deva's inscriptions on the Delhi pillar and a few others he
wrote Essay on the Vedas, giving for the first time a full and
accurate account of the sacred volumes of the Hindus to
Europeans. He also wrote Essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit
languages; on the Philosophy of the Hindus; on the Indian and
Arabian divisions of the Zodiac; on the notions of Hindu
astronomers concerning the Precession; and on the Algebra of
Brahma Gupta and Bhaskara. He left India India in 1815 but
continued with his studies and essays till his death, i.e., 10
th
of
March 1837.
4234. The survey conducted by Dr. Buchanan
(subsequently took the name of Hamilton) between in 1807 to
1814, as already said, was ultimately published and edited by
Sir Montgomery Martin in 1838.
4235. Around 1815 Horace Hayman Wilson became
Secretary of the Asiatic Society. He translated Megha-duta of
4609
Kalidasa. In 1819, he got published Sanskrit Dictionary and
in 1827 Hindu Theatre. Besides, he also translated stories
from Sanskrit and of some episodes from Mahabharata. In 1825
he published an essay on the Hindu history of Kashmir but
returned to England in 1833 where he continued with his
Oriental studies. His two principle works are an account of the
coins and antiquities of Afghanistan, contained in Ariana
Antiqua and his translation of Rig-Veda.
4236. From 1833 to 1837 translation of some important
inscriptions was provided by "Dr. Mill" considered to be
"Sanskrit Scholar". Then comes "James Prinsep", said to be
responsible for partial decipherment of the Arian Pali legends of
the Bactrian Greek coins as well as decipherment of the Indian
Pali legends of the coins of Surashtra, decipherment and
translation of the edicts of Asoka on the pillars at Delhi and
Allahabad. He was also in the process of decipherment of some
other inscriptions etc. but fell ill hence returned to England and
died on 22.07.1840. The work of Prinsep paved way and caused
a great momentum to Indian Archaeology which was continued
by "James Fergusson", "Markham Kittoe", "Mr. Edward
Thomas", and by "Cunningham" in Northern India; "Sir Walter
Elliot" in Southern India; and "Colonel Meadows Taylor", "Dr.
Stevenson" and "Dr. Bhau Daji" in Western India.
4237. Cunningham noticed that from 1784 i.e. from the
foundation of Asiatic Society by Sri William Jones till 1834 the
Archaeological researches in India had been primarily literary
besides a few notable exceptions. It had been confined to
translations of books and inscriptions, with brief notes of the
some of the principal building at Delhi and Agra and other well
4610
known places. Exceptions are the essays by "Hones",
"Wilford", "Colebrooke" and "Wilson" on the religion, the
geography and the astronomy of the Hindus. He said that "True
history was then but little known, and the lying gabble of
Brahmans, which connected every place with the wanderings of
Rama or the exile of the five Pandus, was accepted as the real
voice of genuine tradition." It is claimed that the Masson's
researches in Kabul Valley, Ventura's Court's explorations in
Punjab, Cunningham's excavation of stupa at Sarnath, Banaras
and of the ruins around gave some idea about the unknown
Indian history. However, the facts available were found to be
bare and unconnected, mere fossil fragments of the great
skeleton of lost Indian history, though the entire skeleton yet
was not available, but, the researchers thought to have got a
complete or a fair knowledge of the general outline and of the
various forms which it had assumed at different period. In this
regard, the first archaeological publication was made by "James
Fergusson", i.e., "Rock-cut temples of India, 1845". However, in
respect to determination of period of the work, Fergusson was
not very certain and of the view that inscriptions will not
certainly by themselves answer the purpose. Cunningham,
however, deferred with him on this aspect and said that
"inscriptions are beyond all doubt, the most certain and the most
trustworthy authority for determining the dates of Indian
monuments, whether buildings or caves."
4238. Cunningham demonstrated the error in calculation
of the period by referring to caves of Kanhari in Salset.
Fergusson determined the period in the 4th or 5th century, but
based on decipherment of the inscriptions found thereat and
4611
particularly in one of the inscription the date of 30 of the
Sakaditya-kala, or AD 108 was mentioned and thus
Cunningham treated it of the first and second century of the
Christian era showing difference of about 4 centuries between
his and Fergusson's determination of period.
4239. Another illustration Cunningham has given at page
XXI of the Chapter "Introduction" of the book "Report, 1871"
which reads as under:
"The Karle caves Mr. Fergusson is inclined to assign
to the first, or even the second century before Christ. One
of the caves is certainly older than the Christian era, as it
possesses an inscription of the great Satrap King
Nahapana. But there are two others of King Pudumayi, the
sons of Vasithi, whom I place in the beginning of the second
century of the Christian era, but whom Mr. Fergusson
assigns to the middle of the fourth century, although in his
chronology he admits that Ananda, also a son of Vasithi,
and therefore most probably a brother of Pudumayi, and
the founder of one of the gateways of the Great Sanchi
Tope, lived towards the end of the first century."
4240. Fergusson published some more books namely,
"Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in India",
"Handbook of Architecture (1855)", "History of Architecture",
"Illustrated History of Indian Architecture" and lastly "Tree
and Serpent Worship".
4241. "Markham Kittoe" was an Officer in the Army of
East India Company, appointed as Secretary Committee for a
short period in 1838 and 1839 and then given charge of one of
the division of the High Road from Calcutta to Bombay, leading
4612
through Chutia Nagpur till 1846 and then was appointed as
"Archaeological Enquirer" to Government, went back to
England in 1853. He wrote "Illustration of Indian Architecture
in 1838". He prepared the design of Sanskrit College at Banaras
which was approved and the building was constructed in his
supervision. However, Cunningham expressed doubt about his
scholarship and judgement as an investigator and gave the
following illustration:
"I may cite his continued doubts as to the identity of
Asoka and Piyadasi, and his serious suggestion that the
Barabar Cave inscription of Dasaratha, which Prinsep had
truly assigned to the historical Dasaratha of Magadha, one
of the immediate successors of Asoka, might probably be
referred to the half fabulous Dasaratha of Ayodhya, the
father of Rama."
4242. Kittoe, however, described himself in one of his
letter dated 19.05.1852 sent to Cunningham as under:
"Let me not lead you to suppose that I claim knowledge. I
am woefully deficient. I am a self-educated man, and no
Classic or Sanskrit scholar; I merely claim a searching eye
and mind, and a retentive memory of figure and fact, and
place or position. Hence my great success in finding
inscriptions where many have searched in vain!--Cuttack
and Gya to wit."
4243. "Edward Thomas" wrote several essays covering
the period BC-246 to AD-1554. The list of some of which is as
under under:
"1. 1848--Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. IX.,--
Coins of the Hindu Kings of Kabul.
4613
2. 1848--Ditto ditto, Vol. IX.,--Coins of the Kings of
Ghazni.
3. 1850--Ditto Ditto, Vol. XII., Coins of the Sah Kings
of Saurashtra.
4. 1855--Journal, Bengal Asiatic Society, Vol.
XXIV.,--On the Epoch of the Gupta Dynasty.
5. 1855--Ditto ditto, Vol. XXIV.,--On the Coins of the
Gupta Dynasty.
6. 1855--Ditto ditto, Vol. XXIV.,--On ancient Indian
Numerals.
7. 1858--Prinsep's Indian Antiquities, 2 Vols., thick
8vo; with numerous plates of coins, and many able
independent notices, bringing the state of knowledge in
each branch up to the date of publication.
8. 1860--Journal, Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XVII.,--
Supplementary Notice of the Coins of the Kings of Ghazni.
9. 1864--Journal, Bengal Asiatic Society, Vol.
XXXIV.,--On ancient Indian Weights (continued in the same
journal for 1835).
10. 1865--Ditto ditto, Vol. XXXV.,--On the identity of
Xandrames and Krananda.
11. 1866--Ditto ditto, Vol. XXXVI.,--The Initial
Coinage of Bengal.
12. 1871--Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi."
4244. In South, Colonel Machenzie collected 8,076
inscriptions mainly in the Tamilian provinces to the south of
Krishna River while Sir Walter Elliot collected 595 inscriptions
mainly in ancient Karnataka, amongst the upper branches of the
Krishna. Sir Elliot's first contribution was his Historical Sketch
4614
founded solely on the inscriptions of the principal dynasties
which had rule over the countries between the Narbada and the
Krishna for nearly 8 centuries. Of these Chalukya family was
the oldest and the strongest and its line has been traced back to
the early part of the 4th century by the discovery of other
inscriptions. Sir Walter also illustrated the history of Chalukyas
and other southern dynasties by their coins. He was the first to
arrange the coins systematically. All the coins bearing the type
of an elephant were assigned to the Gajapati dynasty, which was
asserted to have reigned over Orissa; all those with a horse to
the Aswapati dynasty; those with the figure of a man to the
Narapati dynasty; and those with an umbrella to the Chhatrapati
dynasty. These were believed to have been the titles of four
tributary princes who held the four chief provinces of Southern
India under the rule of one supreme sovereign of Delhi.
4245. In respect to Western India some work was done by
Colonel Meadows Taylor and Reverend J. Stevenson but heir
findings and observations have not been found to be much
accurate by Cunningham. The work in Western India was
continued by Dr. Bhau Daji, a local scholar who wrote essay on
Poet Kalidasa and translated inscriptions in the Ajanta caves and
that of Rudra Dama and Skanda Gupta at Junagarh and wrote
"Inroads of the Scythians into India".
4246. All these works show that the antiquity of the
country in one or the other manner continued to be revealed by
process of excavation etc. but what could not be find out by the
time or thereafter would not mean that it does not or did not
exist.
4247. However, the part of the report of Cunningham
4615
referred to by Sri P.N.Mishra and R.L.Verma, Advocates is as
under:
XVII. SAKETA, OR AJUDHYA.
Much difficulty has been felt regarding the
position of Fa-Hian's" great kingdom of Sha-chi, and
of Hwen Thsang's Visakha, with its enormous number of
heretics," or Brahmanists; but I hope to show in the most
satisfactory manner that these two places are identical,
and that they are also the same as the Saketa and
Ajudhya of the Hindus. The difficulty has arisen chiefly
from an erroneous bearing recorded by Fa Hian, who
places Shewei, or Sravasti, to the south of Sha-chi, while
Hwen Thsang locates it to the north-east, and partly from
his erroneous distance of 7+3+10=20 yojans, instead of
30, from the well-known city of Sankisa. The bearing is
shown to be erroneous by the route of a Hindu pilgrim from
the banks of the Godavery to Sewet, or Sravaati, as
recorded in the Ceylonese Buddhist works. This pilgrim,
after passing through Mahissati and Ujani, or Maheshmati
and Ujain, reaches Kosambi, and from thence passes
through Saketa to Sewet, that is, along the very route
followed by Hwen Thsang. We have, therefore, two
authorities in favour of Sewet being to the north of Saket.
With regard to the distance, I refer again to the Buddhist
books of Ceylon, in which it is record that from Sakespura
(or Sangkasyapura, now Sankisa) to Sewet was a journey
of 30 yojans. Now, Fa Hian makes the distance from
Sankisa to Kanoj 7 yojans, thence to the forest of Holi, on
the Ganges, 3 yojans, and thence to Shachi 10 yojans, or
4616
altogether only 20 yojans, or 10 less than the Ceylonese
books. That Fa Hian's statement is erroneous is quite clear
from the fact that his distance would place Shachi in the
neighbourhood of Lucknow; whereas the other distance
would place it close to Ajudhya, or Faizabad, or in the very
position indicated by Hwen Thsang's itinerary. Here,
again, we have two authorities in favour of the longer
distance. I have no hesitation, therefore, in declaring that
Fa Hian's recorded bearing of She-wei from Sha-chi is
wrong, and that "north" should be read instead of " south."
I have now to show that Fa Hian's Sha-chi is the
same as Hwen Thsang's Visakha, and that both are
identical with Saketa or Ajudhya. With respect to Sha-chi,
Fa Hian relates that, on " leaving the town by the southern
gate, you find to the east of the road the place where
Buddha bit off a piece of his tooth brush, and planted it in
the ground, where it grew to the height of seven feet, and
never increased or diminished in size." Now this is
precisely the same legend that is related of Visakha by
Hwen Thsang, who says that " to the south of the capital,
and to the left of the road (that is, to the east as stated by
Fa Hian), there was, amongst other holy objects, an
extraordinary tree 6 or 7 feet high, which always remained
the same, neither growing nor decreasing. This is the
celebrated tooth-brush tree of Buddha, to which I shall
have occasion to refer presently. Here I need only notice
the very precise agreement in the two descriptions of this
famous tree, as to its origin, its height, and its position. The
perfect correspondence of these details appears to me to
4617
leave no doubt of the identity of Fa Hian's Shachi with the
Visakha of Hwen Thsang.
With respect to the identification of Visakha with the
Saketa of the Hindus, I rest my proofs chiefly on the
following points : 1st, that Visakha, the most celebrated
of all females in Buddhist history, was a resident of Saketa
before her marriage with Purnna Varddhana, son of
Mrigara, the rich merchant of Sravasti; and 2nd, that
Buddha is recorded by Hwen Thsang to have spent six
years at Visakha, while by the Pali annals of Turnour he is
stated to have lived 16 years at Saketa.
The story of the noble maiden Visakha is related at
great length in the Ceylonese books. According to Hardy,
she erected a Purvvarama at Sravasti, whioh is also
mentioned by Hwen Thsang. Now there was also a
Purvvarama at Saketa, and it can hardly be doubted that
this monastery was likewise built by her. She was the
daughter of Dhananja, a rich merchant, who had
emigrated from Rajagriha to Saketa. Now, amongst the
oldest inscribed coins which have been discovered only at
Ajudhya, we find some bearing the names of Dhana Deva
and Visakha-Datta. I mention this because it seems to me to
show the probability that the family of Dhananja and
Visakha was of great eminence Saketa or Ayodhya; and I
infer from the recurrence of their names, as well as from
the great celebrity of the lady, that the city may possibly
have been called Visakha after her name.
The other proof which I derive from the years of
Buddha's residence is direct and convincing. According to
4618
the Ceylonese annals, Buddha was 35 years of age when he
attained Buddhahood; he then led a houseless life for 20
years, preaching in various places in Northern India, all of
which are detailed; and of the remaining 25 years of his
life he spent 9 in the Jetavana monastery at Sravasti, and
16 in the Pubharamo monastery at Saketapura. Now, in the
Burmese annals, these numbers are given as 19 years and 6
years, and in the last figure we have the exact number
recorded by Hwen Thsang. Nothing can be more complete
than this proof. There were only two places at which
Buddha resided for any length of time, namely, Sravaati, at
which he lived either 9 or 19 years, and Saketa, at which he
lived either 6 or 16 years; and as according to Hwen
Thsang he lived for 6 years at Visakha, which is described
as being at some distance to the south of Sravasti, it
follows of necessity that Visakha and Saketa were one
and the same place.
The identity of Saketa and Ayodhya has, I believe,
always been admitted; but I am not aware that any proof
has yet been offered to establish the fact. Csoma-de-koroa,
in speaking of the place, merely says "Saketana or Ayo-
dhya," and H. H. Wilson, in his Sanskrit Dictionary, calls
Saketa "the city Ayodhya." But the question would appear
to be set at rest by several passages of the Ramayana and
and Raghuvansa, in which Saketnagara is distinctly called
the capital of Raja Dasaratha and his sons. But the
following verse of the Ramayana, which was pointed out to
me by a Brahman of Lucknow, will be sufficient to establish
the identity. Aswajita, father of Kaikeyi, offers to give his
4619
daughter to Dasaratha, Rajah of Saketanagara: -
Saketam nagaram Raja namna Dasaratho bali,
Tasmai deya maya Kanya Kaikeyi nama to jana.
The ancient city of Ayodhya or Saketa is described in
the Ramayana as situated on the bank of the Sarayu or
Sarju River. It is said to have been 12 yojans, or nearly 100
miles in circumference, for which we should probably read
12 kos, or 24 milesan extent which the old city, with all
its gardens, might once possibly have covered. The
(distance from the Guptar Ghat on the west, to the Ram
Ghat on the east, is just 6 miles in a direct line; and if we
suppose that the city with its suburbs and gardens formerly
occupied the whole intervening space to a depth of two
miles, its circuit would have agreed exactly with the
smaller measurement of 12 kos. At the present day the
people point to Ram Ghat and Guptar Ghat as the
eastern and western boundaries of the old city, and the
southern boundary they extend to Bharat-Kund near
Bhadarsa, a distance of 6 kos. But as these limits include
all the places of pilgrimage, it would seem that the people
consider them to have been formerly inside the city, which
was certainly not the case. In the Ain Akbari, the old city is
said to have measured 148 kos in length by 36 koa in
breadth, or in other words it covered the whole of the
Province of Oudh to the south of the Ghaghra River. The
origin of the larger number is obvious. The 12 yojans of the
Ramayana, which are equal to 48 kos, being considered too
small for the great city of Rama, the Brahmans simply
added 100 kos to make the size tally with their own
4620
extravagant notions. The present city of Ajudhya, which
is confined to the north-east corner of the old site, is just
two miles in length by about three-quarters of a mile in
breadth; but not one-half of this extent is occupied by
buildings, and the whole place wears a look of decay.
There are no high mounds of ruins, covered with broken
statues and sculptured pillars, such as mark the sites of
other ancient cities, but only a low irregular mass of
rubbish heaps, from which all the bricks have been
excavated for the houses of the neighboring city of
Faizabad. This Muhammadan city, which is two miles
and-a-half in length, by one mile in breadth, is built chiefly
of materials extracted from the ruins of Ajudhya. The
two cities together occupy an area of nearly six square
miles, or just about one-half of the probable size of the
ancient Capital of Rama. In Faizabad the only building of
any consequence is the stuccoed brick tomb of the old Bhao
Begam, whose story was dragged before the public during
the famous trial of Warren Hastings. Faizabad was the
capital of the first Nawabs of Oudh, but it was deserted
by Asaf-ud-daolah in A. D. 1775.
According to the Ramayana, the city of Ayodhya
was founded by Manu, the progenitor of all mankind. In
the times of Dasaratha, the father of Rama, it was fortified
with towers and gates, and surrounded by a deep ditch. No
traces of these works now remain, nor is it likely, indeed,
that any portion of the old city should still exist, as the
Ayodhya of Rama is said to have been destroyed after the
death of Vrihadbala in the great war about B. C. 1426,
4621
after which it lay deserted until the time of
Vikramaditya. According to popular tradition this
Vikramaditya was the famous Sakari Prince of Ujain, but
as the Hindus of the present day attribute the acts of all
Vikramas to this one only, their opinion on the subject is
utterly worthless. We learn, however, from Hwen Thsang
that a powerful Prince of this name was reigning in the
neighbouring city of Sravasti, just one hundred years after
Kanishka, or close to 78 A. D., which was the initial year of
the Sake era of Salivahana. As this Vikramaditya is
represented as hostile to the Buddhists, he must have been
a zealous Brahmanist, and to him therefore I would
ascribe the re-building of Ayodhya and the restoration of
all the holy places referring to the history of Rama,
Tradition says that when Vikramaditya came to Ayodhya
he found it utterly desolate and overgrown with jangal,
but he was able to discover all the famous spots of
Rama's history by measurements made from Lakshman
Ghat on the Sarju, according to the statements of ancient
records. He is said to have erected 360 temples, on as many
different spots, sacred to Rama, and Sita his wife, to his
brothers Lakashmana, Bharata, and Satrughna, and to the
monkey god Hanumana. The number of 360 is also
connected with Salivahana, as his clansman the Bais
Rajputs assert that he bad 360 wives.
There are several very holy Brahmanical temples
about Ajudhya, but they are all of modem date, and
without any architectural pretensions whatever. But there
can be no doubt that most of them occupy the sites of
4622
more ancient temples that were destroyed by the
Musulmans. Thus Ramkot, or Hanuman Garki, on the
east side of the city, is a small walled fort surrounding a
modem temple on the top of an ancient mound. The
name Ramkot is certainly old, as it is connected with the
traditions of the Mani Parbat, which will be hereafter
mentioned; but the temple of Hanuman is not older than
the time of Aurangzib. Ram Ghat, at the north-east corner
of the city, is said to be the spot where Rama bathed, and
Sargdwari or Swargadwari the " Gate of Paradise." On the
north-west is believed to be the place where his body was
burned. Within a few years ago there was still standing a
very holy Banyan tree called Asok Bat or the " Griefless
Banyan," a name which was probably connected with that
of Swargadwari, in the belief that people who died or were
burned at this spot were at once relieved from the necessity
of future births. Close by is the Lakshman Ghat, where his
brother Lakshman bathed, and about one-quarter of a
mile distant, in the very heart of the city, stands the
Janam Asthan, or " Birth-place temple" of Rama.
Almost due west, and upwards of five miles distant, is the
Guptar Ghat, with its group of modem white-washed
temples. This is the place where Lakshman is said to have
disappeared, and hence its name of Guptar from Gupta,
which means "hidden or concealed." Some say that it -was
Rama who disappeared at this place, but this is at variance
with the story of his cremation at Swargadvari.
The only remains at Ajudhya that appear to be of any
antiquity, are three earthen mounds to the south of the city,
4623
and about a quarter of a mile distant. These are called
Mani Parbat, Kuber, Parbat, and Sugrib-Parbat. The
first, which is nearest to the city, is an artificial mound, 65
feet in height, covered with broken bricks and blocks of
kankar. The old bricks are eleven inches square and three
inches thick. At 46 feet above the ground on the west side,
there are the remains of a curved wall faced with kankar
blocks. The mass at this point is about 40 feet thick, and
this was probably somewhat less than the size of the
building which once crowned this lofty mound. According
to the Brahmans the Mani-Parbat is one of the hills which
the monkeys made use of when assisting Rama. It was
accidentally dropped here by Sugriva, the monkey-king of
Kishkindhya. But the common people, who know nothing of
this story, say that the mound was formed by the labourers
shaking their baskets on this spot every evening on their
return home from the building of Ramkot. It is therefore
best known by the name of Jhowa-Jhar or Ora Jhar, both of
which mean " basket-shakings." A similar story is told of
the large mounds near Banaras, Nimsar, and other places.
Five hundred feet due south from tho large mound
stands the second mound called Kuber-Parbat, which is
only 28 feet in height. The surface is an irregular heap of
brick rubbish, with numerous holes made by the people in
digging for bricks, which are of large size, 11 inches by 7
by 2. It is crowned by two old tamarind trees, and is
covered with jangal. Close by on the south-west there is a
small tank, called Ganes-Kund by the Hindus, and
Husen Kund or Imam Talao by the Musulmans, because
4624
their Tazias are annually deposited in it. Still nearer on
the south-east there is a large oblong mound called
Sugrib-Parbat, which is not more than 8 or 10 feet above
the ground level. It is divided into two distinct portions;
that to the north being upwards of 300 feet square at top,
and the other to the south upwards of 200 feet. In the center
of the larger enclosure there is a ruined mound containing
bricks 8 inches square, and in the center of the smaller
mound there is a well.
Between the Mani and Kuber mounds there is a
small Muhammadan enclosure, 64 feet long from east to
west and 47 feet broad, containing two brick tombs,
which are attributed to Sis Paighambar and Ayub
Paighambar, or the "prophets Seth and Job." The first is
17 feet long and the other 12 feet. These tombs are
mentioned by Abul Fazl, who says"Near this city are two
sepulchral monuments, one seven and the other six cubits
in length. The vulgar pretend that they are the tombs of
Seth and Job, and they relate wonderful stories of them."
This account shows that since the time of Akbar, the
tomb of Seth must have increased in length from 7
cubits, or 10 feet, to 17 feet through the frequent
repairs of pious Musulmans.
The mounds are surrounded by Musulmans tombs,
and as it is the Muhammadan practice to bury the dead
along the sides of the high roads close to their cities, I infer
that the road which now runs close to the westward of the
mounds, is one of the ancient high ways of the district. This
is confirmed by the existence of an old masonry bridge of
4625
three arches over the Tildhi nala, to the north-west of the
Mani-Parbat, as well as by the direction of the road itself,
which leads from the south-end of the city straight to the
Bharat-kund, and onwards to Sultanpur or Kusapura, and
Allahabad or Prayaga. I notice this road thus minutely,
because the identifications which I am about to propose are
based partly on its position and direction, as well as on the
general agreement of the existing remains with the holy
places described by the Chinese pilgrims.
According to Fa Hian the place where Buddha
planted the holy trees was to the east of the road, on
issuing from the town by the southern gate. Hwen Thsang's
account agrees with this exactly in placing the
"extraordinary tree" to the south of the capital and to the
left of the route. This tree was the celebrated " tooth
brush," or twig used in cleaning the teeth, which having
been cast away by Buddha, took root and grew to between
6 and 7 feet in height. Now, it will be observed that the
ruined mounds that still exist, as well as the tombs of Seth
and Job, are to the south of the city and to the east or left of
the road. The position, therefore, is unmistakably the same
as that described by the Chinese pilgrims, and as the actual
state of the ruins agrees well with the details given by
Hwen Tbsang, I think that there can be no reasonable
doubt of their identity.
Hwen Thsang describes the city of Visakha as
being 16 li, or 2 2/3

miles in circuit. In his time, therefore,
the capital of Kama was not more than half of its present
size, although it probably contained a greater population,
4626
as not above one-third, or even perhaps less, of the present
town is inhabited. The old city then possessed no less than
twenty monasteries with three thousand monks and about
fifty Brahmanical temples, with a very large
Brahmanical population. From this account we learn
that so early as the seventh century more than three
hundred of the original temples of Vikramaditya had
already disappeared, and we may therefore reasonably
infer that the city had been gradually declining for some
time previously. The Buddhist monuments, however, would
appear to have been in good order, and the monks were just
as numerous as in the eminently Buddhist city of Banaras.
The first monument described by Hwen Thsang is a
great monastery without name, but as it was the only
notable monastery, it was most probably either the
Kalakarama of Saketa, or the Purvvarama, both of which
are mentioned in the Ceylonese Mahawanso. The monks
were of the school of the Samattiyas, and their monastery
was famous for having produced three of the most eminent
Buddhist controversialists. This monastery I would
identify with the Sugrib Parbat which I have already
described as being about 500 feet long by 300 feet broad.
The great size and rectangular form of this ruin are
sufficient to show that it must have been a monastery,
but this is placed beyond all doubt by the existence of an
interior well and by the remains of cloistered rooms
forming the four sides of the enclosure. Its position to the
south of the city, and to the east or left of the road, has
already been specially noticed as agreeing with the
4627
recorded position of the monastery.
Beside the monastery there was a Stupa of Asoka,
200 feet in height, built on the spot where Buddha
preached the law during his six years' residence at Saketa.
This monument I would identify with the Mani-Parbat,
which is still 65 feet in height, and which with its masonry
facing must once have been at least as high again, and with
the usual lofty pinnacle of metal may easily have reached a
height of 200 feet. Hwen Thsang ascribes the erection of
this monument to Asoka, and I see no reason to question
the accuracy of his statement, as the mixed structure of
half earth and half masonry must undoubtedly be very
ancient. The earliest Stupas, or topes, were simple
earthen mounds or barrows, similar to those that still
exist in England. There are many of these barrows still
standing at Lauriya-Navandgarh to the north of Bettiya,
but this is the only place where I have yet seen them. They
are undoubtedly the most ancient monuments of the
Indian population, and I firmly believe that even the
very latest of them cannot be assigned to a lower date
than the fifth century before Christ. I base this belief on
the known fact that all the monuments of Asoka's age,
whether described by Hwen Thsang, or actually opened
by myself near Bhilsa, are either of stone or brick. The
earthen- barrows are therefore of an earlier age; but such
as are Buddhist cannot possibly be earlier than the
beginning of the fifth century before Christ. In the case of
the Mani-Parbat at Ajudhya I infer that the earthen barrow,
or lower portion, may belong to the earlier ages of
4628
Buddhism, and that the masonry or upper portion was
added by Asoka. At the foot of the mound I picked up a
broken brick with the letter sh, of the oldest form, stamped
upon it; but as this is almost certainly of later date than
Asoka, it most probably did not belong to the Mani-Parbat
building.
Hwen Thsang next describes the sites of the tooth-
brush tree and of the monument where the four previous
Buddhas used to sit and to take exercise, as being close to
the great Stupa. These places I would identify with the
court-yard containing the tombs of Seth and Job, which
touches the south side of the Mani-Parbat. The two tombs
I take to be the remains of the seats of the four previous
Buddhas, and the paved court-yard to be the scene of their
daily walks, although I was unable to trace their foot-
marks, which were seen by the Chinese pilgrim.
The last monument described by Hwen Thsang is a
Stupa containing the hair and nails of Buddha. This was
surrounded by a number of smaller monuments which
seemed to touch one another, and by several tanks which
reflected the sacred buildings in their limpid waters. The
Stupa I would identify with the Kuber-Parbat, which
touches the south side of the enclosure round the tombs of
Seth and Job, and is close to the west side of the ruined
monastery. One of the tanks described by the pilgrim may
be the Ganes- Kund, which has already been noticed; but
all the smaller monuments have disappeared long ago,
as they afforded cheap and ready materials for the
construction of the numerous Muhammadan tombs, as
4629
well as of the neighboring bridge and mosque. If I am
right in my identification of this mound as the remains of
the Stupa containing the hair and nails of Buddha, I think
that an excavation in the centre of the mound might,
perhaps, verify the accuracy of my conclusions.
The people are unanimous in their assertion that the
old city to the north of these mounds was called Bareta.
Ayodhya or Ajudhya, they say, was the capital of Rama,
but the later city was called Bareta. As this name has no
similarity either to Saketa or Visakha, I can only set it
down as another appellation of the old town, for which we
have no authority but tradition. I was disappointed when
at Ajudhya in not hearing even the most distant allusion to
the legend of the tooth-brush tree of Buddha, but the
tradition still exists, as I heard of it quite unexpectedly at
two different places immediately afterwards, first at Halila,
distant 15 miles, and next at Gonda, 29 miles to the north
of Ajudhya.
4248. We also find from the aforesaid report of
Cunningham that he also discussed A-yu-to or Ayodhya of
Hwen Thsang and according to his view, it was not the Ayodhya
of Lord Rama. The discussion is on page 293 to 296 and reads
as under :
XI. A-YU-TO, OR AYODHYA.
From Kanoj the two Chinese pilgrims followed
different routes, Fa Hian having proceeded direct to Ska-
chi (the modem Ajudhya, near Fyzabad on the Ghaghra),
while Hwen Thsang followed the course of the Ganges to
Prayag, or Allahabad. The first stage of both pilgrims
4630
would, however, appear to be the same. Fa Hian states that
he crossed the Ganges and proceeded 3 yojans, or 21
miles, to the forest of Holi, where there were several Stupas
erected on spots where Buddba had "passed, or walked, or
sat." Hwen Thsang records that he marched 100 li, nearly
17 miles, to the town of Nava-deva-kula, which was on the
eastern bank of the Ganges, and that at 5 li, or nearly 1
mile, to the south-east of the town there was a Stupa of
Asoka, which was still 100 feet in height, besides some
other monuments dedicated to the four previous Buddhas. I
think it probable that the two places are the same, and that
the site was somewhere near Nobatganj, just above the
junction of the Isan River and opposite Nanamow Ghat.
But as there are no existing remains anywhere in that
neighborhood, the place has been most likely swept away
by the river. This is rendered almost certain by an
examination of the Ganges below the junction of the Isan.
Formerly the river continued its course almost due south
from Nanamow for many miles, but some centuries ago it
changed its course first to the south-east for 4 or 5 miles,
and then to the south-west for about the same distance,
where it rejoined its old bed, leaving an island, some 6
miles in length by 4 in breadth, between the two channels.
As Hwen Thsang's account places Nava-deva-kula on the
very site of this island, I conclude that the town as well as
the Buddhist monuments must all hare been swept away by
the change in the river's course.
On leaving Nava'deoa-kula, Hwen Thsang proceeded
600 li, or l00 miles, to the south-east, and re-crossing the
4631
Ganges he reached the capital city of A-yu-to, which was
20 li, or upwards of 3 miles, in circuit. Both M. Julien and
M. St. Martin have identified this place with Ayodhya, the
once celebrated capital of Rama. But though I agree with
them as to the probable identification of the name as that of
the country, I differ with them altogether in looking for the
capital along the line of the Ghaghra River, which is due
cast from Kanoj, whereas Hwen Thsang states that his
route was to the south-east. It is, of course, quite possible
that the pilgrim may occasionally use the generic name of
Ganges as the appellation of any large river, such, for
instance, as the Ghaghra; but in the present case, where
the recorded bearing of south-east agrees with the course
of the Ganges, I think it is almost certain that the Ganges
itself was the river intended by the pilgrim. But by adopting
the line of the Ganges we encounter a difficulty of a
different kind in the great excess of the distance between
two such well known places as Kanoj and Prayag.
According to Hwen Thsang's route, he first made 100 li to
Nava-deva-kula, then 600 li to Ayutko, then 300 li by water
to Hayamukha, and lastly 700 li to Prayaga. All these
distances added together make a total of 1,700 li, or 283
miles, which is just 100 miles, or 600 li, in excess of the
true distance. But as a part of the journey, viz., 300 li, or 50
miles, was performed by water, the actual excess may,
perhaps, not be more than 85 or 90 miles; although it is
doubtful whether the distance of 300 li may not have been
the road measurement and not the river distance. It is
sufficient for our purpose to know that Hwen Thsang's
4632
recorded measurement is somewhere about 100 miles in
excess of the truth. The only explanation of this error that
suggests itself to me is, that there may have been an
accidental alteration of one set of figures, such as 600 li for
60 li, or 700 li for 70 li. Supposing that the former was the
case, the distance would be shortened by 540 li, or 90
miles, and if the latter, by 630 li, or 105 miles. This mode of
correction brings the pilgrim's account into fair
accordance with the actual distance of 180 miles between
Kanoj and Prayag.
By adopting the first supposition, Hwen Thsang's
distance from Nava-deva-kula to the capital of Ayutho will
be only 60 li, or 10 miles, to the south-east, which would
bring him to the site of an ancient city named Kakupur, just
1 mile to the north of Seorajpoor, and 20 miles to the north-
west of Cawnpoor. If we adopt the latter correction, the
pilgrim's distance to Ayutho of 600 li, or 100 miles, will
remain unchanged, and this would bring him via Manikpur,
which is also an ancient place. By the first supposition the
subsequent route would have been from Kakupur to
Daundiakhera by boat, a distance of exactly 50 miles, or
300 li, and from thence to Prayag, a distance of more than
100 miles, which agrees with the 700 li, or 116 miles, of the
pilgrim. By the second supposition the subsequent route
would have been from Khara to Papamow by water, about
50 miles, and thence to Prayag, about 8 miles of land,
which agrees with the 70 li of the proposed correction. In
favour of this last supposition is the fact that the bearing
from Khara to Papamow of east by south is more in
4633
accordance with Hwen Thsang's recorded east direction
than the south-east bearing of Daundiakhera from
Kakupur. I confess, however, that I am more inclined to
adopt the former correction, which places the chief city of
Ayutho at Kakupur, and the town of Hayamukka at
Daundiakhera, as we know that the last was the capital of
the Bais Rajputs for a considerable period. I am partly
inclined to this opinion by a suspicion that the name of
Kakupur may be connected with that Bagud, or Vagud, of
the Tibetan books. According to this authority a Sakya,
named Shampaka, on being banished from Kapila retired to
Bagud, carrying with him some of Buddha's hairs and nail-
parings, over which he built a chaitya. He was made King
of Bagud, and the monument was named after himself (?
Shyampaka Stupa). No clue is given as to the position of
Bagud; but as I know of no other name that resembles it, I
am induced to think that it is probably the same place as
the Ayutho of Hwen Thsang, which was also possessed of a
Stupa containing some hairs and nail-parings of Buddha.
Kakupur is well-known to the people of Kanoj, who affirm
that it was once a largo city with a Raja of its own. The
existing remains of Kakupur consist of numerous
foundations formed of largo bricks, and more particularly
of a connected set of walls of some large building which the
people call " the palace." I have not yet visited this place,
winch lay out of my line of route, but I hope to have an
opportunity of examining it hereafter.
4249. However, in the meantime Robert Montgomery
Martin published another work in two volumes, i.e., "The
4634
History of the Indian Empire" first published in 1983 by
Mayur Publications Delhi. In his Introduction part the author
gave a very brief history of India and then the experience,
Britishers had vis a vis Hindu and Muslims, and strategy to be
adopted to consolidate their gains. This itself is revealing and an
eye opener.
"INTRODUCTION.
The Anglo-Indian Empire! What do these words represent
in the minds of the people of Britain?
They speak of dominion over a far-distant sunny
land, rich in barbaric gold, precious stones, and
architectural beauty, occupying upwards of a million
square miles of the most varied, fertile, and interesting
portion of this globe, and inhabited by more than one
hundred million of the human race.
The early history of this wonderful country lies hid in
deep obscurity. Not the obscurity that naturally attends
insignificance, but, far otherwise, caused by the dense veil
which Time drew around Ancient India, in thickening folds,
during centuries of deterioration; leaving the ruins of
magnificent cities, and widely-scattered records graven in
mysterious characters on almost imperishable materials, to
attest the existence of civilised races-regarding whom even
tradition is silent-at a date long prior to the Christian era.
Whence India was peopled, is quite unknown; but
thirty different languages, and an equal diversity of
appearance and character, dress, manners, and customs,
seem to indicate long-continued immigration from various
quarters.
4635
The Alexandrine era (B.C. 330) throws light on little
beyond the Macedonian invasion of the north-western
frontier; the Arab incursions (A.D. 709) afford only a few
glimpses of the borders of the Indus; and the thirteen
expeditions of Mahmood the Ghuznivede (A.D. 1000 to
1025), give little beyond a vague and general idea of the
wealth of the country and the dense population of the
Western Coast, whose idolatry Mahmood was empowered
to scourge with the strong arm of an Iconoclast; though he
himself was but an instrument in the hands of Providence;
and in battering down guardian fortresses and destroying
temples and shrines dedicated to false gods, had evidently
no higher motive than that of pillaging the dedicated
treasures, and carrying away the worshippers into slavery.
From this period we can faintly trace the progress of
Mohammedan conquest in India, to the establishment of the
dynasty known as the Slave Kings of Delhi (A.D. 1208.) Its
founder, Kootb-oo-deen, originally a Turki slave,
established the centre of Moslem dominion in the grand old
Hindoo capital, chiefly by reason of the disunion which had
arisen among the leading Rajpoot princes upon the failure
of a direct heir, and the consequent jealousies and disputes
regarding the succession.
Then the page of history becomes more and more
legible until it records the invasion of Timur or Tamerlance
(A.D. 1398), the terrible details of the siege of Delhi, and
the general massacre in which it terminated; and all the
horrors enacted before "the apostle of desolation" took his
departure, carrying off men and women of all ranks and
4636
ages into slavery, and leaving the devoted city without a
government, and almost without inhabitants.
The succeeding Indian annals, though confused, are
tolerably full to the commencement of that important epoch
which comprises the reigns of the Great Moguls. This
brings us within the pale of modern history: we can note
the growth and decay of Mogul dominion, and trace, at
least in measure, the operating causes of its extension and
decline. Viewed as a mere series of biographies, the lives of
the Great Moguls attract by incidents, which the pen of
fiction, fettered by attention to probability, would hardly
venture to trace. The members of this dynasty had a
decidedly literary turn, and several of them have left
records not only of the public events in which they played a
leading part, but also of the domestic scenes in which they
figured as sons, husbands, or fathers.
The value of these memoirs in elucidating or
corroborating the histories of the period, is, of course, very
great, and their authenticity rests on solid grounds, apart
from the strong internal evidence they afford of having
been actually written by the persons whose names they
bear.
Nothing can be more characteristic than the intense
self-adulation with which Timur, or Tamerlane, narrates his
perfidious and sanguinary career, except perhaps the
peculiar power of observation and analysis brought to bear
on new scenes which mark the autobiography of his
descendant Baber, who, following in his footsteps, invaded
India from Cabool, and, after a fierce struggle on the
4637
plains of Paniput (A.D. 1526), gained easy possession of
Delhi and Agra, and succeeded in laying the foundation of
an extensive empire.
Humayun (A.D. 1530), Akber (A.D. 1556), Jehangeer
(A.D. 1605), Shah Jehan (A.D. 1638), all encountered
vicissitudes of the most singular and varied character; and
the Mogul history increases in interest until it culminates in
the long reign of Aurangzebe (A.D. 1658), the ablest and
most powerful, but the most ambitious and bigoted of his
race. During his sway the predatory hordes of
Maharashtra were formed by the Hindoo adventurer,
Sevajee, into a powerful state; the hated and despised
Mahrattas grew strong upon the spoil of independent
kingdoms demolished by the haughty emperor; and finally,
his troops, worn by incessant toil, became mutinous for
want of pay and provisions, and suffered their aged leader
to be hunted even to the death by foes he had been
accustomed to treat as utterly contemptible. The decay of
the empire, which commenced several years before the
death of Aurungzebe (A.D. 1707), then became rapid;
usurping viceroys, rebelling against their government and
warring with the rulers of neighbouring states or
provinces, aggravated the internal disorganisation. Nor
were external foes wanting to complete the work of
destruction: adventurers of all creeds and complexions
fought fiercely over the ruins; while, distancing meaner
competitors, Nadir Shah (A.D. 1739) and Ahmed Shah
(A.D. 1759), the robber kings of Persia and Affghanistan,
swooped down like vultures to secure their share of the
4638
carcass; and the chief cities of India, especially Delhi,
repeatedly witnessed the most sanguinary enormities, and
continued to do so until, one by one, they became gradually
included in the widening circle of British supremacy.
And why dwell thus on the past at such a crisis as
this, when the magic circle of our power has been rudely
broken- when Delhi, filled to overflowing with all the
munitions of war, has been treacherously snatched from our
unsuspecting hands- and when the Crescent, raised again
in deadly strife against the Cross, has been reared aloft as
if in testimony that the Moslems who came into India
proclaiming war to the death against idolatry, have quite
abandoned their claim to a Divine mission, and are
affecting to make common cause with the Hindoos, whose
creed and practice they formerly declaimed against with so
much horror and disgust? Now Mohammedans and
Hindoos unite in committing crimes of a character so
deep and deadly, so foul and loathsome, that we find no
parallel for them; not in the relentless, inventive
vengeance of the Red Indians; not even in that crisis of
civilised infidelity, that fierce paroxysm of the French
Revolution, still shudderingly called the "Reign of
Terror." The Red Republicans made public avowal of
atheism; and awful was the depravity into which they sank,
world-wide the shame they incurred: but recantation soon
followed. These treacherous Sepoys, who have so
suddenly risen in a body, violating every oath of fidelity,
every tie of feeling and association-they, too, have their
watchword: it is not "there is no God;" it is "Death to
4639
the Christians!"
As in France, no religions persecution, but rather a
state of conventional apathy, leavened by the poison of
Voltaire, Diderot, Condorcet, and their clique, preceded the
atheistical and sanguinary outburst; even so has it been
with India. Efforts for the extension of Christianity have
been wholly exceptional; the rule has been tolerance,
amounting to indifference, in all religious matters. Few
who have been in the habit of reading Indian periodicals,
much less of mixing in Indian society, will deny that,
however manifest the desire for the diffusion of the Gospel
might be in individuals, the government had remained
markedly neutral.
The Mussulmans, let it be repeated, subjugated and
governed India in the character of anti-idolaters. They
tolerateand barely toleratedthe heathenism around
them, to which their aversion was, for the most part, quite
undisguised; and they were always eager for individual
conversions. Their open assertion of the superiority of their
faith was viewed as natural by the Hindoos; nor does any
angry feeling appear to have been excited, save in
exceptional cases of actual persecution. Aurungzebe
certainly alienated a large portion of his subjects by
reviving a long-abandoned capitation-tax on infidels; and
whether he did this from a desire to refill the treasury
emptied by incessant warfare, or from sheer bigotry, the
result was the same. Many causes (among which may be
named, not as the avowed ones, but certainly not as the
least powerfulsloth and sensuality, fostered by an
4640
enervating climate) have concurred in rendering the Indian
followers of Mohammed comparatively regardless of that
integral portion of their creed which enjoins its extension
by all and every means. But no earnest believer in the
Koran can be tolerant of idolatry; and therefore, when
we hear of Moslem and Hindoo linked together in a
most unprovoked crusade against Christians, it is
manifest that the pretext is altogether false, and that the
Mussulman, who is taught by the book he deems
inspired never to name our Blessed Lord without
reverence, or idols without abhorrence, cannot now be
actuated by any religious motive, however perverted or
fanatical, in violating the first principles of his faith and
by affected sympathy with the professors of a creed
heretofore declared utterly polluted and debasing, using
them as dupes and tools in carrying out an incendiary plot,
the planned details of which only Devil-worshippers,
possessed by unclean spirits, could have been supposed
capable of conceiving and executing. The conspiracy,
beyond a doubt, has originated in the desire of the
Mohammedans to recover their lost supremacy in India. Its
immediate and secondary causes are involved in temporary
obscurity; but the primum mobile must be sought for in the
pages of history. It is true the flame has spread like
wildfire: but the important question for those who are
capable of grappling with the complicated bearings of this
all-engrossing subject, is notwhat hand applied the
match? but how came such vast masses of combustibles to
be so widely spread, so ready for ignition?
4641
To understand this in any satisfactory degree, the
inquirer must be content to begin at the beginning, by
carefully weighing the fragmentary records we possess of
the history and character of the Hindoos as a distinct
people, nothing the causes which led to their gradual
subjugation by the Moslems; next, those which paved the
way for the introduction of European Power; and, lastly,
the establishment and operation of British supremacy
throughout India.
The indifference which the British nation and its
rulers have so long evinced to the study of Asiatic history,
has been most unfortunate. Wrapped in fancied security, we
have been too ignorant to be anxious, too indolent to be
watchful; and the few who have felt it an imperative duty to
speak words of warning by bringing the experience of the
past to bear upon the signs of the present, have found
themselves set down as alarmists on this point at least,
whatever their general character for ability and sound
judgment. Yet the fact is certain, that almost every leading
authority from the date of our earliest assumption of
territorial power, has dwelt forcibly on the necessity for
unsleeping vigilance in the administration of Indian affairs.
This conviction has been the invariable result of extensive
acquaintance with the natives, and it is abundantly
corroborated by the recorded antecedents of both Hindoos
and Mohammedans.
The history of India, whether in early times or during
the Mohammedan epoch, isas the brief outline sketched
in preceding pages was designed to indicateno less
4642
interesting as a narrative than important in its bearing on
the leading events of the present epoch, which, in fact,
cannot, without it, be rendered intelligible. The struggles of
European Powers for Asiatic ascendancy, form leading
features in the annals of each of these states. Portugal was
first in the field, and long and fierce was the combat she
waged to maintain exclusive possession of the rich
monopoly of Oriental commerce. The Dutch (then known as
the Netherlanders) enjoyed a share of the profits in the
capacity of carriers between the Portuguese factories and
the northern nations of Europe; but when, in 1579, they
formed themselves into a separate government in defiance
of the power of Philip of Spain, that monarch, who then
governed with an iron sceptre the united kingdoms of Spain
and Portugal, forbade the employment of the Dutch as
intermediaries - a prohibition which led to their trafficking
on their own account, forming various trading settlements
in the East in the commencement of the seventeenth
century, and supplanting their former employers.
The first attempts of England were made, at the same
period, by a company of London merchants, warmly
encouraged by the Queen, who signed a charter on their
behalf on the last day of the sixteenth century. During the
following century the English continued to be simply
traders, with no cravings for political or territorial
aggrandisement - absorbed in the business of buying and
selling, and anxious only for the safety of their fleet, which
rapidly became more formidable and extensive in
proportion to the rich freight it was destined to bear
4643
through seas infested with pirates, and frequently
preoccupied by hostile European squadrons.
The eighteenth century opened upon an entirely new
phase of Indian annals. The decay of Mogul power, which
had, as has been stated, commenced before the death of
Aurungzebe in 1707, was greatly accelerated by that event,
and by the war of succession which followed, as a natural
consequence, the death of a mogul emperor. The will of the
deceased ruler decreed the division of his dominions
among his sons; and had they consented to this
arrangement, and cordially united in carrying it out, their
allotted portions might possibly have been consolidated
into distinct kingdoms. But brotherly love rarely flourished
under the shadow of a despotic throne; and the House of
Timur formed no exception to this rule, having evinced a
remarkable tendency to fratricide throughout the entire
period of its Indian career. The younger sons of
Aurangzebe went to war with their elder brother, each on
his own account, and died the death they had provoked,
leaving the survivor, Bahadur Shah, to rule as best he
might the scattered territories styled the Empire. Anything
more devoid of organisation - of any approach to unity -
than the so-called Empire, cannot well be conceived. When
Auraungzebe snatched the sceptre from the hands of his
father, Shah Jenhan, and condemned him to life-long
captivity, the dominions he usurped were comparatively
well governed, and might, under the sway of a ruler of such
unquestionable ability, such indomitable perseverance,
have been consolidated into a comparatively homogeneous
4644
mass. But the unhallowed ambition at whose shrine he had
sacrificed the liberty of his father and the lives of his
brothers, still hurried him on, rendering him reckless of the
internal decay which was manifestly at work in the very
heart of his kingdom, while he was lavishing his resources
in spreading desolation and ruin, famine and the sword,
through every independent kingdom within his reach -
extending his own only in name, throwing down
governments and ancient land-marks, yet erecting none in
their stead; becoming terrible as a destroyer, when he
might have been great as a statesman and a consolidator.
A right view of the character of Aurungzebe, and a
patient investigation of his career, is absolutely necessary
to the obtainment of a clear insight into the state of India at
the period when the English East India Company began to
exchange their position of traders on sufferance for that of
territorial lords. The first steps of this strange
transformation can hardly be said to have been voluntary.
The English merchants were still essentially traders. An
examination of the East India House records (and no
attempt had ever been made to garble or hide them away
from friend or foe), will prove to the most prejudiced
observer, that, as a body, they persistently opposed the
acquisition of dominion. Nothing short of complete
indifference can account for the excessive ignorance of
Indian politics manifested in their official correspondence.
It may, indeed, be urged that English factors in a foreign
land, in addition to their characteristic reserve, are
naturally much engrossed by the duties and cares of their
4645
calling, and, apart from prejudice, may well be excused for
a degree of preoccupation which prevents them from
making any very vigorous effort to penetrate the barriers of
language and creed, manners and customs, which separate
them from the people with whom they come to traffic. A
time arrived, however, when the English could no longer be
blind to the alarming political and social state of India.
Every year, much more every decade, the disorganisation
increased. Certain native Hindoo states, such as Mysoor,
Travancore, the little mountainous principality of Coorg,
and a few others, had been exempted, by their position or
their insignificance, from Moslem usurpation. With these
exceptions, strife and anarchy spread over the length and
breadth of India. It was no organised struggle of race or
creed; for Mussulman fought against Mussulman, Hindoo
against Hindoo, and each against the other; Affghan
warred with Mogul, Mogul with Rajpoot; Mahratta with
all. The hand of every man was raised against his
neighbour: the peasant went armed to the plough - the
shepherd stood ready to defend his flock with his life; the
energy and determination of local authorities kept up some
degree of order in their immediate districts; but, in general,
the absence of a government strong enough to protect its
innocent subjects from internal vice or external vice or
external aggression, was manifested in the fearful audacity
with which the Pindarry, Dacoity, and Thug, the trained
marauder, thief, and assassin, pursued their murderous
avocations, in the blaze of noon as in the darkness of
midnight.
4646
The Hindoos fell back upon the ancient village
system, which the usurping Mohammedans had vainly
striven to destroy; and the internal organisation of these
little municipalities, each possessing its own Potail or
Mayor, enabled them to parry, or at least rally from,
attacks from without.
The English laboured for the effectual fortification of
the various factories gradually established in different
parts of India, and included, according to their situation, in
the three presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
Armed neutrality, however, would have been barely
practicable, even so far as the numerous warring native
powers were concerned. The conduct of their European
rivals rendered such a position quite untenable. The French
East India Company had, so far as trade was concerned,
proved a decided failure: its employes were very inferior to
the English as factors; but as political agents, they
possessed diplomatic instincts peculiar to themselves.
Dumas, Dupleix, and the gifted La Bourdonnais, saw
clearly the opportunity afforded for the territorial
establishment of their nation, and they eagerly took part in
the quarrels around them, making offensive and defensive
alliances with the neighbouring states, interfering in cases
of disputed succession, and taking, with bold and
unfaltering steps, the apparent road to political power.
None of the English functionaries approached their rivals
in ability; but they could not be blind to the increasing
danger of their situation; and the example set by the
French, of drilling native troops and organising them as far
4647
as possible in accordance with European notions, was
followed throughout the British settlements. Then came the
inevitable struggle between the two powers whose
unsleeping rivalry had so often evidenced itself in strife
and bloodshed at the very ends of the earth. At first they
met in indirect hostility as the auxiliaries of native princes;
but the first indications of European war were eagerly
seized on as a cause for direct opposition, and a fierce
struggle ensued, which eventually left the English complete
masters of the field. While the Carnatic, in which Madras is
situated, was the scene of this context, the English in
Bengal were subjected to the most oppressive exactions by
the usurping Mohammedan governor, Surajah Dowlah,
whose seizure and pillage of Calcutta in June, 1756, was
marked by the horrible massacre of the "Black Hole"--a
deed which, up to that period, even Mohammedan annals
can hardly equal in atrocity; but to which, after the lapse of
a hundred years, many terrible parallels have been
furnished.
The tidings spread like wildfire through the British
settlements, and the conviction became deep and general,
that it would be madness to trust to the faith or humanity of
such men as the depraved Surjah Dowlah and his Moslem
compeers. The Mogul empire had become an empty name
so far as the distant provinces were concerned, and there
was absolutely no native state either strong enough to
protect the English settlements, or just enough to be
trusted. Never was the indomitable resolve of Britons in a
foreign land more sternly tested, or more triumphantly
4648
evinced, than when their fortunes seemed at the lowest ebb
when the French and the Mohammedans, in different
quarters, menaced their overthrow and extinction. "To
drive these dogs into the sea!" was then, as now, the fervent
aspiration of every Moslem regarding every European. But
they wished to squeeze the orange before they threw away
the rind. They were themselves divided, and had plans of
individual aggrandizement to carry out against each other,
and generally over the Hindoos; and they well knew the
value of European co-operation and instruction in the art
of war.
The recapture of Calcutta was speedily effected by a
force of 900 European troops and 1,500 Sepoys,
commanded by a ci-devant writer, who had turned soldier,
and risen to distinction in the Carnatic war.
Robert Clivefor it was helooked round and saw
the opportunity offered for exchanging the precarious
footing then occupied by his countrymen for one of far
greater importance and security. The Hindoos were daily
becoming more impatient of the Mohammendan yoke, and
the haughty Mussulmans were themselves divided
regarding their ruler, whose reckless profligacy and violent
temper had given many of them provocation of a
description which excites, in an Oriental, feelings of the
fiercest and most enduring revenge. The English watched
the course of affairs with deep anxiety, and soon
ascertained that, in violation of a treaty entered into after
the reconquest of Calcutta, Surajah Dowlah was plotting
with the French for their destruction. Unquestionably, this
4649
procedure justified them in adopting hostile measures
against their treacherous foe; though it does not even
palliate some of the minor details, in which the crooked
policy of Clive appears in painful contract to his bravery as
a soldier and his skill as a general. The result was the
battle of Plassy (A.D. 1757), rapidly followed by the
permanent establishment of British dominion in Bengal.
After this, the tide of success flowed on fast and full.
If the reader will patiently peruse the pages of this history,
he will see that our power has increased with marvellously
little effort on our own part. As, when a stone is flung into
a river, the first small circle expands and multiplies beyond
calculationso, in India, have we gone on extending our
limits, as from the action of some inevitable necessity; less
from our own will, than because we could not stand still
without hazarding the position already gained. True, there
have been most distressing instances of injustice and
aggression; but these are the few and comparatively
unimportant exceptions. So far as the general obtainment
of political ascendancy in India is concerned, we may
quote the apt comparison used by an old Rajpoot prince to
Colonel Tod, in 1804, as conveying a perfectly correct idea
of our process of appropriation. Alluding to a sort of melon
which bursts asunder when fully matured, Zalim Singh
said, "You stepped in at a lucky time; the p'foot was ripe,
and you had only to take it bit by bit."
The manner in which we have acquired power in
India, is one thing; the use we have made of its, is another
and more complicated question. For my own part, I have
4650
long watched the Anglo-Indian government with feelings of
deep anxiety, and have laboured to the utmost of my ability
to awaken the British nation to a sense of the responsible
and critical situation they had been led to occupy. It is now
close upon twenty years since I was permitted, by the East
India Company, to edit the official records of a survey
made by Dr. Buchanan in Eastern India; and the
impression on my mind was so forcible, that I could not
refrain from prefacing the selections with a declaration that
the handwriting was on the wall, and nothing but a
complete and radical alternation of our system of
government, could avert the punishment justly merited by
our misuse of the great charge committed to us.
The primary reason of this misuse I believe to be the
false and wicked assertion, that "we won India by the
sword, and must keep it by the sword." There is another
aphorism, much older and of much higher authority, which
we should do well to think on--"They that take the sword
shall perish by the sword." We did not conquer India by
violence: we came as peaceful traders and spent long years
in that capacity; and during that time we succeeded in
impressing on the minds of the natives as lively conviction
of our energy, ability, and integrity. When the crisis came-
as come it did, without our knowledge and greatly to our
discomfiturecounting-houses were turned into barracks,
bales of piece-goods helped to make barricades, clerks and
writers were metamorphosed into military leaders, and,
while themselves but learners, drilled the natives round
them into a state of discipline before unknown.
4651
Thus was formed the nucleus of that army on which
we have leaned as if that, land that alone, had been the
means of our obtaining dominion in India. For the perfect
organization of that mighty force, which lately numbered
300,000 men, we laboured with unwearied patience; and to
this grand object we sacrificed every other. So long as the
Sepoys were duly cared for, the condition of the mass of the
people was a matter of comparative indifference. It was not
the Great Ruler of the Universe, whose inscrutable decrees
had placed this vast tract of heathendom in the hands of a
people who professed to serve Him and Him only; rejecting
every tradition of men; relying only on her mediation of
His Son; resting for guidance only on His written word;
asking only the interpretation His Holy Spirit;- not so! The
Anglo Indian Dominion had nothing whatever to do with
any such religious speculations. We were not bound to set
before the people the example of the faith which we affect
to believe the very leaven of the earth. Until the last few
years we did not view it even as a case of stewardship. We
were not even called upon to exert our energy for
developing the physical resources of the country, and
ameliorating the condition of the mass of the people. And
why? Because free Britons, in the middle of the nineteenth
century, have seen fit to assume the position of military
despots, drowning the conviction that India was God-given
trust, in the vague notion of its being "an empire of
opinion;" and then sinking, by an easy transition, from
rationalism into the more popular notion of sheer force--"
an empire of the sword," held by the might of our own
4652
strong arm.
Scepticism and cowardice lie at the root of our
present disasters: deliberately have we chosen the fear of
man, which blinds and enervates, rather than the fear of
God, which enlightens and strengthens. With infatuated
credulity we have nursed in our bosom the serpent that has
stung us to the quick. Tolerance is, indeed, an essentially
Christian quality; but who shall dare assume that praise
for the Christianity which was made in the persons of high
Protestant (?) officials, to bow its head before licentious
profligacy of the Mussulmans, and the heathen
abominations and disgusting impurities of the modern
Brahminical priesthood, land to witness, in silence, the
spiritual enslavement and physical degradation of the
mass?
We though, perhaps, both Mussulmans and Brahmins
too enervated by their respective orgies to be dangerous as
enemies. This but proves our utter ignorance of the oriental
character, especially as developed in the Mohammedans.
Let the reader glance over the history of their founder (and
I have striven to sketch it in a subsequent page, in
faithfulness and not with the pain of a caricaturist), he will
see in the False Prophet the type of sensuality, bigotry,
ambition, grounded and rooted in the fiercest fanaticism;
and that type has been perpetually reproduced, and will
continue to be so until Mohammedanism shall be swept
from the face of the earth.
How soon that may be, none can prophesy; but the
general rising now taking place among the Mussulmans in
4653
Africa and Syria, as well as in India, are pointed at by
many observers as preceding and indicating the death-
throes of this once powerful, but already deeply sunken
race.
For us, if we would hope to conquer, it must be by
turning to the Lord of Hosts, as a nation, in deep
repentance and humility: then only may we justly look for
present help and anticipate for the future that gift in which
we have been so lamentably deficient-- "a right judgment in
all things." Thus favoured, we shall not shrink from the
responsibilities of an evangelized nation; but shall
understand, that there is no surer way of obtaining respect
in the eyes of the quick-written Hindoos, than by a
consistent adherence to our religious professions; the
means commend themselves to every unprejudiced person
really versed in India affairs; and, assuredly, none other
will be blessed of God. We cannot hope to pass off
indifference for tolerance; the Mohammendans see through
the flimsy disguise and bid the heathen throw off the
ignominious yoke of Kafirs (infidels) Christianity they
reverence and dread to see us manifest any tokens of it.
Well they may; for nothing else will conquer our head in
the day of battle. That day has come. May we now have
grace to control the fearful passions provoked by the most
horrible outrages; and may the memory of our own
shortcomings towards God, enable us, if He gives the
victory, to use it mercifully. Let us not forget, that the
innocent blood spilt in the last few weeks, cannot blot out
the memory of the debt which England owes to India.* The
4654
Parliament of Britain now must dictate the course to be
followed in a matter of vital importance to the nation
whose opinions it represents. The portion of the British
public impressed with sound and practical religious views,
is, happily, larger and more influential than would appear
to superficial observers. The fact is indicated in the
increase of missionary enterprise, the extension of
education, and, indirectly, in the progress of public
improvements, and the initiation of reformatory measures.
The faulty judicial system the partial and vexatious land-
tenure, the defective monetary circulation of India, have
come under discussion; and if, as God in mercy grant,
Britain is permitted to retain the brightest jewel in her
crown-- the most valuable of her transmarine possessions
it is fervently to be desired that we may apply ourselves
diligently to remedy all deficiencies, to repair, as far as
possible, past neglects, and provide against future
emergencies.
The details of the present terrible episode will be
given fully in subsequent pages; day by day that close
seems approaching, with the record of which the Author
hopes to be enabled to terminate this Work.
*The pecuniary debt is wholly on the side of
England. The cost, alike of civil and military government,
including the payment of the royal troops, has been entirely
defrayed from the Indian revenues: so, if we succeed, must
be expenses of the present insurrection. The money
remittances to England from the three Presidencies average
five million sterling for the last sixty years. There is
4655
scarcely a county in the United Kingdom but has had the
value of its landed property enhanced by the investment of
fortunes, the fruit of civil or military services or of
commercial succeeds in Hindoostan. Again, how many
British statesman and commanders have had their genius
elicited and educated in India. A noble field has been
annually opened for the youth of Britain, and an expansive
tone given to society by the constant discussion of great
subjects.
The merchant and the manufacturer can best estimate
the importance of a large, increasing, and lucrative market,
free from high or hostile tariffs; and the advantage of an
almost unlimited command of commodities, the regular
obtainment of which is essential to the steady employment
of their operations. Lastlynor must it be forgotten, that
Indian Imports and Exports, to the amount of thirty million
sterling, now furnish profitable employment to the best
class mercantile shipping."
"Oude, or Ayodhya, was famous in ancient Hindoo
lore as the kingdom of Dasarath, the father of Rama, the
hero of the famous epic the Ramayana. With the details of
its fall as a Hindoo kingdom, and its history as a province
of the Mogul empire, we are almost entirely unacquainted;
but we know that it has retained its institutions to the
present day, and that, in all respects, the Hindu element
largely predominates throughout Oude." (Vol. II, page 59)
"In the meantime, the disorganisation of Oude was clearly
on the increase, and one of its marked features was a rising
spirit of Moslem fanaticism. It happened that a
4656
Mohammedan fast fell on the same day as a Hindoo feast;
and Ameer Ali, a moolvee, or priest, of high repute, took
advantage of the circumstance to incite his co-religionists
to a fierce onslaught on the Hindoos. Troops were ordered
out to quell the disturbances; but Ameer Ali seized and
confined two of the officers, assembled 3,000 men, and
declared his intention of destroying a certain Hindoo
temple, and erecting a mosque in its stead. At length the
British subsidiary force was employed by the king against
the moolvee. An affray ensued, in which a body of Patans
fought with the recklessness of fanaticism, and were cut
down, standing shoulder to shoulder round their guns, by a
party of Hindoo zemindars and their retainers. In all, 200
Hindoos and 300 Patans perished. This occurred in
November, 1855. About the same time the Oude
government became aware that some great change was in
agitation. They asked the reason for the assembling of so
large a force at Cawnpoor; and were, it is alleged,
solemnly assured that it was intended to keep in check the
Nepaulese, descent towards the district of Nanparah." (Vol
II, page 77)
4250. Then comes the real detailed study conducted by a
local official P. Carnegy who was posted as Officiating
Commissioner and Settlement Officer, Faizabad.
4251. Sri Ravi Shankar Prasad, Sr. Advocate and other
learned Advocates for Hindu parties placed strong reliance on
the findings of P. Carnegy's Historical Sketch (supra)
contained on page 5 to 7, 20 and 21 (Paper No.107C1/18, 19,
20, 22, 23) and Appendix-A & B to the Book. P. Carnegy was
4657
officiating Commissioner and Settlement Officer, Faizabad. Sri
Jilani, learned counsel for the plaintiff (Suit-4), however,
assailed the said findings contending that Carnegy has prepared
his report in 1870. There was no occasion for him to have
personal knowledge of the ancient facts stated in the said report.
He has not referred to any material which was relied upon by
him in recording his findings and, therefore, whatever historical
facts he has written are without any basis and cannot be taken as
a gospel truth or treated as a fact proved. Moreover even in
Carnegy's report, the list of important Hindu religious places in
Ayodhya did not mention anything about Janambhumi temple.
4252. In the introductory part, Sri P. Carnegy has divided
the facts relating to Ayodhya in 3 distinct ages and according to
him the same were as under:
First, there is the mythic period of Rama and
Vikramaditta, and bearing upon this, we have (1). The
Ramayan of Valmiki, modernized by Tulshi Das in the days
of Shahjehan, and treated in our own days historically by
Wheeler, geographically by Cust, and poetically by Monier
Williams and Griffiths. (2) The Raghuvansa of Kalidasa,
and ornament of the Court of Vikramaditta, to the glory of
whose line the work was composed nearly 2,000 years ago,
and of which I am not aware that there is any complete
English edition; and (3) the Ajudhia Mahatam (for an
epitome see Appendix B) a far less known and more recent
work, complied beyond doubt by Pandits subsequent to the
restoration of Brahminism, the scope of which is to dilate
on the special virtues of the different shrines in and around
Ajudhia.
4658
Second, the historic age, an acquaintance with which
would necessitate the study of the writings of, (1) the
Chinese travellers of the fourth and sixth centuries, with
the light thrown upon them in these days by Elphinstone,
Cowell and Cunningham; and (2) the Mahomedan
geographers and historians, to the study of whose works
Sir H. Elliot devoted a life.
Third, the modern age', or Oudh under its Nawabs
and Kings, which would entail familiarity with a host of
recent writers from Macaulay downwards.
4253. In 1870, Ayodhya was part of Pargana Haveli-Oudh
and in respect to its creation, Sri P. Carnegy has given certain
facts as under :
Pargana Haveli-Oudh takes its name from Oudh,
the capital, and Haveli the name generally used to indicate
the principal station of the chief revenue authorities of the
Moghals. The pargana is bounded on the north and east by
the River Gogra, on the south by the River Marha and
Parganas Pachhamrath and Amsin, and on the west by
Pargana Mangalsi.
In former days the revenue collections of the
pargana, used to be made at the Kala Mubarak or
blessed fort, which was situated at Lachhmanghat where
now stands the recently built temple of Jugla Saran. In the
days of Mansur Ali Khan, (A.D. 1739-54), they used to be
made at Rath Haveli, and in the time of the Bahu
Begum, at or near the Dilkusha, both of which latter places
are in the city of Fyzabad.
The pargana differs from all others in the district,
4659
inasmuch as there never were any of the usual Tappa sub-
divisions. It contained in the King's time 329 townships.
These were reduced under Summary Settlement to 242 in
number; and they have now been further cut down to 181
demarcated villages, under the redistributions of the
revised settlement.
4254. According to his investigation, the residents of the
area mainly belong to following categories termed by him as
chief landed proprietors:
1. the Vasisht Brahmins
2. the Surajbans Chhatris
3. the Garagbans Chhatris
4. the Bais Chhatris
5. The Upadhia Brahmins
6. The Syads of Bhadarsa
7. The Kurmis of Maujadbanspur
4255. It would be useful to refer his observations in
respect to Vasisht Brahmins as under :
The Vasisht Brahmins.-The members of this family
assert descent from Vasisht Muni, the spiritual adviser of
the immortal Ram Chandar, from whom that portion of the
town which is still known as Vasisht Tola, takes its name,
and whose sacred memory is still kept fresh by the annual
visits of his votaries to the Vasisht Kund or reservoir, in the
same quarter.
After the vicissitudes of the Budhist and Atheist
periods when the Vedic faith was for the time, it is believed,
locally suppressed, Ajudhia was again traditionally
restored and brahminically re-peopled, through the
4660
exertions of Vikramajit of Ujain; and Kashiram and other
members of the present Vasisht tribe, who now inhabit the
ancient haunts of the family, aver that their ancestors were
then re-called by the sovereign in question, from Kashmere,
and received from him large assignments of revenue-free
land. It is the further averment of these persons that they
retained their possessions during the supremacy of the non-
Brahminic Bhars, but it is almost needless to say that no
proofs are extant either of their advent from Kashmere, or
their steadfastness of faith under the Bhars. In the Ain-i-
akbari, the oldest reliable historical record, Vasisht
Brahmins are stated to be the prevailing caste of zamindars
in this pargana.
The proprietary status of this family waned before the
modern Surajbans clan the annals of which will follow, and
it members are now reduced to the possession of
exproprietary petty holdings (Sir) and dues (Sayer), in the
Ranupali Anjna Narainpur and Luchhmidaspur estates,
which comprise 32 villages in all, in which also they chiefly
reside.
4256. Ayodhya, its area, topography etc. he has dealt with
on page 5 of the Book reads as under :
Ajudhia.- Ajudhia, which is to the Hindu what
Macca is to the Mahomedan, Jerusalem to the Jews, has in
the traditions of the orthodox, a highly mythical origin
being founded for additional security not on the earth for
that is transitory, but on the chariot wheel of the Great
Creator himself which will endure for ever.
In appearance Ajudhia has been fancifully likened to
4661
a fish, having Guptar as its head, the old town for its body,
and the eastern parganas for its tail.
Derivation.- The name Ajudhia is explained by well-
known local Pandits to be derived from the Sanskrit words,
Ajud, unvanquished, also Aj, a name of Barmha, the
unconquerable city of the Creator. But Ajudhia is also
called Oudh, which in Sanskrit means a promise, in
allusion it is said, to the promise made by Ram Chandra
when he went in exile, to return at the end of 14 years.
These are the local derivations; I am not prepared to say to
what extent they may be accepted as correct. Doctor
Wilson of Bombay thinks the word is taken from yudh to
fight, the city of the fighting Chhatris.
Area.-The ancient city of Ajudhia is said to have
covered an area of 12 jogan or 48 kos, and to have been
the capital of Utar-Kausala or Kosala, (the Northern
Treasure) the country of the Surajbans race of Kings, of
whom Ram Chundar was 57
th
in descent from Raja Manu,
and of which line Raja Sumintra was the 113
th
and last.
They are said to have reigned through the Suth, Tireta, and
Dwapar Jugs, and 2,000 years of the Kul or present Jug or
Era.
4257. The history and alleged restoration and other events
of Ayodhya, he has dealt with from page 6 to 13 as under :
With the fall of the last of Rama's line, Ajudhia
became a wilderness, and the royal race became dispersed
even as the Jews. From different members of this dispersed
people, the Rajas of Jaipur, Joudhpur, Udeypur, Jambu,
&c., of modern times, on the authority of Tirhut Kuth-ha,
4662
claim to descent. Even in the days of its desertion Ajudhia
is said still to have remained a comparative Paradise, for
the jungle by which it was over-run, was the sweet-smelling
keordh, a plant which to this day flourishes with unusual
luxuriance in the neighborhood.
Ban-Oudha.-In less ancient times when waste began
to yield to cultivation, it took the name of Ban-Oudha or
the Jangle of Oudh. With this period the name of Vikramajit
is traditionally and intimately associated, when Budhism
again began to give place to Brahminism.
The restoration by Vikramajit.- To him the restoration
of the neglected and forest-concealed Ajudhia is
universally attributed. His main clue in tracing the ancient
city was of course the holy river Sarju, and his next was the
shrine still known as Nageshar-Nath, which is dedicated to
Mahadeo, and which presumably escaped the devastations
of the Budhist and Atheist periods. With these clues, and
aided by descriptions which he found recorded in ancient
manuscripts, the different spots rendered sacred by
association with the worldly acts of the deified Rama, were
identified, and Vikramajit is said to have indicated the
different shrines to which pilgrims from afar still in
thousands half-yearly flock.
Ramkot- The most remarkable of those was of course
Ramkot the strong-hold of Ramchandar. This fort covered a
large extent of ground and according to ancient
manuscripts, it was surrounded by 20 bastions, each of
which was commanded by one of Rama's famous generals,
after whom they took the names by which they are still
4663
known. Within the fort were eight royal mansions where
dwelt the Patriarch Dasrath, his wives, and Rama his
deified son, of whom it has been plaintively sung-
Lord of all virtues, by no stain defiled,
The king's chief glory was his eldest child,
For he was gallant, beautiful, and strong,
Void of all envy, and the thought of wrong.
With gentle grace to man and child he spoke,
Nor could the churl his harsh reply provoke,
He paid due honor to the good and sage,
Renowned for virtue and revered for age.
And when at eve his warlike task war o'er,
He sat and listened to their peaceful lore,
Just, pure and prudent, full of tender ruth,
The foe of falsehood and the friend of truth;
Kind, slow to anger, prompt at miseries call,
He loved the people, and was loved of all,
Proud of the duties of his warrior race,
His soul was worthy of his princely place.
Resolved to win, by many a glorious deed,
Throned with the gods in heaven, a priceless meed
What though Brihaspati might hardly vie,
With him in eloquence and quick reply,
None heard the music of his sweet lips flow
In idle wrangling or for empty show.
He shunned no toils that student's life befit,
But learned the Vedas and all holy writ;
And even eclipsed his father's archer fame,
So swift his arrow and so sure his aim.
4664
To this praise for virtue his ancient father apparently
had no pretension; for we are told that besides the three
wives above marginally indicated, who caused him so much
anxiety, there were 360 others of whom history says little. A
prodigality of connubial happiness which in modern days
found its parallel also in Oudh, in the Kesar Bagh Harem
of Wajid Ali Shah.
Samundra Pal Dynasty.- According to tradition
Raja Vikramaditta ruled over Ajudhia for 80 years, and at
the end of that time he was outwitted by the Jogi Samundra
Pal, who having by magic made away with the spirit of the
Raja, himself entered into the abandoned body, and he and
his dynasty succeeding to the kingdom they ruled over it for
17 generations or 643 years, which gives an unusual
number of years for each reign.
The Siribastam Dynasty.- This Dynasty is supposed
to have been succeeded by the trans-Gogra Siribastam
family of which Tilokchand was a prominent member, a
family which was of the Budhist-Jain persuasion and to
which are attributed certain old Deoharas of places of Jain
worship which are still to be found in Ajudhia, but which
are of modern restoration.
It was probably against the Siribastam dynasty that
Syad Salar made his ill-starred advance into Oudh when in
the earlier Mahomedan invasions, he and his army left
their bones to bleach in the wilds of Baraich (see
chronicles of Oonao Page 83-5).
But the hold of the trans-Gogra rulers of Ajudhia was
soon after this lost, and the place passed under the sway of
4665
the Rajas of Kanouj. Their power however, according to
hazy tradition seems for a time to have been successfully
disputed by the Magadh dynasty, whose temporary rule is
still acknowledged. . . . .
The Kanouj dynasty.-Subsequently to this the
Mahamedans made another partial advance into Hindostan
in alliance with Kanouj whose Raja it again restored to
sovereignty; but in these parts this sovereignty was
altogether repudiated, and minor local rulers sprang up
throughout the land, and a period of territorial confusion
then prevailed which was only finally terminated by the
Mahamedan conquest. A copper grant of Jai Chand the last
of the Karouj Rahtors, dated 1187, A.D. or 6 years before
his death, was found near Fyzabad when Colonel Caulfield
was Resident of Lucknow. See A.S. Jour. Vol. X. Part I
1861.
Sir H. Elliot mentions that on the occasion of
Bikramajit's visit to Ajudhia he erected temples at 360
places rendered sacred by association with Rama. Of these
shrines but 42 are known to the present generation, and as
there are but few things that are really old to be seen in
Ajudhia, most of these must be of comparatively recent
restoration. A list of these shrines is given as Appendix A as
well as of numerous Thakur-dwaras &c. which have been,
or are daily being built by different nobles of Hindostan to
the glorification of Ramchandar, his generals and other
members of his royal race, to the glorification of
Ramchandar, his generals and other members of his royal
race. There are also six Mandirs of the Jain faith to which
4666
allusion has already been made.
The cradle alike of Hindus, Budhists and Jains.-It is
not easy to over-estimate the historical importance of the
place which at various times and in different ages has been
known by the names of Kosala, Ajudhia and Oudh; because
it may be said to have given a religion to a large portion of
the human race, being the cradle alike of the Hindus, the
Budhists, and the Jains.
In the earliest ages, the Hindus were divided into the
two great lines of solar and lunar Chhatris, from whom all
other Chhatris are, by courtesy, descended; and of the
former line Kosala was at once the Kingdom and Capital.
Of this territory Ikshawaku was the first solar King. When
he lived is chronologically unknown, but Hindu Mythology
takes him back to within a few removes of Brahma, the
Creator. Thirty sixth in descent from Ikshawaku was Rama,
the typical Chhatri subjugator of the South, and the glory
of Ajudhia; the contemporary perhaps of Solomon, who
was followed by some sixty more of his line before it
became obliterated.
Of Budhism too, Kosala has without doubt, a strong
claim to be considered the mother. Kapila and Kasinagara
both in Gorakhpur and both of that country (Kosala) are
the Alpha and Omega of Sakya Muni, the founder of that
faith. It was at Kapila that he was born; it was at Ajudhia
that he preached, perhaps composed those doctrines which
have conferred upon him a world-wide fame; and it was at
Kasinagara that he finally reached that much desiderated
stage of annihilation by sanctification, which is known to
4667
his followers as Nirvana B.C. 550.
Again it is in Ajudhia that we still see pointed out the
birth-place of the founder as well as of four other of the
chief-hierarchs of the Jain faith. Here it was that Rikabdeo
of Ikshawaku's royal race matured the schism, somewhat of
a compromise between Brahminism and Budhism, with
which his name will ever be associated.
In Ajudhia then, we have the mother of the Hindus,
as typified by Rama, the conqueror of the South; of the
Budhists, as being the scene of the first great protest
against caste by the originator of a creed whose disciples
are still counted by millions; and of the Jains, as being the
birth-place of the originator of doctrines which are still
revered by several of our most influential mercantile
families.
There are two traditions of the Jains that are at least
curious. The one has just been mentioned that the founder
of the Jain creed was of the Ajudhia solar race: the other,
and it is maintained by the Khattria also, that only such
Chhatris as are descended from Jains are pure. There is
here a good deal of room for speculation. Abu was the
fountain head of the Jain faith; there the founder of that
faith lived and died, and on that mount there is still a
temple to is revered memory nearly 1000 years old. It was
at Abu too, it will be remembered, that a convocation of the
gods recreated the Agnicula quartet of Chhatris, to put
down the Budhists and atheists who had overrun the
country. May not this mythical recreation point to the
revival of Brahminism in even the very stronghold of the
4668
Jain faith? It is with this agnicula recreation on mount Abu
that many of the oldest of our Chhatri clans seek to connect
their origin. Such a recreation is of course absurd, but it is
not absurd to suppose that Abu, peopled with the
descendants of Ikshawaku, a solar prince of Oudh, may
have been the scene of a Brahminical revival which spread
far and wide, reaching in time the Chauhans of Mainpuri,
and through one of them, Bariar Singh, the founder of at
least 4 of our present chief families, extending itself into
eastern Oudh also, where the darkness of the Magadh
period was yet represented by the disbelieving caste
neglecting Bhars.
The Sarju.- The origin of the river Sarju is highly
fanciful. On an occasion of mirth tears of joy flowed from
the eyes of Narain, the Supreme Being, which were
reverently saved from falling to the ground by Brahma, the
Creator, who caught them in his watercan (Kamandal) and
carefully deposited them in the Mansarwar lake. When the
city of Ajudhia had been fairly established the people
longed for the sight of flowing water, and they made known
their wishes to the far famed Local Divine Vasisht Muni
(the ancestor of the Vasisht tribe of Brahmins). The latter
entered into the spirit of their wishes and by severe
penance and sacrifices to Brahma, the tear-preserved
waters of Mansarwar were made to flow past the city of
bliss. For these reasons the Sarju is still sometimes
fancifully called the Vasisht-ki-kunnya, or the Vasisht
nymph, and also Vasisht Gunga.
The Ajudhia Mahatum.-No account of Ajudihia
4669
would be complete which did not throw some light on the
Ramayan and the Ajudhia Mahatum. Of the former of these
works, I need not speak, for through the writings of
Wheeler, Cust, Monier Williams &c. most readers are
familiar therewith. I will therefore confine my remarks to
the Ajudhia Mahatum, which is comparatively unknown.
This work was prepared to the glorification of
Ajudhia according to some, by Ikshawaku of the Solar race,
while others with more probability aver that it is a
transcript from the Askundh and Padam Purans, and is not
the production of any Raja. Be that as it may it is well that
the essence of the work should be made available to the
public, and in this view Mr. Woodburn c.s. has been good
enough to make a connected abstract for me, from a literal
translation which I had made some years ago. This
abstract is given as Appendix B.
Limits of Oudh.- It is not always easy to
comprehend what is meant by the Oudh or Ajudhia of
ancient times, for that territory has been subjected to many
changes. So far as these are known to me, I give them
below-
The Oudh of Rama.- Such intelligent natives as
Maharaja Man Singh have informed me that at this period
Oudh was divided into five portions, thus :- (1) Kosala or
Utar Kosala, which included the present Trans-Gogra
districts of Gorakhpur, Busti, Gondah and Baraich, (2)
Pachhamrath, which included the country between the
rivers Gogra and Gomti, extending westwards from Ajudhis
to Nimkhar in Sitapur. (3) Purabrath, or the territory
4670
between the same rivers, extending eastwards towards
Jaunpur, the limit not being traceable. (4) Arbar being the
country around Pertabgurh, lying between the rivers Gomti
and Son, probably the same that it still known as Aror or
Arwar : and (5) Silliana, which included some portion of
the Nepal hills running along the then Oudh frontier.
The Oudh of Akbar.- Mention is made of the title of
Subadar of Oudh as early as A.D. 1280, and it was one of
the 15 Subas or Governorships into which Akbar
subdivided the empire in 1590 A.D. The Mahamadan
attempt to change the name from Oudh to Akhtarnagar,
never seems to have succeeded fully.
The boundaries of the old Suba differed materially
from those of the present day, and a large part of what is
now the eastern portion of the Province, including Tanda,
Aldemau, Manikpur, &c. was not in those days included in
Suba Oudh, but in Allahabad. According to the Ain-i-
Akbari the Suba then extended from and inclusive of Sirkar
Gorakhpur, to Kanouj, and from the Himalayas to Suba
Allahabad, 135 kos by 115 kos.
Suba Oudh contained five Sirkars, viz. (1) Oudh;
(2) Lucknow; (3) Baraich; (4) Khyrabad; and (5)
Gorakhpur. The details of these are given below, but they
are only approximately correct, and in regard to some
places my information is incomplete.
The Oudh of Shuja-ud-Dowlah.-At this period
Gorakhpur and Azimgarh were of the Province, and with
the co-operation and aid of the English, Kurra, Allahabad
and Rohelkhund wee added to it, Ghazipur and Benares
4671
were made over to the English during this reign.
The Oudh of Sadut Ali.- In this reign the province
was reduced by the transfer to the British by treaty, of
Rohelkhund, Allahabad, Farrakabad, Mainpuri, Etawa,
Gorakhpur, Azimgarh, Cawnpur and Fattehpur, and in
Ghazi-ud-din Haidar's reign which followed, the Nepal
Terai, given back by Lord Canning after the Mutiny, was
added by us to the Kingdom. So, with the exception of some
changes of Parganas for mutual convenience, on the
Allahabad, Gorakhhpur and Rohelkhund frontiers, the
Province remained till we acquired it in 1856.
The town of Ajudhia comprised the lands of four
entire mauzas, (Barehta, which has been washed away,
Faridipur, Bagh Kesari Singh and Rowza Shah Juran) and
portions of three others; (Ranupali, Miraapur and
Derabibi;) besides Kasbah Kirki. It contains the 26
mohallahs marginally named.
1. Bazar Sherganj 2. Kythanna 3. Gariwan Tollah 4.
Bhararia Tollah 5. Babhan Kuliah 6. Bazdari Tollah 7.
Vashist Kund 8. Tenrhi Bazar 9. Syudwara 10. Shekhana
11. Mirapur 12. Kundurpura 13. Shah Madar 14. Kaziana
15. Begampura 16. Buxaria Tollah 17. Durbar Dwara 18.
Panji Tollah 19. Dorahe Kuan 20. Dhana Mandi 21.
Alamganj 22. Kattra 23. Moghalpura 24. Surgadwar 25.
Hateh Surat Singh 26. Urdu Bazar
4258. About the Janamsthan and other temples/Babar's
mosque and the dispute amongst the two communities, P.
Karnegy has written on pages 20 and 21 as under :
The Janamsthan marks the place where Ram
4672
Chandra was born. The Sargadwar is the gate through
which he passed into Paradise, possibly the spot where his
body was burned. The Tareta-Ke-Thakur was famous as the
place where Rama performed a great sacrifies, and which
he commemorated by setting up there images of himself
and Sita.
If Ajudhia was then little other than a wild, it must
at least have possessed a fine temple in the Janamsthan;
for many of its columns are still in existence and in good
preservation, having been used by the Musalmans in the
construction of the Babari Mosque. These are of strong
close-grained dark slate-colored or black stone, called by
the natives Kasoti (literally touch-stone,) and carved with
different devices. To my thinking these strongly resemble
Budhist pillars that I have seen at Benares and elsewhere.
They are from seven to eight feet long, square at the base,
centre and capital, and round or octagonal intermediately.
Hindu and Musalman differences.-The Janamsthan is
within a few hundred paces of the Hanuman Garhi. In 1855
when a great rupture took place between the Hindus and
Mahomedans, the former occupied the Hanuman Garhi in
force, while the Musalmans took possession of the
Janamsthan. The Mahomedans on that occasion actually
charged up the steps of the Hanuman Garhi, but were
driven back with considerable loss. The Hindus then
followed up this success, and at the third attempt, took
the Janamasthan, at the gate of which 75 Mahomedans
are buried in the Martyrs' grave (Ganj-Shahid.) Several
of the King's Regiments wee looking on all the time, but
4673
their orders wee not to interfere. It is said that up to that
time the Hindus and Mahomedans alike used to worship
in the mosque-temple. Since British rule a railing has
been put up to prevent disputes, within which in the
mosque the Mahomedans pray, while outside the fence
the Hindus have raised a platform on which they make
their offerings.
The two other old mosque to which allusion has been
made (known by the common people by the name Nourang
Shah, by whom they mean Aurangzeb,) are now mere
picturesque ruins.
4259. About other temples or religious places of Jains and
Buddhists, he has also given certain facts which we are omitting
at this stage. He has referred to the inscriptions found on the
building in dispute on page 27 under Section VI.-Concluding
Remarks Para (IV) under the heading Buildings which reads
as under :
(IV.) Buildings.- Of these we have; (1) the enshrined
tomb of Syad Masud Behani, in the village of Behawan,
Pargana Birhar, a reputed follower pf Suad Salar, A.D.
1030; (2), the tomb at Ajudhia, of Makhdum Shah Juran-
Ghori, a lieutenant it is alleged, of Shahab-ud-din Ghori,
the conqueror of Dehli and Kanauj, A.D. 1192-4; (3), the
tomb at Ajudhia of the Sharki period, perhaps of Khawaja
Jahan, the founder of the Jaunpur dynasty himself, who
died A.D. 1399; (4), the enshrined tomb of Makhdum
Ashraf at Kachhocha, the author of the Lataif-i-Ashrafi,
and the contemporary of Ibrahim Shah of the Sharki
dynasty, A.D. 1401-40; (5), Babar's mosque with stone
4674
inscriptions in Ajudhia, date A.D. 1528, and stone
columns of infinitely greater antiquity; (6) the stone-
faced fort of Salemgarh on the Gumti, a stronghold of
Salem Shah, A.D. 1545-53; (7), the fort and bridge with
stone inscriptions, at Akbarpur, a resting place of the
Emperor Akbar, A.D. 1556-86; (8), the mosque of Alamgir
(Aurangzeb) at Ajudhia, A.D. 1658-1707; (9), and lastly,
the more modern buildings of Fyzabad, such as the
Dilkusha, the forst, &c., mostly of Shuja-ud-dowlah's time,
A.D. 1753-75
4260. The report is said to have been signed in October
1870 by Sri P. Carnegy at Faizabad. Appendix-A (Ex. A-10,
Suit-4) of the Book P. Carnegy's Historical Sketch gives the
list of sacred places in and about Ayodhya and the same has
been placed before us elaborately by both the side.
4261. Besides, there is a site map of Fyzabad Municipality
which is also part of the book and has been sited by the parties
showing the position as it was in 1870. It is appended as
Appendix 6.
4262. They also placed before us Appendix-B (Paper
No.258 C1/1) which is under the heading of report on Ajudhia
Mahatum and reads as under :
APPENDIX-B.
EPITOME OF THE AJUDHIA MAHATAM, WHICH
AGAINI IS TAKEN FROM THE PURANS
The holy city of Ajudhia, of saving virtues and
ancient renown, was built they say by Brahma, and given to
his eldest son for an earthly dwelling-place. The earth
being but transitory, Brahma laid the foundation in his own
4675
discus, the Sudarsan Chakra, which still gives its shape to
the city. On this was reared a stately capital for the son of
God, and it was presented to him complete, fitted, declare
the chronicles, with shrines, places, roads, markets,
gardens, and fruit trees, glittering with jewels, and
resounding with the melody of birds. Its men and women
were holy, as befitted the subjects of a Divine King, and
their righteousness was rewarded by incalculable wealth in
elephants and oxen, horses and chariota. Its boundaries
were fixed by the Sarju, and the Tons, and from Lachman
Kund a jojan to the east and to the west.
In this city was supposed to reside a sanctifying
virtues of extraordinary efficacy. When a man merely
projected a pilgrimage to it, he purchased the salvation of
his ancestors. Every step he took on his way had the
efficacy of an aswa-medha jug. To him, who gave a pilgrim
the road expenses of the journey, was assigned a passport
to heaven with all his sons and grandsons. To him, who
provided a weary pilgrim with conveyance, was promised a
passage to the divine abodes in the chariots of the Gods.
He, who fed a hungry pilgrim, reaped the benefit of many
oblations at Gya and ablutions at Prag, and earned for his
forefathers an eternity of happiness. He who anointed a
pilgrims feed with on, would obtain his desires in both
worlds. The mere sight of Ajudhia absolved from all
trivial sin. To journey to it measuring the way with the
outstretched body was penance, which atoned for the most
heinous crime. The water of the Sarju washed away sin;
obeisance to it removed all worldly trouble. He who lived
4676
in Ajudhia, redeemed his soul from the pains of
transmigration; a residence of a night rehabilitated a man.
Who had been degraded in his caste. Seven holy placed in
India made up the body of Vishnu, and the boastful priest
aver that Ajudhia was the head.
Similarly sacred was the origin of the Sarju. In the
beginning of creation a lotus sprang from the naval of
Narayana, which gave birth to Brahma. Then Brahma
worshipped Narayana, and when he had worshipped fro a
thousand years, Vishnu, gratified by such devotion, blessed
him, with tears of affection in his eyes. The adoring
Brahma caught the dropping tears in the hollow of his
palm, and stored them in a wooden vessel, which he kept
next his heart. Ages after, Manu, the first of the solar race,
was king in Ajudhia. His son Iksawaku was so studious in
his devotions, that the great Brahma, pleased, told him to
ask a boon. Ikshwaku asked for a holy river, and Brahma
gave him the treasured tears of Narayana, which
thenceforward flowed as the Sarju. The bank of his river,
nominally for a distance of 318 yards, bears the name of
Swargdwar, the gate of Heaven. The Purans affirm it to
be the holiest spot on earth. He who dies there passes
straight to heaven, receiving the pardon of the sins of a
thousands births. Even Mahomedans, even animals, birds
and insects, obtain there in death salvation in an eternal
life with the Gods.
In the gate of heaven are seven Hars or
representations of Vishnu, Gupt Har, Chandra Har, Chakra
Har, Vishnu Har, Dharma Har, Belma Har and Pun Har.
4677
Chandra Har was fixed by Vishnu in honour of the
moon, who had at that spot ended her pilgrimage and
offered her prayers. Ho gets himself shaved there, fasts,
bathes, and then visits Chandra Har, has his capital sins
washed away and is secured of heaven. The season of
greatest efficacy is the full moon of Jeth.
The only other important Har is the Dharma Har, but
between the two Hars is Nageshwar, the origin of which
was this:-Kush, the son of Ramchandr was bathing in the
river, Kamudti, the sister of Sakun, a serpent that inhabited
the Sarju, became enamoured of the handsome Kush, and
stole his bracelet for a love-token. The bracelet was one on
which Kush set great value, and when he discovered his
loss on reaching the shore, in his rage he fitted to his bow
an arrow of fire wherewith to dry up the waters of the
offending Sarju. The Sarju fell at his feet for mercy, and
denounced the real culprit. Then Kush muttered an
incantation over the arrow, and discharged it against the
serpent. The serpent with his sister immediately appeared
and restored the ornament, praying for forgiveness. The
serpent was a worshipper of Mahadeo, and the not-
forgetful God appeared at this moment to shield his
servant. He promised Kush he would grant any boon he
asked if the serpent were forgiven, and it was accordingly
ordained at the wish of the patriotic Kush, that the
presence of Mahadeo should henceforth reside on the spot,
and that whoever should bathe at Swargdwar and worship
at Nageshwar, should be satisfied in every wish, and enjoy
the fruits of an efficacious pilgrimage.
4678
Dharma Har to the Sough-east of Nageshwar takes
its name from the God of Virtue and Justice. Dharma
composed here a hymn of such transcendent grandeur that
Mahadeo decreed that the place should stand consecrated
in their joint names, and that whoever should after bathing
in the Sarju, read there this hymn, would be blessed with
riches and the esteem of his fellows. The holy day at
Dharma Har is the 11
th
of the lunar half of the month
Asarh.
Opposite Dharm Har on the river is Janki Ghat,
where they bathe on the 3
rd
of the lunar half of Sawan, and
immediately below this is the Ram-Ghat, where the
Swargdwar ends; all south of this is called Ajudhia Pith.
Behind Ram Ghat is Ram Sabha,where Ram Chandr
is believed to sit enthroned, surrounded by his brothers,
Sought of it is the Dhawan Kund, in which he who bathes
on the 9
th
of the lunar half of Chait, is freed from all pride.
On one occasion Kundani, a saint, had bathed in this pool
and was engaged in prayer, when the wind suddenly blew
his deer-skin mat into the water. To the astonishment of
every one the deer-skin at once assumed the form of a
glorious deity, seated on a magnificent throne, and to Ram
Chandr the deity gave this history. He was at first a Vaisya,
obdurate in his pride of riches and perversely disobedient
to the Veds. But one day he unintentionally did a good
action. He sprinkled water on a Tulshi shrub. For this he
was made a deer, and his skin was given to a pilgrim bound
for Ajudhia, and now the skin on touching the water of the
sacred pond had changed into this heavenly body. The
4679
glorified shape prayed for admittance to heaven, and
straightway passed in a chariot into the regions pf Ram
Chandr, whence there is no returning. It is in this pond,
that Raghunathji, as the pandits say, performs with the
tooth brush.
In the heart of the city lies the great Ram Kot, the fort
of Ram, with its gates guarded by the immortal monkeys
who accompanied him on his return from Ceylon. On its
western side is the Janam Bhum or Janam Asthan, the birth
place of the hero. To visit this on the Ram-Nomi, that
sacred ninth which falls in Chait, delivers the pilgrim from
all the pains of the transmigration of souls. The virtue of
this act is as if the pilgrim had given 1,000 cows, or
performed a thousand times the sacrifices of the Raj Suiji
or Agin-hotra, but the fool, who eats on that day shall go
to hell, where all the vicious are thrown into boiling oil
They say there was once a band of five thieves, who had
been banished from their native country for highway
robbery, adultery, murder of cows and other heinous crime.
These five men spent their days alternately in robbing
pilgrims and in riotous living. A party of pilgrims from
Delhi passed through the forest in which was the den of
these robbers, and the robbers joined them in the guise of
travellers from a far country. But as they neared Ajudhia
the guardian-angels of the holy city, who are stationed to
prevent the entrances of the deliberately wicked, took
visible shape and began to beat the robbers with their
clubs. A sage who lived near by, Asit Muni, hearing their
cries, interfered in their behalf. They were released at his
4680
intercession, and in gratitude they obeyed their preserver's
command to complete the pilgrimage to Ajudhia, and
secure salvation by performing the prescribed ritual. As
they entered the city Ajudhia appeared as a beautiful
goddess, clad in white robes, and attended by her maidens.
The men trembled with fear. On a sudden their sins arose
before them, shrouded in the blue garbs of mourning, of
horrible countenances, red-haired, blear-eyed , mis-
shapen, their iron ornaments clanking like chains. Then the
goddess beat the sins, and they fled out of the city and took
refuge under a pipal tree, and the thieves went on rejoicing
and bathed at Swargdwar, and kept the fast of Nomi, and
worshiped at the birthplace of Rama, and they were
purified from sin, and Yama called Chitra Gupta and
recorder, and their sins were blotted out from the book of
the Judge of the dead. Meanwhile the messengers of Yama
traversing the earth fell in with the sins of the robbers,
standing crying under the pipal tree. On these the
messengers took compassion, and prayed of Yama that the
sins might be re-united to the robbers. But Yama said that
the advantages of bathing at Ajudhia were irrevocable, and
retired to mediate on the banks of the Sarju. Ajudhia was
pleased with the wisdom of Yama, and the place of his
meditation she named Jama Asthal, and appointed a holy
day in his honour on the 2
nd
of Katik, and the sins were
destroyed under the pipal tree.
Just beside the birth-place of Rama is the
Kitchen of Janki-ji. It is the shape like the ordinary
Indian Chulha, and is supposed to be always filled
4681
with food. The sight of it satisfied every want; a daily
visit keeps the house supplied with food. Close to this is
the house of Kaikayi, where Bharat-ji was born. On the
other side is that of Somitra, where Lachhman and
Satrohan were born. South-east of this is the Sita Kup,
the waters of which are said to give intelligence to the
drinker.
Below Hanwant Kund is Sobarna Khar, called Sona-
Khar by the people, from a shower of gold which happened
in this wise. There was once a very learned sage named
Vishwa Mitra, to whose door came one day another sage
called Durbasa. Durbasa said, I am very hungry, give me
some food. Biswa Mitra immediately brought him a hot
porringer of rice and milk, on which Durbasa asked him
courteously to hold it till be came back from bathing.
Having said this Durbasa went home, and Vishwa Mitra
without feeling any passion, stood firm like a pole, with the
vessel in his hand, for a thousand years. At the end of this
period Durbasa returned, found him very happy, ate the
rice and milk, was highly satisfied, and went home praising
him greatly. (he who hears this story, shall be freed from
all his sins, and get salvation. There is not doubt of this)
One Kanto Muni had been in Vishwa Mitra's service all
this time, and Vishwa Mitra taught him fourteen sciences.
Kanto wished his master to ask a fee, but this the sage
twice refused to do, till at last, though patient with more
than the patience of Job, he lost his temper and demanded
fourteen crores of rupees. Kanto despaired of obtaining
this monstrous sum, but he went to Maharaj Ragho, King
4682
of Ajudhia, the greatest man in the world. Now Maharaj
Ragho, after conquering all this foes and amassing a huge
treasure, had at the instance of his wise men, performed the
sacrifice of Vishn-jit, as part of which he distributed all his
wealth among the poor. So complete was his generosity,
that he had reduced himself to the use of dishes of clay. So
when Kanto asked him for fourteen crores, the Raja was at
a loss. He thought to himself, that the tributary Rajas had
already been eased of all their goods, and that further
demands from them would be unavailing, but he told Kanto
to wait a day. In despair he at last appealed to Kober, the
treasurer of the Gods. Kober knew the Raja's
righteousness, and answered the prayer by showering gold
for the space of nearly four hours. From this the Muni took
what he required, and went on his way rejoicing.
South of this are the two pools of Nagriva and
Bibhikan. Also the Jaga Vedi, where Ram Chandr
performed sacrifices, and the Agna Kund or fire-pool. In
the last the sacred day for bathing is the 1
st
of the dark half
of Aghan, and an observance of this festival secures riches
in this world and immortality in the next. Here the Tiloi and
Sarju meet, and the spot of confluence is sacred and of
sanctifying power. Beside it is Asok Batka the garden of
Raghnath Ji, in the middle of which is Sita Kund, a pond
constructed by Sita with her own hands. A bathing festival
takes place there on the 4
th
of the dark half of Aghan. West
of these are Biddia Kund and Bidia Debi, which may be
visited on each ashtami of any mouth.
South of this is the Khajoha or Khanjur Kund, the
4683
bathing in which on Sunday cures all deceases, but
especially the itch. Beside it is the Maniparbat or Mountain
of Jewels, a hillock prepared by Ram Chandr for the
amusement of Janki.
Beyond these is a string of ponds, which however
have no peculiar virtues attached to them, Ganesh Kund,
Dasrath Kund, Kosilya Kund, Somita Kund, Kakayi Kund,
Dubar Kund and Mahabar Kund. The two last are named
of the two brothers, whose offerings of flowers had been of
a sweet smelling savour to Siva. Then come Jogni Kund, so
named from the Jogis, who live there, and Urvashi Kund,
whose water gives beauty. Urvashi was a lovely woman,
whom Indra sent to disturb the devotions of a peculiarly
ascetic sage of the Himalayas. The sage would not be
temped, and on his curse she became ugly. Then he
relented, and by his direction she bathed in this tank,
became beautiful as ever, gave her name to the place, and
ascended to heaven. There is a festival here on the 3
rd
of the
lunar half of Bhadon. Next to it is the Birhaspati Kund, in
which those who bathe avoid the evils, shadowed forth in
their horoscopes. They bathe there on the 5
th
of the lunar
half of Bhadon. Ruk Mani Kund gives children to the
barren and riches to the poor that bathe in it on the 9
th
of
the dark of Katik. Another place which has virtue for the
childless is the neighboring pond of Chhirodak or Chhir
Sagar. Here Dasrathji performed a sacrifice, in answer to
which the God appeared with a golden vessel, containing a
meal of rice and milk. This Dasrath divided into three
parts, and distributed to his wives, Kosilya, Kakayi, and
4684
Somitra. Of these were born Ram, Bharat, and Lachhman
and Satrohan. Then the place was called Chhirodak from
the sacred preparation, the colour of which its waters still
retain. The bathing there is on the 11
th
of the Lunar half of
Kuar.
To the west again near Birhaspati Kund is
Dhamjaksh or Dhanaicha (place of treasure). The King of
Ajudhia, Hari Chandr, had placed there a vast treasure
under the care of Yaksh. The only reward for this fidelity
that the Yaksh asked was that his body might no longer give
forth foul odours under the curse of Kober, whose
rosewater he had pilfered. Hence it is the bestower of
beauty, wisdom, and above all of perfume. Its holy day is
on the 4
th
of the dark half of every month.
Close to the river is the shrine of Vishn Hari, sacred
to the memory of Vishn Sharma, a famour recluse, and
pools of Chakr Tirth, Basisht Kund, Sagar Kund and
Brahim Kund. Beyond these are the Rin-Mochan which
liberates from all manner of debt or obligation, and Pap-
Mochan which cleanses from all sort of sin. Then comes
the Lachchman Kund, the holy spot opened by Shesh ji for
the descent of Lachhman when summoned from earth by
death. Those who bathe and worship there go to heaven. To
bathe there on the 5
th
of lunar half of Sawan frees from the
fear of serpents. One who bathes there throughout the
month of Baisakh will live for millions of ages in the
regions of the Gods.
South of Bidya Kund is Vetarni, from bathing in
which one escapes the Judgement of yama. Beside it is
4685
Suraj Kund or Goshark, the water of which heals wounds
and purifies from leprosy. It is especially efficacious on
Sunday, appropriately enough, and on certain other fixed
occasions. It takes its name from Gosh, a king of the Solar
race, who rested there in hunting one day, and whose
wounded hand was cured whenever he put it in to draw
water. The sun was pleased with his grateful praise and
gave his name to the tank. West of it are Rut Kund, the
giver of beauty, and Kam Kund, the giver of happiness,
Mantreshwa Kund, Sitala Devi, where prayers are offered
on Mondays for-delivery from small pox, Bandi Devi,
where on Tuesdays those in prison are prayed for; and
Chhutki Devi, in which one attains all his desires by
snapping his fingers on the 14
th
day of any month.
To the west of these are Gupta Hari, where Vishnu in
secret did his devotions, and Chakra Hari, where hari
dropped his discus. North of Gupt-Hari is Gopirtar, a spot
of peculiar holiness, as that in which Ram Chandr left
earth for paradise. The chronicles say that Ram Chandr
having found his duties on earth accomplished, prepared
to depart to his celestial home. He performed the usual
ceremonies, took a farewell of his ministers, and then
passed out of the city, like the moon rising from the sea. As
he went out, Lachhmi and Saraswati issued from his arms,
commissioned to spread wealth and wisdom amongst the
mortals of this world. With him went in a body his loving
subjects, clothed in clean garments, with pure hearts
sorrowing. The Gods saw and were moved. They came
gently through the air in their chariots and as they
4686
descended, flowers fell in peaceful showers on the vast
procession. Then said Brahma the supreme Divinity,
Leave the visible body, and join us, four brothers. And
Ram Chandr passed into heaven in the company of the
Gods, and the people returned to their homes, and the
place is holy to this day, and he who bathes and worships
there, becomes sinless and glorious, whatever his previous
life. The name of the place is Gopirtar, that which carries
across a river, for one is transported there from the shores
of earth to those of heaven. Pilgrimages are made there on
the 15
th
of Katik and Kuar.
In the neighborhood of Suraj Kund, are several holy
ponds of no special note, Durga Kund, narsram,
Narayana-gram, Tripurari Mahadeo, Bilwa Hari, a shrine
for refuge from poverty, debt, and misfortune; Valmik Tirth
named after a sage, whose pale and motionless body
became enveloped in an ant-hill; the house of Singhi Rikh,
the husband of Ramchandr's sister; Panhari, Bharat Kund,
Nandi Gram, the residence of Bharat; Kalka Kund, Jata
Kund, where Ramchandr and his companions were shaved
on their return from their conquests Ajit Vishnu, Satrohan
Kund, Gyakup, Pishach Mochan, which has a charm
against ghosts; Manus or Puni-Nibas.
And these are the chief of the holy places of Ajudhia
of which there is a fresh one to visit, they say, for every day
of the solar years.
4263. "Gazetteer of Oudh" by Mr. W.C. Benett, C.S.,
Assistant Commissioner (1877) (Book No. 11). Any other detail
of the said Gentleman is not contained in the book. Copy of
4687
pages No.6 and 7 of the aforesaid Gazetteer have been filed as
Papers No.107C1/25-26 i.e. Ex.7, Suit-5 (Register Vol.20 Page
51-53). He has mentioned about Ajodhya from page 2 to 14 of
the book. It appears that the details of the Ajodhya mentioned in
the said Gazetteer has been written by P. Carnegy, Esq.,
Commissioner and the relevant extract thereof is as under:
"AJODHYA--(Ajodhya)--Pargana HAWELI OUDH--
Tahsil FYZABAD--District FYZABAD.--A town in the
district of Fyzabad, and adjoining the city of that name, is
to the Hindu what Mecca is to the Muhammadans,
Jerusalem to the Jews; it has in the traditions of the
orthodox a highly mythical origin, being founded for
additional security, not on the transitory earth, but on the
chariot wheet of the Great Creator himself. It lies 26* 47'
north latitude and 82* 15' east longitude, on the banks of
the Gogra. The name Ajodhya is explained by well-known
local pandits to be derived from the Sanskrit words--ajud,
unvanquished; also Aj, a name of Brahma,--'The
unconquerable city of the creator.' But Ajodhya is also
called Oudh, which in Sanskrit means a promise; in
allusion, it is said, to the promise made by Ram Chandar
when he went in exile, to return at the end of fourteen
years. These are the local derivations; I am not prepared to
what extent they may be accepted as correct. Dr. Wilson of
Bombay thinks the word is taken from yudh, to fight, 'The
city of the fighting Chhattris.'
Area.--The ancient city of Ajodhya is said to have
covered an area of 12 jojan or 48 kos, and to have been the
capital of Uttar-Kausala or Kosala (the northern treasure),
4688
the country of the Surajbans race of kings, of whom Ram
Chandar was fifty-seventh in descent from Raja Manu,
and of which line Raja Sumintra was the one hundred and
thirteenth and last. They are said to have reigned through
the Satya, Treta, and Dwapar yugs, and two thousand years
of the Kali or present yug or era.
With the fall of the last of Rama's line, Ajodhya
became a wilderness, and the royal races became
dispersed. From different members of this scattered people,
the rajas of Jaipur, Udaipur, Jamber, &c., of modern times,
on the authority of the "Tirhut Katha," claimed to descend.
Even in the days of its desertion, Ajodhya is said still to
have remained a comparative paradise; for the jungle by
which it was overrun was the sweet-smelling Keora, a
plant which to this day flourishes with unusual
luxuriance in the neighbourhood.
Then came the Buddhist supremacy under Asoka and
his successor; a Brahmanical revival then supervened.
With this period the name of Bikramajit is traditionally and
intimately associated, when Buddhism again began to give
place to Brahmanism.
To Bikramajit the restoration of the neglected and
forest-concealed Ajodhya is universally attributed. His
main clue in tracing the ancient city was, of course, the
holy river Sarju, and his next was the shrine, still known as
Nageshwar-nath, which is dedicated to Mahadeo, and
which presumably escaped the devastations of the Buddhist
and Atheist periods. With these elues and aided by
descriptions which he found recorded in ancient
4689
manuscripts, the different spots rendered sacred by
association with the worldly acts of the deified Rama
were identified, and Bikramajit is said to have indicated
the different shrines to which pilgrims from afar still in
thousands half-yearly flock." (emphasis added)
4264. About Janamsthan/Babar's Mosque, Benett has
mentioned the facts virtually consistent to what has been
observed by P. Karnegy and paragraphs 6 and 7 thereof we have
already reproduced while discussing the issues relating to date
of construction of the disputed building. However, since this is
also relevant for these very issues, at the pain of repetition, we
reproduce the same also as under:
"The Janamasthan and other temples.--It is locally
affirmed that at the Muhammadan conquest there were
three important Hindu shrines, with but few devotees
attached, at Ajodhya, which was then little other than a
wilderness. These were the "Janamasthan," the
"Swargaddwar mandir" also known as "Ram Darbar,"
"Treta-ke-Thakur."
On the first of these the Emperor Babar built the
mosque, which still bears his name, A.D. 1528. On the
second, Aurangzeb did the same, A.D. 1658 to 1707; and
on the third, that sovereign or his predecessors built a
mosque, according to the well-known Muhammadan
principle of enforcing their religion on all those whom they
conquered.
The Janamasthan marks the place where Ram
Chandar was born. The Swargaddwar is the gate through
which he passed into paradise, possibly the spot where his
4690
body was burned. The Treta-Ke-Thakur was famous as the
place where Rama performed a great sacrifice, and which
he commemorated by setting up there images of himself
and Sita.
Babar's mosque.--According to Leyden's Memoirs of
Babar, that Emperor encamped at the junction of the Serwa
and Gogra rivers two or three kos east from Ajodhya, on
the 28th March 1528, and there he halted seven or eight
days, settling the surrounding country. A well-known
hunting ground is spoken of in that work, seven or eight kos
above Oudh, on the banks of the Sarju. It is remarkable
that in all the copies of Babar's life now known, the
pages that relate to his doings at Ajodhya are wanting.
In two places in the Babari Mosque, the year in which it
was built, 935 H., corresponding with 1528 A.D., is
carved in stone, along with inscriptions dedicated to the
glory of that Emperor.
If Ajodhya was then little other than a wilderness, it
must at least have possessed a fine temple in the
Janamasthan; for many of its columns are still in
existence and in good preservation, having been used by
the Musalmans in the construction of the Babari
Mosque. These are of strong, close-grained, dark-colored
or black stone, called by the natives kasauti (literally
touch-stone slate,) and carved with different devices. To my
thinking these more strongly resemble Buddhist pillars than
those I have seen at Benares and elsewhere. They are from
seven to eight feet long, square at the base, centre and
capital, and round or octagonal intermediately." (emphasis
4691
added)
4265. In respect to Hindu and Muslims relationship in
Ayodhya on page 7 of the book it says as under:
"Hindu and Musalman.--The Janamasthan is within
a few hundred paces of the Hanoman Garhi. In 1855, when
a great rupture took place between the Hindus and
Muhammadans, the former occupied the Hanoman Garhi
in force, while the Musalmans took possession of the
Janamasthan. The Muhammadans on that occasion
actually charged up the steps of the Hanoman Garhi, but
were driven back with considerable loss. The Hindus then
followed up this success, and at the third attempt took
the Janamasthan, at the gate of which seventy-five
Muhammadans are buried in the "martyrs' grave"
(Ganj-i-Shahidan.) Eleven Hindus were killed. Several
of the king's regiments were looking on all the time, but
their orders were not to interfere. It is said that up to that
time the Hindus and Muhammadans alike used to
worship in the mosque-temple. Since British rule a railing
has been put up to prevent disputes, within which, in the
mosque, the Muhammadans pray; while outside the
fence the Hindus have raised a platform on which they
make their offerings. A second attempt was made shortly
afterwards by Molvi Amir Ali of Amethi; the object was to
seize the alleged site of an old mosque on the Hanoman
Garhi.
The two other old mosques to which allusion has
been made (known by the common people by the name of
Naurang Shah, by whom they mean Aurangzeb) are now
4692
mere picturesque ruins. Nothing has been done by the
Hindus to restore the old mandir of Ram Darbar. The
Treta-Ke-Thakur was reproduced near the old ruin by the
Raja of Kalu, whose estate is said to be in the Panjab, more
than two centuries ago; and it was improved upon
afterwards by Aholya Bai, Marathin, who also built the
adjoining ghat, A.D. 1784. She was the widow of Jaswant
Rae, Holkar of Indor, from which family Rs. 231 are still
annually received at this shrine." (emphasis added)
4266. Then comes A.F. Millitt's "Report on Settlement of
Land Revenue of the Faizabad" (supra) published in 1880,
Several pages, namely, 104, 106, 110 and 230 were placed
before us but when confronted that the facts about Ayodhya
Janamsthan/Babar's Mosque etc. contained in Millet's report
(supra) are virtually verbatim reproduction from P. Carnegy'
Historical Sketch, none could dispute the same. Copies of the
frontispiece as well as page No.218, 231, 235 and 236 have
been filed as Paper No.107C1/27-30A i.e. Ex.8, Suit-5 (Register
Vol.20 Pages 55-62).
4267. However, some relevant part of the report, we feel
appropriate to refer hereat. Chapter I, Section 1, Part 2 shows
that the district Fyzabad was constituted in the form in 1880 as
it was in 1869. About the river, Chapter I, Section 1, para 8 says
as under:
8. The Gogra is the great river of Oudh, It flows
south-east, and has a fall of 67 feet between Ajudhya and
where it leaves the province, the surface of the water being
at those places respectively 302 and 235 feet above the
level of the sea. Brahmanic lore relates how it had a sacred
4693
origin in the holy tears of Brahma. More prosaic accounts
say that it takes its rise in the upper ranges of the
Himalyas. Further west it is known by other names, but it
commences to be called the Gogra (or Ghagra ) at
Bahramghat, and continues to bear that name throughout
this portion of its course, though it is not uncommonly
spoken of by the people as the Sarju- a name which it
appears to have borne in the seventh century, and which is
also applied to it in the Ramayana."
4268. About the Hindu population the details are given in
Chapter I, Section 4, para 76 at page 30 and it says that "the
Bairagi and Goshain require notice as holding a prominent place
in the population of Ajudhya, though they do not together amount
to 1 per cent. of that of the district."
4269. In respect to tenures he has given certain strange
facts in para 185, Section VI, Chapter 1 at page 66 which reads
as under:
185. The origin of property in this district, as
traditionally stated, was therefore in essentials and , as a
rule, by usurpation. The lands of conquered country were
parcelled out among the conquerors. Lands, formerly in the
occupation of the conquered, were usurped; lands formerly
in the possession of no one, were eventually occupied; and
the title in either case was often confirmed by a formal
grant. On the part of the ruling power to its conquering
subjects. The families of the original owners, thus
acquiring by usurpation or occupation with or without the
imperial sanction, have in the process of centuries been
mainly displaced by others. They have been bought out, or
4694
they have been transferred their possessions by gift, or they
have been driven out by force, or they have been displaced
by an imperial confiscation; or they have died out and their
property has lapsed to the State, which again may have
conferred a fresh title. And in this manner have sprung up
the various tenures which it is my duty to describe.
4270. About the general history and aborigines he has
given his comments in Chapter II, Section I, and paras 270 and
271 (Part 1) and 274, 275, 276, 277, 279, 280, 281, 282 and 283
(Part-2) he has said as under:
270. Once upon a time the Bhars held sway. This is
the starting- point in the annals of the aborigines of nearly
every Chattri clan, and hence apparently has arisen the
assumption that the Bhars were the aborigines of the
district. They seem, however, to belong to a much more
recent places in its history (para 308).
271. The Pandits of Ajudhya, again divide the
human race into fourteen original sections, of which eight
are said to have been indigenous to Hindustan, and six to
have inhabited countries beyond its limits. As this
arrangement professes to be based partly on the Shastras,
it may be expected that it coincides pretty closely with what
it is to be found in Manu. The two lists run as folloes:-
Pandit Manu
Punderik, Hirat Pundrakas,
Khas, Kamboh. Odras, Draviras,
Udar, Darwar. Kamhojas,
Yavanas,
Haihai, Chin Sakas, Paradas,
4695
Shak, Pahlav, Parad, Darad. Pahlavas, Chinas,
Taljangh, Barbar Kiratas, Deradas,
and Chasas.
274. It was, it is supposed, about the time that
Abraham, leaving Ur of the Chaldees, went to sojoun in the
land which was in after generations to be the inheritance of
the Jewish races, that another movement took place in
Upper India, the result of which was to establish in Oudh
the people were to rule it for many centuries. And in whom
even now the ownership of the land of the province is
generally vested. Nor, it may be noticed as a curious
coincidence, was there only this apparent identity of dates
in the two movements, for Ikhasvaku, or Iehwak, the Aryan,
the founder of the Hindu kingdom of Oudh, was namesake
or very nearly so, of Ishbak, one of the children of the
Jewish patriarch.
275. The Hindus were one of the numerous branches
of the now widespread Aryan race, by whom the
aborigines, whoever they were, were in this part of India
reduced to complete subjection. On this point complete
unanimity of opinion exists, but in what relation the
conquerors and the conquered stood to each other
ethnologically is still a vextia questio."
276. Elphinstone suggests that the Hindus were,
perhaps; a local tribe like the Dorians in Greece; or even
nothing more than a portion of one of the native states : a
religious sect, for instance, which had outstripped their
fellow citizens in knowledge and appropriated all the
advantages of the society to themselves. There is no reason
4696
whatever, he says, for thinking that the Hindus ever
inhabited any country but their own; and if he admits the
possibility of their having done so, it is only before the
earliest trace of their records or traditions. Nor is the
theory of community of origin for the Hindus and
autochthones altogether foreign to Hindu mythology. Beni
or Vena. Son of Ang, ruler of Ajudhya, one of many
unfortunates of the same kind, is said to have fallen a
victim to the anger of the Brahmans. He died childless, but
his corpse, after the fashion of the ashes of the phoenix,
gave birth to two sons, Nishada or Nekhad, sprung from his
thigh, and Prithu from his right hand. Nekhad became the
ancestor of the aborigines, and Prithu of the Solar race.
277. A more recent author, on the other hand, in strong
contrast with the above, writes that our earliest glimpses
of the human family disclose two tribes of widely different
origin! Struggling for the mastery. In the primitive time,
which lies even on the hrizon of inductive history, a tall,
fair-complexioned race passed the Himalayas. They came
of a conquering stock. They brought with them a store of
legends and devotionals strains. And again, the
philologer can only assert that a branch of a noble stock
won for themselves a home among numerous but inferior
tribes, and that before the dawn of history the children of
the soil had been reduced to villeinage or driven back into
the forest.
279. Manu particularizes three portions of Aryavatta,
viz. Brahmavartta, Brahmarshi, and Madhyadesa, and
invests them with degrees of sancitty inversely
4697
proportioned to their distance from the Saraswati : and
Elphinstone assumes that this classification involves the
history of the extension of the Aryan occupation. On this
hypothesis, as that country which lies between Himavat
and Vindhya, to the east of Vinasana, and to the west of
Pryagn, is selebrated by the title of Madhyandesa, or the
Central Region, it follows that it was not until their third
great onward movement that the Aryans reached Eastern
Oudh.
280. In what character they first appeared cannot be
stated with certainty. The usual opinion is that there came
at once a colony or army numbering in its ranks all the
social elements contained in the community of which it was
an offshoot; but it has also been suggested that the main
body was preceded by the analogue of the Jesuit and
settler, and that proselytizing Brahmans, urged by zeal for
the propagation of the Vaidik faith, were the first wave of a
flood tide of immigration, followed closely by a second
composed of those who were actuated by still peaceful but
less unselfish motives- the auri sacra fames, and this view
is not without support. In the tradition, it is based on, it is
said that it was in compliance with the solicitations. Of
oppressed Brahmans that the Solar race first approached
Ajudhya; and in the Mahabharata we find that it was with
Brahmans (and no other caste is mentioned as being with
them) that the Pandavas sojourned during their visits to
Varanavata and Ekachara. In the latter of those placs, too,
and Asura, not a Kshattriya, king was reigning ; and
Wheeler confidently broaches the theory that, at that
4698
period, there were no Aryan principalities so far east even
as the former.
281. In whatever character they first came it seems
that it was with Ikhashvaku as their leader they established
themselves as a dominant race at Ajudhya,and that
Ikhasyaku was the first of the long line Solar kings who had
their capital at that place.
282. Respecting the extent of Ikhasvaku's dominion it
is permissible to hazard a conjecture. His capital lay on the
extreme east of the Middle Land, and was apparently,
therefore, a border city; his western frontier touched
Brahmarshi, in which Kanauj was included, whence we
may infer that, in that direction, he reigned as far as the left
bank of the Ganges; and as pryag was in the Middle Land,
that river may also have formed his southern boundary.
From this is follows that from the period of its earliest
establishment, the Aryan kingdom of Ajudhya included the
whole of the territory now known as Fyzabad.
283. In Oudh. In common with other portions of he
Middle land, it was that,in after days,the Brahmanic system
was to reach its full development, an end, perhaps, in no
slight measure furthered by the efforts of an hierarchy at
Ajudhya. In the Middle Land, says Dr. Hunter, the
simple faith of the singers was first adorned with stately
rites and then extinguished beneath them. It beheld the race
progress from a loose confederacy of patriarchal
communities into several well knit nations, each secured by
a strong central force, but disfigured by distinctions of
caste destined in the end to be the ruin of the Sanskrit
4699
people. The compilers of the land law recorded in the Book
of Manu, if not actual residents of the Middle Land, were
so closely identified with it as to look upon it as the focus of
their race; and says the same author, the civilization
which is popularly supposed to have been the civilization of
ancient India, which is represented by the Brahmanas and
Book of Manu, was in its integrity confined to the northern
country termed by Manu the Middle Land. Following,
then, the boundaries assigned by Manu to the Middle Land,
and bearing in mind the vigorous growth to which
Brahmanism there attained , I am led to the conclusion
that,almost coincident with the present eastern boundary of
Oudh, with Pryag and Ajudhya, under whatever names,as
border cities, there long existed and ethnic frontier as
sharply defined as that which Dr. Hunter so graphically
describes as having subsequently formed the utmost limit of
Aryan encroachment in Bengal. In one respect indifference
between the two contiguous but antagonistic races in the
former case than in the later; for, in proportion, it may be
assumed , to the degree of development of Brahmanism,
was the bitterness of hatred it bestowed on its opponents;
and, so far as the formation of the national character is to
be sought in historical events, to the fierce shock of
jarring contrastswhich the Aryans of the eastern border of
the Middle Land had to sustain, may perhaps be in part
attributed that warlike disposition by which their
descendant still continue to be characterised.
4271. About Lord Rama he has dealt in para 286 at page
100 Chapter-II, Section-I, Part 2) as under:
4700
286. Following the same scale of chronology as
adopted for Ikhahvaku, Rama,who held the two fold
office of king and prophet,must be placed a bout the time
of Solomon, and it is universally agreed that in him we
have a character who deserves a place in history; who
actually once existed in the flesh,which (says his
worshippers) was incarnation of the deity; who was beyond
a doubt the most powerful sovereign of the age in which he
lived ;who first led an Aryan army into Southern India and
Ceylon, and more important than all these together, from
the point of view of local history, raised Ajudhya to that
pitch of splendour for which it has ever since been famous.
His kingdom, mightier even than Ikhshvaku's or
Sravastav's, stretched north and south from the Himalayas
to the Ganges, and east and west from the Gandak to
Nimkhar."
4272. He has dealt with Vikramaditya also from paras 291
to 297 (Chapter-II, Section-I, Part 3) and has recorded his
conclusion in para 297 at page 105 as under:
297. Vikramaditya was an usurper; at least I have
never heard it asserted that he was the rightful owner of
Ajudhya. As a preliminary, then, to his restoration of that
city, it was indispensable for him to acquire possession of
it; and it cannot be supposed that the Buddhist princes
tamely acquiesced in his appropriation of it, and yielded
without a blow. The picture that presents itself to the mind's
eye is that of Ajudhya and its vicinity the theatre of
religious war; and I think we may discern therein the
beginning, in Eastern India, of those sanguinary and
4701
devastating wars which attended the revival of
Brahmanism and its struggles with the creed of Buddha.
4273. His further details about Ayodhya are mainly based
on the reports of P. Carnegy and General Cunningham and,
therefore, need not be repeated but about the Mohomedan
conquest of Ayodhya he has given details from paras 310 to 339
(Chapter-II, Section-I, Part-4). Some relevant paras, i.e., 310,
311, 312, 313, 314, 315. 316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 324, 331, 337
and 339 are as under:
310. From the time of Mahmud of Ghazni dates the
commencement of the Mahomedan period- the period, that
is, of Mahomedand demination. But this is not the full
extent of the social changes which the Ghaznavid and his
successors brought about. I have attributed the beginning
of the work of Kshattriya colonization to Vikramaditya, but
this is far from saying he effected its completion. It
progressed by very slow degrees until the Hindu kingdoms
of the west of India were thrown into confusion by the
attacks of the Musulman invaders; and it then received a
stimulus under the influence of which it continued to go on
steadily for the next five centuries. Almost all Rajput
colonies in oudh, says Mr. C. A. Elliott, will be found to
belong to one of two great classes; and to owe their present
position to the Mahomedan conquest, either indirectly,
having been induced to leave their homes and to seek for
liberty elsewhere by the loss of their ancestral
independence, or else directly, having settled where we now
find them as subjects, servants or grantees of the Delhi
Court...... The former class dates between 1200 A. D.
4702
and 1450 A.D. The latter from 1450 A. D. to 1700 A.D.
From Babar to Alamgir. In point of date, at least, all the
Kshattriyas of this district belong to the former of these two
classes. Their history will be separately given in the second
section of this chapter."
311. The earliest Mahmedan invasion of this part of
Oudh is locally believed to have occurred as far back as
the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, under the leadership of
Salar Masud Ghazi, Popularly known as Sayyid Salar the
nephew of that prince: and, notwithstanding the silence on
the subject of the early historians whose works are still
extant, such was not improbably the case. The Mirat-ul-
Asrar and the Mirat-i-Masudi, which give detailed
accounts of the expedition, though admittedly modern
composition profess, it must be remembered, to follow a
now lost work of and author who was contemporary with
the events and persons be described. Some weight must be
attached also to the fact that the most prominent place in
the pedigrees of numerous Mahomedan Families in various
parts of Eastern Oudh, and in the Allahabad district also,
is assigned to those who are said to have come to this
country in the time of Sultan Mahmud; many of the Oudh
families asserting that their ancestors actually
accompanied Salar Masud.
312. Mahmud himself, moreover, is said to have twice
(A.H 410 and A.H. 413) penetrated as far east as Benares,
having on the first of these occasions made a few converts
to the faith. A similar limit is also said to have been
reached a few years afterwards by Ahmad Nailtigin, a
4703
natural son, it is supposed, of Mahmud, who, crossing the
river Ganges, at what point is not stated,marched down the
left bank until he arrived unexpectedly at Benares.
313. From these two instances it is apparent that
either in or close upon the time of Mahmud, the
Mahomedan arms had been carried further east than
Oudh; and in after days, the main road from Delhi to
Bengal, crossing the Ganges at some ford not far west of
the present city of Farukhabad, ran through Jaunpur and
Benares. It is likely enough, therefore, that this was the
route followed by Mahmud, if not by his son also, in which
case they must have traversed a portion of this province.
Under these circumstances, it is quite within the bounds of
possibility that Mahmud's nephew, Salar Masud, also led
and expedition in the same direction; if not absolutely the
first to do so, he was probably the first to make any
conquests there.
314. Salar Masud, having incurred the bitter enmity of
Mahmud's Wazir, whom Mahmud at the time deemed it
prudent to conciliate, was told by his uncle that he must
submit to a temporary absence from the court of Ghazni.
He accordingly requested and obtained permission to make
and expedition into Hindustan, promising that he would
wrest from the pagans the kingdoms then in heir possession
and cause the khutba to read threin in the Sultans name,
Having collected and army of 1, 100,000 men, he set out on
his journey, and, after various exploits, reached Kanauj
and pitched his tents for a while on the banks of the river
Ganges from this he marched to Satrikh, and , fixing his
4704
head-quarters there, sent out armies on every side to
conquer the surrounding country: Salar Saif-ud-din and
Miyan Rajab were despatched against Bahraich, other
against Mahona, others against Gopamau, and others
against Benares and its neighbourhood.
315. One day ambassadors arrived at Satrikh bearing
this message from the Rais of Manikpur and Karrah:-
This kingdom has belonged to us and to our fathers from
time immemorial. No. Musulman has ever dwelt here. Our
Annals relate that the Emperor Zu-I-Karnain made and
expedition against this country and reached Kannauj; and
returned without having crossed the Ganges. Sultan
Mahmud also with your father, came as far as Ajmir,
Guzerat, and Kanauj, but spared our country ... You had
better take the prudent course of retiring.
316. Now it chanced that, about this time, Salar
Sahu, Father of Salar Masu, arrived at Satrikh; and letters
having been intercepted which showed that the princes
whose threatening embassy has just been mentioned were
endeavouring to effect and alliance with those of Bahraich
against their common foe, he set out without delay against
them; and dividing his army into two bodies, sent one
against Karrah and the other against Manikpur. Both of
those places were reduced and Salar Sahu returned in
triumph to Satrikh, leaving Malik Abd-ullah in the
neighbourhood of Karaah, and Mir Kutab Haidar at
Manikpur.
317. During this period it probably was that the first
mahomedan armies reached this district, but no
4705
Mahomedan colonies were planted in it."
318. Ajudhya, in spite of the expeditions sent from
Satrikh against Benares and other places to he east,
appears, for some unexplained reason, to have escaped the
fate of its neighbours. It seems more plausible to look for
the conqueror of Ajudhya among the lieutenants, perhaps
relations also, of a later prince, Shahab-ud-din, better
known as Muhammad Ghori. Shashab-ud-din, after
defeating Jaya Chandra of Kanauj, with that keen attention
to reaping substantial results from his victory which he
usually displayed set off to plunder the treasury of his late
enemy at Asni; he thus arrived on the right bank of Ganges,
at a spot where that river now forms the boundary of Oudh,
and after his departure thence marched on to attack
Benares. The route he then pursued is not related, but it is
at least incontrovertible that he had to cross over to the
Oudh side of the river before he reached his destination.
Now, the story about the town of Sultanpur is that its captor
was a Ghori. Ajudhya contains a tomb of Makhdum
Shah. Juran Ghori, a lieutenants, it is alleged to Shahab-
ud-din Ghori and coins belongings to the Ghori dynasty
have been found near both of those places. Jaunpur also,
with Benares, fell finally under the sceptre of the
Musalman when Shahab-ud-din defeated Jaya Chandra
nor, though on the return of the Sultan to Ghazni, his
lieutenants, Kutb-ud-din fixed his courts for sometime at
Asni are any further hostilities asserted to have then taken
place. Kutb-ud-din, was principally employed in receiving
the homage of the rais and chief whose power had been
4706
already broken. It seems to follow,then that the overthrow
of all such fortified posts in South-Eastern Oudh as
declined to admit that their own subjection was involved in
that of Kanauj ( of which, as has been seen, they were
dependencies) is to be attributed to the period of Shahab-
ud-din's progress from Asni to Benares, or that of his
homeward march."
322. The following is a list of several persons who up
to that time appear to to have been Governors of Oudh,
though it does not pretend to contain the names of all who
held the office:-
1 Malik Shah Makhdum Juran Ghori About A.D. 1192
2 Malik Hisan-ud-din Ughlabak About A.D.1194
3 Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji About A.D.1202
4 Kaimaz Rumi, sent from Oudh towards Lakhnauti by
Kutb- ud-din. before About A.D.1210
5 Nasir-ud-din, elder son of Shamsh-u-din
About A.D.1226
6 Nasir-ud-din, son of Mahud, having collected an
army in Hindustan, marched from Oudh to Lakhnauti
1227
7 Nasir-ud-din Tabashi Muizzi. About 1236
8 Kamr-ud-din about 1242
9 Qazi Jalal-ud-din 1243
10 Malik Taj-ud-din Siwistani (subordinate to Katlagi
Khan) 1255
11 Katlag Khan 1256
(In connection with this period occurs mention of the
Chief of Oudh among the Chiefs of Hind)
4707
12 Arslan Khan Sanjar meditates revolt in Oudh 1259
13 Amir Khan Abtagin 1279
14 A nameless Khan of Oudh, perhaps the same as the
next 1286
15 Khan-i-Jahan 1286
16 Malik Ali 1293
17 Ala-ud-din 1293
18 Malik Ala-ul-Mulk 1296
19 Malik Tigin 1321
20 Ain-ul-Mulk. 1340
323. The Oudh here alluded to, it must at the same
time be remarked, was very much smaller in extent than
either the kingdom of Ram Chandra had been in early
ages, or than the Subah to which it subsequently gave a
name; for contemporary with the Qazi Jalal-ud-din above
named, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, afterwards emperor, held
the northern portion of the provinces, which constituted the
separate district of Bahraich, and in the opposite direction
where Oudh marches with Manikpur, their mutual
boundary line most likely cut across the south western
corner of the Sultanpur district excluding a large tract from
Oudh, and placing it in Manikpur, while Akbarpur and all
the territory to the east of it probably lay in the government
of Jaunpur ( or Zafrabad).
324. Up to shortly before the establishment of the
Sharqi kingdom, the jurisdiction of the governor of Jaunpur
had been limited to 'Jaunpur and Zafrabad,' with such
provinces to the eastward as were held neither by petty
chiefs nor the lords of Lakhnauti; but, when in A.D. 1394,
4708
Mahmud Toghlak deputed his Wazir Khwaja Jehan to that
important charge, he invested him with the newly created
title of Malik-us-shirq, and at the same time extended his
authority over the lover Doab and the provinces on the left
bank of the Ganges When, therefore,later on in the same
year, Khwaja Jehan, throwing off his allegiance to Delhi,
assumed the emblems of royalty, Ajudya, and indeed the
whole of Oudh, was in included in his kingdom.
331. Akbar, as is well known, divided his empire into
subabs or provinces, sarkars or divisions, and mahals or
pargana. The name of Oudh, now came to bear a triple
meaning; in the widest sense it was a subah, in its
narrowest a mahal The subah of Oudh, says Abul Fazl's
translator, in situated in the second climate. The length
from Sarkar Gorakhpur to Kanauj includes 135 kos, and
the breadth from the northern mountains of Seddehpur to
the Subah of Allahabad comprises 115 kos. To the east it
has Bahar; on the north lie mountains; Manikpur bounds
it on the south and Kanauj on the west. With respect to its
internal constitution, it consisted of five sarkars, Oudh,
Lucknow, Khairabad, Bahraich, and Gorakhpur, which
collectively comprised 134 mahals.
337. Here, for the third time in its history, Ajudhya;
found a political and religious landmark, of the west the
emblem was the crescent of th east the cross. The masses of
the people, indeed, in both directions were of the same
persuasion: Brahmanism with them still reigned supreme.
The distinction lay between the governing races, not the
governed on the west lay the kingdom of the Mahomedan
4709
and Asiatic, the vasal of the emperor of Delhi; on the east
lay the possessions of the christian and European, subject
to the Presidency of Bengal.
339. Subjoined is a list of the Nazims of Sultanpur
from the date of the institution of the office until the
annexation of the province:-
1. Mirza Satar Beg 1793 to 1793
2. Sita Pershad 1793 to 1800
3. Raja Niwaz Shah 1801 to 1802
4. Mirza Jani 1803 to 1805
5. Raja Jugal Kishor 1806 to 1805
6. Raja Niwaz Shah 1806 to 1807
7. Fazl Ali Khan 1808 to 1810
8. Mir Khuda Baksh 1811 to 1811
9. Mir Ghulam Husen 1812 to 1812
10. Ikram Mubammad Khan 1812 to 1814
11. Mir Ghulam Husen 1815 to 1817
12. Taj-ud-din Husen Khan 1818 to 1823
13. Raju Darshan singh 1824 to 1827
14. Mehndi Khan 1828 to 1827
15. Mirza Abu-ulla Beg 1835 to 1835
16. Kuth-ud-din Husen Khan 1836 to 1836
17. Raja Darshan Singh 1837 to 1838
18. Mirza Saffshikan Khan 1838 to 1839
19. Atah-ulluh Beg 1840 to 1840
20. Sheik Husen Bakhas 1841 to 1841
21. Wajid Ali Khan 1842 to 1842
22. Taj-ud-din Husen Khan 1843 to 1843
23. Raja Incha Singh 1843 to 1845
4710
24. Kutb-ud-din Husen Khan 1845 to 1845
25. Raja Man Singh 1845 to1847
26. Wajid Ali Khan 1848 to 1849
27. Agha Ali Khan 1850 to 1856"
4274. Further regarding Ayodhya he has given details of
city etc. from paras 611 to 628 (Chapter-II, Section-II). About
the place of special interest i.e., Hanumangarhi mention is made
in para 653 (Chapter-II, Section-II). About various Akharas
including Nirmohi Akhara details are given in paras 656 to 665
(Chapter-II, Section-II). About the Janamasthan and other
temples and Hindu shrines details are given in paras 666 to 669.
We, however, find that these are virtually verbatim reproduction
of P. Carnegy's report and, therefore, do not propose to mention
the same in extensio. In para 618 (Chapter-II, Section-II) it gives
the details of Ram Kot area, i.e., its extension etc. and,
therefore, it may be reproduced as under:
618. Ramkot- The most remarkable of those was of
course Ramkot, the strong hold of Ramchandar. This fort
covered a large extent of ground, and, according to ancient
manuscripts, it was surrounded by 20 bastion, each of
which was commanded by one of Rama's famous general,
after whom they took the names by which they are still
known. Within the fort were eight royal mansions where
dwelt the patriarch Das rath, his wives and Ram his deified
son.................
1. Hanuman Garhi 11. Kuteswar.
2. Sagreon 12. Labidh Bawan
3. Ungad 13. Mayand
4. Dibadh 14. Rakbach
4711
5. Na! 15. Surumbha
6. Nil 16. Bibhi Khan
7.Sukhen 17. Pindark
8. Kuber 18. Mat Gajyindr.
9. Gwachh 19. Jamwant
10.Dadh Biktr 20. Kesri.
1. Rattan Singas in (thrown room)
2. Kosilla Mandr ( the palace of Kosilla, Raja Disrath's Ist
3. Sumantra Mandir ( ditto ditto 2
nd
wife)
4. Keki Bhawan (ditto ditto 3
rd
wife)
5. Subha Mandir ( the court house)
6. Janam Asthan ( Rama's birth place)
7. Nowratan ( assembly room of the queens)
8.Kunak Bhawan ( the golden palace of Ramchandra)
4275. Para 623, 627 and 669 are also important to note
here which say:-
623. Again it is in Ajudya that we still see pointed
out the birthplace of the founder as well as of four others
of the chief hierarchs of the Jain faith. Here it was that
Rikabdeo of Ikshawaku's royal race matured the schism
some what of a compromise between Brahminism and
Buddhism, with which his name will ever be associated."
627. The Ajudhya Mahatum.-No account of
Ajudhya would be complete which did not throw some light
on the Ramayan and the Ajudhya Mahatum. Of the former
of these works I need not speak, for through the writings of
Wheeler, Cust, Monier Williams, &c, most readers are
familiar therewith. I will therefore confine my remarks to
the Ajudhya Mahatum, which is comparatively unknown.
4712
This work was prepared to the glorification of Ajudhya,
according to some by Ikshawaku of the solar race, while
others with more probability aver that it is a transcript
from the Askundh and Padam Purans, and is not the
production of any Raja.
669. Hindu and Musalman difference.-The
Janmasthan is within a few hundred paces of the Hanuman
Garhi. In 1855, when a great rupture took place between
the Hindu and Mahomedans, the former occupied the
Hanuman Garhi in force, while the Musalmans took
possession of the Janmasthan. The Mahomedans on that
occasion actually charged up the steps of the Hanuman
Garhi, but were driven back with considerable loss. The
Hindus then followed up this success, and at the third
attempt took the Janamsthan, at the gate of which 75
Mahomedans are buried in the Martyrs grave (Ganj-
shahid). Several of the king's regim ents were looking on all
the time, but their orders were not to interfere. It is said
that up to that time the Hindus and Mahomedans alike
used to worship in the mosque temple. Since British rule
a railing has been put up to prevent disputes, within
which in the mosque the Mahomedans pray, while
outside the fence the Hindues have, raised a platform on
which they make their offerings.
4276. "Barabanki: A gazetteer being Volume XLVIII of
the District Gazetteer of the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh" compiled and edited by H.R. Nevill, I.C.S., printed by F.
Luker, Supdt., Government Press, United Provinces, Allahabad
in 1904. Copy of pages No.168-169 have been filed as Paper
4713
No.107C1/40-41; Ex No.52, Suit-5. The author has given
reference and details of the Hindu Muslim clash in regard to
Janam Asthan Temple which is said to have occurred in 1853
at page 168, 169, 170 which read as under:
Shortly before annexation an incident occurred in this
district, which may well be recorded as illustrative of the
state of anarchy that then prevailed; unless the utter
weakness of the Government be borne in mind, such
occurrences would appear impossible. A brief reference to
the affair is to be found in the article on Rudauli in the old
Oudh Gazetteer, but a full account appeared in the
Pioneer of the 20
th
of June, 1902 signed Thomas
Catania, and entitled An Episode in Oudh History. This I
was enabled to verify through the kindness of Mr. H.J.
Bose, I.C.S., who sent me a second narrative of the affair
furnished by Raj Mahadeo Bali of Rampur in pargana
Daryabad. It would appear that the event happened in the
year 1853. The cause of the occurrence was one of the
numerous disputes that have sprung up from time to time
between the Hindu priests and Musalmans of Ajodhya with
regard to the ground on which formerly stood the
Janamasthan temple, which was destroyed by Babar and
replaced by a mosque. Other mosques had been built there
by Aurangzeb and others, and some of them had fallen into
decay. The ground, being peculiarly scared to the Hindus,
was at once seized by the Bairagies and others, thus
affording a fertile source of friction. According to the
Pioneer account, one of the Mahants had been expelled
by his brethren, and in revenge proceeded to Lucknow,
4714
became a Musalman, and spread the news that the Hindus
had destroyed the mosque. At all events, the prime mover in
the business was one Maulvi Amir Ali, a resident of Amethi
in Lucknow and a well-known faqir. This man at once
proceeded to proclaim a jihad in the city and was secretly
assisted by the king. The latter sent orders to Fyzabad to
enquire into the matter, but nothing was done. Thereupon
the Maulvi returned to Amethi and collected a large and
well-armed force of Muhammadans. Hearing of this, the
king deputed Bashir-ud-daula to Amethi and summoned the
Maulvi to Lucknow. Knowing the danger of allowing any
religious disturbance to come to a head, the king openly
proclaimed that no violent action should be taken, but that
the mosque in question should be restored. Amir Ali was far
from satisfied with this and returned to Amethi. Finding
that no action was being taken, he marched with his force
to Bansa, a village about three miles to the north of
Safdarganj in this district, where is the tomb of the saint,
Abd-ul-Razzaq. Here he collected more men, and on
receiving the news of his proceedings the king summoned
Sir James Outram, the Resident, and left it to him to put a
stop to the movement in any way he could.
Consequently an order was sent express to the
Nawab of Fyzabad, who despatched a large force to Bansa.
Amir Ali, however, remained obdurate, and would only
consent to withdraw on the condition that the mosque
should be restored. The Governor's Council suggested that
the King alone could move in the matter, and so the Nawab
was only too glad to have an excuse for doing nothing. The
4715
Maulvi on the other hand, after waiting for a month and
finding that nothing was done, marched to Daryabad,
where he remained for twenty days. The Nawab thereupon
replied by sending four Muftis to preach obedience to the
Maulvi's forces; and this action resulted in the reduction of
Amir Ali's contingent by one-half. The remainder, however,
stood by their leader, and persisted in their intention of
marching to Ajodhya and destroying the Hanuman Garhi.
Accordingly Colonel Barlow, who commanded the First
Regiment of Oudh Irregular Infantry, was ordered to arrest
his progress. He was assisted by Rai Abhairam Bali of
Rampur, and came up with the Maulvi's force at Shujaganj,
a large market on the old high road, and a hamlet of
Phugauli, close of Hayatnagar. The insurgent force is said
to have numbered 2,000 men, while the King's troops
consisted of one regiment and two guns. On coming up with
the rebels, Colonel Barlow gave the order to file, and when
the Musalman gunner begun, out of sympathy with the
Maulvi, to use grape instead of round shot, the Colonel
killed him on the spot and worked the gun himself. The
encounter was a desperate one, and a fierce hand-to-hand
struggle was maintained for three hours. The day was
decided by a flanking movement on the part of Colonel
Barlow, and the rebels were then surrounded by Sher
Bahadur Singh of Kamiar, Thakur Singh and the sepoys of
Rai Abhairam Bali, who were waiting for their opportunity.
The insurgents then broke and fled, but not before a large
number of them had been slain, their estimated loss varying
from 120 to 700, while the First infantry was almost
4716
destroyed. Amir Ali was killed while in the act of prayer,
and his head was sent to the king at Lucknow. For some
years after annexation his memory was preserved in a fair
held in his honour at Rahimganj in Rudauli; but this has
now dwindled to extinction.
4277. In "Fyzabad A Gazetteer being Vol. XLIII of the
District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh" by H.R. Nevill published in 1905 (Book No. 4), the
history of Ayodhya is also mentioned. Photocopy of the pages
no. 171 to 179 alongwith its frontispiece has been filed as
Exhibit T5 (Suit-4) (Paper No. 43A1/2-11), Register 18, pages
5-23. In Chapter V it is said :
"To the Hindu the holy city of Ajodhya is especially
dear from its connection with Rama and Sita, the types of
perfect men and women. The great epic, called after its
hero the Ramayana, has gained immensely in popularity by
the production of a revision in the vernacular, and Talsi
Das' poem is read and known all over Northern India.
According to the Ramayana, Dasarath, of the Surajbans or
Solar race, was king of Kosala in the third age of Treta Yug
of the Hindu cosmogony. He had four sons, of whom Rama
was the eldest. Sita was daughter of Raja Janak of Mithila,
and Rama won his bride by breaking the bow which no one
else could even bend. Owing to the jealousy of queen
Kaikeyi, Dasaratha was induced to send Rama with Sita
and his brother Lakshman into exile. Sita was enticed away
by Ravana, king of Ceylon, but was recovered after much
fighting with the help of Hanuman and his monkeys. It is
not yet possible to say whether any of this story is really
4717
historical, and not even an approximate date can be
assigned to it. That a kingdom of Kosala, with its capital
at Ajodhya, existed some time before the birth of Christ,
is, however, certain. Ajodhya was also an important city in
Jain literature, and Adinatha or Vrishabha, Ajitanatha,
Abhainandanatha, Sumatinatha and Anantanatha, the first,
second, fourth, fifth and 14th Tirthankaras are said to have
been born there." (emphasis added)
4278. The access of Muslims in Oudh has been dealt with
from Page 149 to 153, which is said to commence with the
invasion of Saiyid Salar Masaud and reads as under :
"The first Musalman invasion of Oudh was,
according to the popular tradition, that of Saiyid Salar
Masaud. The Mirat-i-Masaudi states that the youthful
invador went from Multan to Ajodhya, where, after taking
the city without a struggle, he remained hunting for some
time and then set out for Dehli in 1030 AD. The route taken
is remarkable and the story must be confused in some
manner. There is no mention of his passing through
Ajodhya on his march from Satrikh to Mahraich, where
he met his death; but popular legend steps in to fill the
gap. All along the old Lucknow road are numerous
tomba which the Muhammadans declare to be of the
followers of Saiyid Salar. Near Raunahi is an ancient
mosque and the tombs of two martyrs, Aulia and Makan
Shahid, ascribed to this period. The men of Raunachi will
not pass this way after nightfall; for the road is thronged
with troops of headless horsemen, the silent host of Saiyid
Salary, presumably on their way back from the disastrous
4718
field of Bahraich. If the expedition passed through the
district, as seems hardly probable, it at al events left no
mark. It is said that an expedition came to Oudh in the
reign of Sultan Ibrahim in 1080. If so, the tradition
apparently refers to Hajib Taghatigin, who crossed the
Ganges and advanced further into Hindustan than any
army since the time of Mahmud. In 1194 Muizz-ud-din
Muhammad bin Sam, commonly known as Shahab-ud-din
Ghori, is said to have conquered Oudh after taking
Kannauj, and it is supposed that either he himself or one
of his lieutenants occupied Ajodhya. It was during this
reign that Shah Juran Ghori lived at the capital, where
his tomb is still shown.
It is not quite clear when Ajodhya, or Oudh as it is
called by the historians, became the headquarters of a
Musalman province in the kingdom of Dehli. The country
was apparently subdued in the reign of Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
One of his lieutenants was Malik Hisam-ud-din
Ughlabak, who was appointed to command in Koil in
1198, and was afterwards transferred to the newly
acquired province of Oudh. He was joined there by
Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji, who was sent from Budaun,
and with his aid extended the Musalman dominions into
Bihar and Bengal. These were united to Oudh, the capital
of the new province being Lakhnauti in Bengal, and were
placed under the rule of the Khilji nobles. These soon set
up for themselves an independent state, but Oudh
remained under the sway of Dehli, for we hear that
Qutb-ud-din sent his officer, one Kaimaz Rumi, from
4719
Ajodhya to Bengal to receive the submission of the
refractory chiefs, against whom he had to take the field.
Soon after, however, Ali Mardan founded the Bengal
kingdom under the name of Ala-ud-din, and Oudh became
a separate province. It was under the sway of Shams-ud-
din Altamsh, who made his eldest son, Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud, governor in 1228. The latter died in 1229, after
having made a great name in the province. He crushed the
Bhars, who had risen in rebellion and had put to death, it
is said, 120,000 Musalmans. He was apparently
succeeded by his brother, Malik Ghias-ud-din
Muhammad, who raised a rebellion in Oudh againt his
elder brother, Rukh-ud-din, the successor of Altamsh.
During the reign of Rizia, however, the governor was
Nasir-ud-din Tabashi Muizzi, who brought his forces to
Delhi to aid his sovereign against her rebellious nobles. In
1242 the province was in the charge of Qamar-ud-din
Kairan, one of the patrons of Minhaj-us-Suraj, the
author of the Tabakut-i-Nasiri. The duration of his rule is
unknown, but in 1255 Oudh was given to the king's
mother, Malika-i-Jahan, and her husband, Katlagh
Khan, and on this appointment Taj-ud-din Siwistani was
transferred to Bahraich. Katlagh Khan was disliked by
the king and was soon ordered to Bahraich; he refused to
obey, and on the arrival of the royal army under Balban
retreated to Kalinjar. The government at Ajodhya then
passed to Arslan Khan, who in 1259 meditated revolt,
but his designs were again frustrated by Balban, who
procured his pardon. He was, however, removed to Karra,
4720
and his successor was Malik Amir Khan Altagin, who
held Oudh for twenty years, as in 1279 he was sent
against the rebel Tughril of Lakhnauti. He was defeated,
and for his failure was hanged over the tage of Ajodhya.
Balban then marched to Oudh in person and collected
there an immense army and a fleet of boats on the
Ghagra for the expedition to Bengal. Balban died in 1286
and left his son. Bughra Khan, in possession of Bengal,
while Dehli was held by the latter's son, Kaiqubad. It was
at Ajodhya that the famous meeting occurred between
father and son, which led to a reconciliation and a
partition of the country between the two rulers. After
this, Oudh was given to Khan Jahan, who remained
there for two years. In 1289, when Jalal-ud-din
ascended the throne, Malik Ali, a dependant of Balban,
was governor of Oudh, and not unnaturally espoused
the cause of Chhaju, Balban's nephew, who assumed the
royal title in Karra. The Khiljis, however, prevailed and Ali
was captured, but released by the clemency of Jalal-ud-din.
Oudh was given shortly afterwards to Ala-ud-din, who
requited his uncle's kindness by murdering him at
Karra. When established at Dehli he gave Oudh with
Karra to Malik Ala-ul-Mulk, the uncle of the historian,
Zia-ud-din Barni. This man did not hold office for long,
it would seem, as soon afterwards he was kotwal of
Dehli.
For some years nothing is heard of Oudh or Ajodhya,
but the province was considered of much importance by
the sovereigns of the Tughlaq dynasty. In 1321 Malik
4721
Tigin was ruler of Oudh, and was murdered by the
Hindus, after having joined in the revolt against Ghias-
ud-din Tughlaq. He was succeeded by Ain-ul-Mulk, who
ruled the province wisely for many years together with
Zafarabad to the east. About 1343 he was transferred to
Daultabad, and thereupon raised a revolt against
Muhammad Tughlaq. He was defeated near Bangarmau in
Unao, and was taken prisoner, but was forgiven and
restored. Firoz Shah, the next sovereign, is said to have
visited Oudh in the course of his expeditions to Bengal;
his itinerary in the first of these is doubtful, but he
certainly stayed here during the second, and it was on
this occasion that he founded Jaunpur. It is not known
who was governor of Oudh at this time, for Ain-ul-Mulk
was transferred to the Panjab and his successor in Oudh
is not mentioned. It was during this prosperious reign that
the tomb of Qazi Saiyid Taj was built at Lorpur near
Akbarpur, in 782H., a description of which will be found in
the article on that village.
In 1376 the province of Oudh was placed in the
charge of Malik Hisam-ul-Mulk and Hisam-ud-din
Nawa; but not long afterwards, during the confusion that
ensued upon the death of Firoz, the Afghan nobles
endeavoured to establish independent principalities. About
1394 Khawaja-i-Jahan, the Wazir, took possession of
OUdh and all the country between Bihar and Kannauj
and assumed the royal state in Jaunpur. Here he
strengthened himself during the civil wars at DEhli, and
in this way he established a separate kingdom which
4722
endured for many years. OUdh declined in importance,
being quite overshadowed by Jaunpur, and few
references are made either to the province or to its
capital. The Jaunpur kingdom was overthrown by
Bahlol Ldi, who gave Oudh to the celebrated Kala Pahar
Farmuli. This man held the province till his death in the
reign of Ibrahim Lodi, and left his estate to his daughter,
Fateh Malika, who was married to one Sheikh Mustafa,
during whose lifetime the province passed under the
away of the Afghan, Sher Sha. Kala Pahar held Oudh
under the sovereign of Dehli, but was subjected to the
governor of Jaunpur while that place was held by
Barbak. The latter was constantly in trouble with his
rebellious subjects, and on one occasion Sultan Sikandar
Lodi came to Jaunpur to assist his brother, and then spent
a month hunting in the vicinity of Ajodhya." (emphasis
added)
4279. In respect to Mughals, the details commenced from
Page 153, but we propose to refer only the following extract :
"After the defeat of Ibrahim at Panipat, the Afghatn
nobles assembled at Jaunpur and thither Babar send
Kamran with Amir Quli Beg in pursuit. The Afghans retired
before him to Patna, and thus Oudh fell into the hands of
the Mughal Invaders. It was not for long, however, as in
1527 Hindal fled from his post at Jaunpur before the
Afghan Sultan Muhammad. Another force was sent
eastwards and Jaunpur again was occupied and given in
charge to Mirza Juned. The country was retained by Babar
and Humayun till the defeat of the latter by Sher Shah and
4723
his Afghans. In 1528 Babar built the mosque at Ajodhya
on the traditional spot where Rama was born. Sher Shah
and his successor, Islam Shah, held all Hindostan,
including Oudh, but during the confusion and civil war
that followed Islam Shah's death the province was
apparently under the control of Muhammad Adil Shah,
while Sikandar was ruler of the west and Ibrahim was
contending ineffectually with both. There are, however, no
references to Oudh during this period." (emphasis added)
4280. Further it has referred to continuous dispute in
respect to alleged desecration of the place and on page 174, it
says :
"This desecration of the most sacred spot in the city
caused great bitterness between Hindus and Musalmans.
On many occasions the feeling led to bllodshed, and in
1855 an open fight occurred, the Musalmans occupying
the Janamasthan in force and thence making a desperate
assault on the Hanuman Garhi. They charged up the steps
of the temple, but were driven back with considerable loss.
The HIndus then made a counter-attack and stormed the
Janamasthan, at the gate of which seventy-five Musalmans
were buried, the spot being known as the Ganj Shahidan or
the martyrs; resting place. Several of the king's regiments
were present, but their orders were not to interfere. Shortly
afterwards Maulvi Amir Ali of Amethi in Lucknow
organized a regular expedition with the object of destroying
the Hanuman Garhi; but he and his forces were stopped in
the Bara Banki district. It is said that up to this time both
Hindus and Musalmans used to worship in the same
4724
building; but since the mutiny an outer enclosure has
been put up in front of the mosque and the Hindus, who
are forbidden access to the inner yard, make their
offerings on a platform which they have raised in the
outer one."
4281. Some discussion has also been made in respect to
continuous religious confliction between Muslims and Hindus
and on page 175, the Gazetteers says:
"Near the Mani Parbat are two tombs which are
venerated as those of the patriarchs Seth and Tob. They are
mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari as being of six and seven
yards in length respectively. They are again spoken of in
the Araish-i-Mahfil. To those Colonel Wilford adds that of
Noah, which is still shown near the police-station. The
story goes that they fell here fighting the Hindues and thus
acquired the rank of martyrs; possibly there is some truth
in the story, as it may be that certain Musalmans bearing
these names were killed in one of the frequent religious
conflicts some four centuries ago, the date which
Colonel Wilford assigns to the erections. Other shrines
held sacred by Musalmans include that of Shah Juran
Ghori, who is said to have come with Shahab-ud-din and
destroyed the Jain temple of Adinath in the Murao Tola
near the Swargaddwar, giving his name to the mound on
which his tome stands; the shrine of Naurahni Khurd
Makks, one of the earliest Musalman immigrants and a
renowned saind, said to have been named Mir Ahmad and
to have derived his cognomen from Naurahni whence he
came, and from the muhalla of Ajodhya in which his tomb
4725
stands; that of Khwaja Hathi, a follower of Babar, whose
enshrined tomb on the Kabir Tila, one of the chief bastions
of Ramkot, is still revered; and that of Makhdum Shaikh
Bhikha, a western devotee, who flourished some 200 years
ago and was buried to the east of the city. The shrines of
Shah Saman Fariad-ras and of Shah Chup are other relies
of Muhammadan antiquity, of which all traditions are lost.
The only remaining institutions of Musalman origin are the
Hayat Bakhsh and the Farhat Bakhsh, formerly royal
gardens which have now passed into Hindu hands. The
former was assigned to Pandit Uma Datt by the British
Government, and the latter is partly owned by the Raja of
Jaipur and partly by the Digambari faqirs to who, it was
made over in part compensation for the Guptar Park in
cantonments.
The Hindus temples are all intimately connected
with the history of Ajodhya. Most of them are of
comparatively recent origin, as it would appear that
almost all the ancient shrines were destroyed by
Aurangzeb and other Musalman zealots. The sacred
places of Ajodhya are exceedingly numerous. The spot
according to HIndu mythology represents the forehead of
Vishnu and is the seat of learning and the chief of the seven
tiraths. It is undoubtedly the most important centre of
Vishnu worship in Oudh, if not in the whole of Upper
India, and claims precedence over Muttra and Hardwar. It
is only natural, therefore, that the sacred places connected
with Vishnu in his various incarnations and especially that
of Ram Chandra, the best known of all, should be many in
4726
number and should extend beyond the immediate precincts
of the city, even as far as Bhadarsa and Bilharghat. In 1902
a local committee was formed with the object of
commemorating the coronation of His Imperial Majesty
King Edward VII, and a sum of over Rs. 1,000 was
collected and expended on the erection of stone pillars
marking the sacred spots in Ajodhya and its
neighbourhood. This work has been carried out and no
fewer than 145 such stones have been erected; their
ostensible purpose being to preserve the memory of the
various holy spots and to serve as a guide to pilgrims and
others interested in the place. A complete enumeration
would be useless without some descriptive and historical
account of each, and only the mere important need be here
mentioned.
The chief place of worship in Ajodhya is the ancient
citadel of Ramkot which stood on elevated ground in the
western portion of the city. The old remparts have long
disappeared, but the mound remains, and on it stand a
number of large temples. Foremost among these is the
Hanuman Garhi, a massive structure in the shape of a four-
sided fort with circular bastions at each angle. Above this
on the hill to the west stood the Janamasthan or
birthplace of Rama, and close by are the Kanak Bhawan,
a very fine building erected by the Rani of Tikamgarh or
Orchha; the Sita Rasoi or Sita's kitchen; the Bara
Asthan, the head-quarters of a fraternity called the Bara
Akhara; the Ratan Singhasan marking the place where
Rama was installed after his return from exile; the RAng
4727
Mahal, Anand Bhawan, Kaushalia Bhawan or Janam
Bhumi, and the temple of Amar Das, as well as many
smaller temples and shrines." (emphasis added)
4282. "Imperial Gazetteer of India--Provincial Series--
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh"-Vol. II (1908) (Book No.
16) was published by Superintendent of Government Printing
Calcutta in 1908 and on page 388-389 (Ex.10 Suit-5; Paper
No.107C1/37-39) thereof in respect of Ajodhya Town, its
reads as under:
"Ajodhya Town (in Sanskrit Ayodhya; now known as
Ajudhia).--Town in Fyzabad District, United Provinces,
situated in 26* 48' N. and 82* 12' E., on the right bank of
the Gogra, and on a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand
Railway. Population (1901) 21,584. The interest of
Ajodhya centres in its ancient history. The old city has
almost entirely disappeared, and only its outlines are
marked by an extensive tract of elevated ground. But
according to tradition Ajodhya was in remote antiquity
one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian cities.
It is said to have covered an area of 12 yojans or 80 to 100
miles in circumference, though the limits according to
modern tradition extend only about 6 miles from Guptar
Ghat on the west to Ram Ghat on the east. Ajodhya was the
capital of the kingdom of Kosala and contained the court of
the great king Dasaratha, fifty-sixth monarch of the
Solar line in descent from Raja Manu. The opening
chapters of the Ramayana recount the magnificence of the
city, the glories of the monarch, and the virtues, wealth,
and loyalty of his people. Dasaratha was the father of
4728
Rama Chandra, the hero of the epic, whose cult has
experienced a great revival in modern times. With the fall
of the last of the Solar line, Raja Sumintra, the one hundred
and thirteenth monarch, Ajodhya became a wilderness and
the royal family dispersed. From different members of this
scattered stock the Rajas of Udaipur, Jaipur, &c., claim
descent. Tradition relates that Ajodhya was restored by
king Vikramaditya of Ujjain, whose identity is a matter of
dispute. Ajodhya was of small importance in Muddhist
times, when Saketa became the chief city of Kosala. It is
still uncertain where Saketa was situated, and it has been
suggested that it occupied part of the ancient city of
Ajodhya. Numismatic evidence points to the rule of a line
of independent Rajas, in or near Ajodhya, about the
commencement of the Christian era. The identifications of
Ajodhya with the capitals of Sha-chi, 'O-yu-t'o, or Pi-so-
kia, visited by the Chinese pilgrims, are all doubtful.
Under the rule of the early Muhammadan kings of
Delhi, Ajodhya or Awadh was the seat of a governor
whose authority extended over a varying tract of
country. When Akbar had firmly established his power in
Northern India, the city became the capital of a Subah or
province. In the eighteenth century it was for a time the
nominal head-quarters of the early Nawabs of Oudh. In
1765, however, Shuja-ud-daula made his residence at
Fyzabad, a few miles away, and Ajodhya lost all
importance, except as a religious centre.
The present town stretches inland from a high bluff
overlooking the Gogra. At one corner of a vast mound
4729
known as Ramkot, or the fort of Rama, is the holy spot
where the hero was born. Most of the enclosure is
occupied by a mosque built by Babar from the remains
of an old temple, and in the outer portion a small
platform and shrine mark the birthplace. Close by is a
larger temple in which is shown the cooking-place of Sita,
the faithful wife of Rama. A lofty temple stands on the bank
of the Gogra at the place where Lakshmana bathed; and
Hanuman, king of the monkeys, is worshipped in a large
temple in the town, approached by an immense flight of
steps, which bears the name Hanuman Garhi. Other
noticeable temples built during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries are the Kanakbhawan, a fine building
erected by a Rani of Tikamgarh, the Nageshwarnath
temple, Darshan Singh's temple, and a small marble temple
built by the present Maharaja, Ajodhya also contains a
number of Jain temples, five of which were built in the
eighteenth century to mark the birthplaces of the five
heirarchs who are said to have been born at Ajodhya.
Besides the mosque of Babar, two ruined mosques, built
by Aurangzeb, stand on the sites of celebrated Hindu
shrines--the Swargadwara, where Rama's body was
cremated, and the Treta-ka-Thakur, where he sacrificed.
An inscription of Jai Chand, the last king of Kanauj, has
been found in the latter. Three graves are reverenced by
Musalmans as the tombs of Noah, Seth, and Job, and the
two last are mentioned under those names in the Ain-i-
Akbari. A large mound close by, called the Maniparbat, is
said to have been dropped by Hanuman when carrying a
4730
portion of the Himalayas, while another tradition asserts
that it was formed by the coolies who built Ramkot shaking
their baskets as they left work; it possibly covers a ruined
stupa.
Modern buildings include the spacious residence of
the Maharaja of Ajodhya (see AJODHYA ESTATE) and two
dispensaries. For administrative purposes Ajodhya forms
part of three great fairs take place annually in March-
April, July-August, and October-November, which are
sometimes attended by 400,000 persons. At special fairs
the attendance has been estimated at as many as a
million. There is one public school, while ten Sanskrit
schools contain 350 students." (emphasis added)
4283. H.R. Nevill published another Gazetteer i.e.
"Fyzabad-A Gazetteer being Volume XLIII of the District
Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra & Oudh" in 1928
(Paper No.107C1/49-53; Register 20, Pages No.99-107). It says:
Ajodhya is pre-eminently a city of temples, and
apart from these there are but few points of interest in the
place. Not all of these places of worship are connected with
the Hindu religion. There are six Jain shrines which have
been already mentioned in Chapter III in connection with
Jainism in this district; and there are also the Musalman
mosques and tombs. It is locally affirmed that at the time
of the Musalman conquest there were three important
Hindu shrines at Ajodhya and little else. These were the
Janamasthan temple, the Swargaddwar and the Treta-ka-
Thakur, and each was successively made the object of
attention of different Musalman rulers. The Janamasthan
4731
was in Ramkot and marked the birthplace of Rama. In
1528 A.D. Babar came to Ajodhya and halted here for a
week. He destroyed the ancient temple and on its site
built a mosque, still known as Babar's mosque. The
materials of the old structure were largely employed, and
many of the columns are in good preservation; they are
of close-grained black stone, called by the natives kasauti,
and carved with various devices. Their length is from seven
to eight feet, and the shape square at the base, centre and
capital, the rest being round or octagonal. The mosque has
two inscriptions, one on the outside and the other on the
pulpit; both are in Persian and bear the date 935 Hijri. Of
the authenticity of the inscriptions there can be no doubt,
but no record of the visit to Ajodhya is to be found in the
Musalman historians. It must have occurred about the time
of his expedition to Bihar.
This desecration of the most sacred spot in the city
caused great bitterness between Hindus and Musalmans.
On many occasions the feeling led to bloodshed, and in
1855 an open fight occurred, the Musalmans occupying
the Janamasthan in force and thence making a
desperate assault on the Hanuman Garhi. They charged
up the steps of the temple, but were driven back with
considerable loss. The Hindus then made a counter-attack
and stormed the Janamasthan, at the gate of which seventy-
five Musalmans were buried, the spot being known as the
Ganj Shahidan or the martyrs' resting-place. Several of the
king's regiments were present, but their orders were not to
interfere. Shortly afterwards Maulvi Amir Ali of Amethi in
4732
Lucknow organized a regular expedition with the object of
destroying the Hanuman Garhi; but he and his forces were
stopped in the Bara Banki district. It is said that up to this
time both Hindus and Musalmans used to worship in the
same building; but since the mutiny an outer enclosure
has been put up in front of the mosque and the Hindus,
who are forbidden access to the inner yard, make their
offerings on a platform which they have raised in the
outer one.
The other mosques were built by Aurangzeb and are
now in ruins. That on the Swargaddwar replaced an
ancient temple which has never been restored. The Treta-
ka-Thakur marked the place where Rama performed a
great sacrifice and set up images of himself and Sita. This
was reproduced by the Raja of Kulu in the Punjab more
than two centuries ago it was improved by Ahalya Bai, the
widow of Jaswant Rai Holkar of Indore in 1784, and the
same person built the adjoining ghat. As the temple could
not commemorate her name, she built another called after
herself and gave an annual assignment of Rs.231 to it, the
sum being still paid by the ruler of Indore. The ancient
images were said to have been recovered from the river
where they had been thrown by Aurangzeb, and were
placed in the new Treta-ka-Mandir. This temple is always
closed during the day and is only opened at night on the
11
th
of the dark and light halves of each month, and for two
or three nights on the occasion of the Ramnaumi and Katki
fairs. The temple is endowed with two or three villages in
Basti, purchased from the offerings made at the shrine.
4733
Near the Mani Parbat are two tombs which are
venerated as those of the patriarchs Seth and Tob. They are
mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari as being of six and seven
yards in length respectively. They are again spoken of in
the Araish-i-Mahfil. To these Colonel Wilford adds that of
Noah, which is still shown near the police-station. The
story goes that they fell here fighting the Hindus and thus
acquired the rank of martyrs; possibly there is some truth
in the story, as it may be that certain Musalmans bearing
these names were killed in one of the frequent religions
conflicts some four centuries ago, the date which Colonel
Wilford assigns to the erections. Other shrines held sacred
by Musalmans include that of Shah Juran Ghori, who is
said to have come with Sahab-ud-din and destroyed the
Jain temple of Adinath in the Murao tola near the
Swargaddwar, giving his name to the mound on which his
tomb stands; the shrine of Naurahni Khurd Makka, one of
the earliest Musalman immigrants and a renowed saint,
said to have been named Mir Ahmad and to have derived
his cognomen from Naurahni whence he came, and from
the muhalla of Ajodhya in which his tomb stands; that of
Khwaja Hathi, a follower of Babar, whose enshrined tomb
on the Kabir Tila, one of the chief bastions of Ramkot, is
still revered; and that of Makhdum Shaikh Bhikha, a
western devotee, who flourished some 200 years ago and
was buried to the east of the city. The shrines of Shah
Saman Faraidras and of Shah Chup are other relies of
Muhammadan antiquity, of which all traditions are lost.
The only remaining institutions of Musalman origin
4734
are the Hayat Bakhsh and the Farhat Bakhsh, formerly
royal gardens which have now passed into Hindu hands.
The former was assigned to Pandit Uma Datt by the British
Government, and the latter is partly owned by the Raja of
Jaipur and partly by the Digambari faqirs to whom it was
made over in part compensation for the Guptar Park in
cantonments.
The Hindu temples are all intimately connected with
the history of Ajodhya.
4284. Exhibit 10 (Suit-5) (Register 29 Pages 87-89) is
photocopy of frontispiece and pages 388 and 389 of Imperial
Gazetteer of India Provincial Series United Provinces of Agra
and Oudh, Vol. II published in 1934. Pages 388, 389
concerning Faizabad Division reads as under:
Ajodhya Town (in Sanskrit Ayodhya; now known as
Ajudhia).-Town in Fyzabad District, United Provinces,
situated in 2648' N. and 8212' E, on the right bank of the
Gogra, and on a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand
Railway. Population (1901), 21,584. The interest of
Ajodhya centres in its ancient history. The old city has
almost entirely disappeared, and only its outlines are
marked by an extensive tract of elevated ground. But
according to tradition Ajodhya was in remote antiquity one
of the largest and most magnificent of Indian cities. It is
said to have covered an area of 12 yojanas or 80 to 100
miles in circumference, though the limits according to
modern tradition extend only about 6 miles from Guptar
Ghat on the west to Ram Ghat on the east. Ajodhya was the
capital of the kingdom of Kosala and contained the court of
4735
the great King Dasaratha, fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar
line in descent from Raja Manu. The opening chapters of
the Ramayana recount the magnificence of the city, the
glories of the monarch, and the virtues wealth and loyalty
of the people. Dasaratha was the father of Rama Chandra,
the hero of the epic, whose cult has experienced a great
revival in modern times. With the fall of the last of the Solar
line, Raja Sumintra, the one hundred and thirteenth
monarch, Ajodhya became a wilderness and the royal
family dispersed. From different members of this scattered
stock the Rajas of Udaipur, Jaipur, & c., claim descent.
Tradition relates that Ajodhya was restored by king
Vikramaditya of Ujjain, whose identity is a mater of
dispute. Ajodhya was of small importance in Buddhist
times, when Saketa became the chief city of Kosala. It is
still uncertain where Saketa was situated, and it has been
suggested that it occupied part of the ancient city of
Ajodhya. Numismatic evidence points to the rule of a line
of independent Rajas, in or near Ajodhya, about the
commencement of the Christian era. The identifications of
Ajodhya with the capitals of Sha-chi 'O-yu-t'o, or Pi-so-kia,
visited by Chinese pilgrims, are all doubtful.
Under the rule of the early Muhammadan kings of
Delhi, Ajodhya or Awadh was the seat of a governor whose
authority extended over a varying tract of country. When
Akbar had firmly established his power in Northern India,
the city became the capital of a Subah or province. In the
eighteenth century it was for a time the nominal head-
quarters of the early Nawabs of Oudh. In 1765, however,
4736
Shuja-ud-daula made his residence at Fyzabad, a few miles
away, and Ajodhya lost all importance, except as a
religious centre.
The present town stretches inland from a high bluff
over-looking the Gogra. At one corner of a vast mound
known as Ramkot, or the fort of Rama, is the holy spot
where the hero was born. Most of the enclosure is occupied
by a mosque built by Babar from the remains of an old
temple, and in the outer portion a small platform and
shrine mark the birthplace. Closed by is a larger temple in
which is shown the cooking-place of Sita, the faithful wife
of Rama. A lofty temple stands on the bank of the Gogra at
the place where Lakshmana bathed; and Hanuman, king of
the monkeys, is worshipped in a large temple in the town,
approached by an immense flight of steps, which bears the
name Hanuman Garhi. Other noticeable temples built
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are the
Kanakbhawan, a five building erected by a Rani of
Tikamgarh, the Nageshwarnath temple, Darshan Singh's
temple, and a small marble temple built by the present
Maharaja. Ajodhya also contains a number of Jain
temples, five of which were built in the eighteenth century
to mark the birthplaces of the five hierarchs who are said
to have been born at Ajodhya. Besides the mosque of
Babar, two ruined mosqus, built by Aurangzeb, stand on the
sites of celebrated Hindu shrines the Swargadwara, where
Rama's body was cremated, and the Treta-ka-Thakur,
where he sacrificed. An inscription of Jai Chand, the last
king of Kanauj, has been found in the latter. Three graves
4737
are reverenced by Musalmans as the tombs of Noah, Seth,
and Job, and the two last are mentioned under those names
in the Ain-i-Akbari. A large mound close by called the
Maniparbat, is said to have been dropped by Hanuman
when carrying a portion of the Himalayas, while another
tradition asserts that is was formed by the coolies who built
Ramkot shaking their basket as they left work; it possibly
covers a ruined stupa.
Modern buildings include the spacious residence of
the Maharaja of Ajodhya (see Ajodhya Estate) and two
dispensaries. For administrative purposes Ajodhya forms
part of the Fyzabad municipality. There is little or no no
trade; but three great fairs take place annually in March-
April, July-August, and October-November, which are
sometimes attended by 400,000 persons. At special fairs the
attendance has been estimated at as many as a million.
There is one public school, while ten Sanskrit schools
contain 350 students.
Akbarpur Town.-Heat-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Fyzabad District, United Provinces, situated
in 26...N, and 82 32' E, on the Oudh and Rohilkhand
Railway..."
4285. After independence under the authority of
Government of Uttar Pradesh (Revenue Department) District
Gazetteers of Uttar Pradesh in the revised form were published
and the "Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers-Faizabad" by Smt.
Esha Basanti Joshi (Book No. 17) was published in 1960 printed
at the Indian Press (Private) Ltd., Allahabad. Copy of the
frontispiece and pages No. 34, 36, 46, 47, 352 and 354 have
4738
been filed as paper No.107C1/54-61 i.e. Ex.13, Suit-5 (Register
20; pages 109-123). Defendant no. 20 (Suit-4) has also filed
photocopy of the frontispiece, preface and pages no. 47, 50, 63,
64, 351, 352 and 450 as Exhibit T2 (Suit-4) (Paper No. 43A-
1/12-21), (Register 18 pages 25-43). Regarding disputed
construction, on pages 351, 352 and 353 it says as under:
"Ayodhya (which means invincible) is a place of
great antiquity. According to Hindu mythology it represents
the forehead of Vishnu and is the chief of the seven cities
(saptpuri) of pilgrimage in India. As Carnegy puts it,
"Ajudhia, which is to the Hindu what Mecca is to the
Mohammedan, Jerusalem to the Jews, has in the traditions
of the orthodox, a highly mythical origin, being founded for
additional security not on earth for that is transitory but on
the chariot wheel of the Great Creator himself which will
endure for ever." It is intimately connected with the mass of
legend relating to Rama and the Suryavanshi (Solar) race
and was certainly the capital of several reigning dynasties.
It is one of the most important centres of Vaishnava
worship. Buddhist tradition mentions Saket as the place
where Buddha spent 16 summers and some scholars
consider Ayodhya and Saket to be identical. In the fifth
century A.D. it came under the sway of the Imperial Guptas
and became a flourishing trade centre. Probably the
Chinese pilgrims Fa-hien and Hiuen Tsang visited this
place. Nothing of antiquity has survived as many acts of
vandalism were perpetrated by the different invaders.
For a long period from the seventh century A.D. onwards
the place appears to have been almost deserted. In early
4739
mediaeval times it rose again in importance under the
Muslim rules who made it the seat of government of a large
province. That it was still regarded as a holy spot by the
Hindus is clear from the fact that it was desecrated by
Babur and Aurangzeb and that the presence of a Muslim
governor and his court contrived to keep the Hindu shrines
continually in the back-ground. Ayodhya was also a mint
town under some of the Mughal kings. It is not clear when
it first began to assume its present proportions; the change
presumably occurred about the middle of the 18th century
when the capital of the Muslim rulers was removed from
Ayodhya to the new city of Faizabad and the Qila Mubarak
or fort of Saadat Khan (near Lachhman Ghat in Ayodhya)
was abandoned for his country residence at the Bangla.
With the departure of the court, the Hindus were left to
themselves and numerous temples and monasteries
sprang into existence. Nawal Rai, the deputy of Nawab
Safdar Jung, built a fine house in Ayodhya which still
stands on the river front. Probably this rise in importance
was due to the growing popularity of the Ramcharitmanasa
of Tulsidas and the progress of this place became even
more rapid after the annexation of Avadh by the British.
Before the middle of the nineteenth century Ayodhya was
regarded as a stronghold of Hinduism although the great
family of Sakaldvipi Brahmanas, whose representative bore
the title of 'Maharaja of Ayodhya', had but little to do with
the place and even the fine place of the Maharaja in the
east of the city and its adjoining temple are not very old.
Ayodhya is
4740
pre-eminently a town of temples but not all the places of
worship are connected with the Hindu religion. There are
some Jain shrines and several Muslim mosques and tombs.
It is said that at the time of the Muslim conquest there were
three important Hindu shrines here and little else, the
Janmasthan temple, the Swargadwar and the Treta-ke-
Thakur. The Janmasthan was in Ramkot and marked the
birthplace of Rama. It seems that in 1528 A.D. Babur
visited Ayodhya and under his orders this ancient temple
was destroyed and on the site was built what came to be
known as Babur's mosque. The material of the old temple
was largely employed in building the mosque and a few of
the original columns are still in good preservations; they
are of cloe grained black stone (kasauti) bearing various
Hindu bas-reliefs (see Plate I), the outer beam of the main
structure being of sandal wood. The height of the columns
is seven to eight feet, the shape of the base, the middle
section and the capital is square, the rest being round or
octagonal. There are two inscriptions in Persian, one on
the outside and the other on the pulpit bearing the date
935 Hijri. Subsequently Aurangzeb also desecrated the
shrines of Ayodhya which led to prolonged bitterness
between the Hindus and Muslims. The latter occupied the
Janmasthan by force and also made an assault on
Hanuman Garhi. Attacks and counter-attacks continued,
culminating in the bloodshed of 1855 under the leadership
of Maulvi Amir Ali. As a result, in 1858 an outer
enclosure was put up in front of the mosque and the
Hindus, who were forbidden access to the inner yard,
4741
had to perform their puja on a platform outside. Since
1949 the position has changed and the Hindus have
succeeded in installing the images of Rama and Sita in the
mosque owing to which the spot has become the object of
much litigation. Now the inner yard is protected by an
armed guard and only a few Hindu pujaris (priests) are
allowed access to the inner sanctum." (emphasis added)
4286. Now we turn to some Hindu texts which refers to
Ayodhya as well as Lord Rama which have been relied heavily
by all the learned counsels appearing for Hindu parties.
4287. It was suggested that the origin of Aryan's in Indian
Sub-continent itself is not traceable to several thousand of years
to co-relate them with Lord Rama and to go for a search of his
place of birth at the disputed site do not travel to such length of
time is being argued. For this purpose an attempt was made to
show the meaning of the word "Hindu" in the book Hinduism by
Sri Monier Williams. Let us consider this.
4288. Mr. Monier Williams was born in Bombay on 12
th
November 1819. His father, Colonel Monier Williams was
surveyor-general in the Bombay presidency. He matriculated at
Oxford from Balliol College in 1837 but left University in 1839
since nominated for the East India Company's civil services.
While undergoing his training course at Haileybury, he got the
information of death of his brother in India. He relinquished his
nomination and returned to Oxford. He entered University
College to study Sanskrit in 1841-44. He gained Boden
Scholarship in 1843. After obtaining his degree, he became
Professor of Sanskrit, Persian and Hindustani languages.
Married in 1848 on the suggestion of Professor H.H. Wilson in
4742
1851 he started working on a scientifically arranged Sanskrit-
English dictionary. In 1860, he was elected Boden Professor of
Sanskrit at Oxford after a contest with Professor Max Muller. In
the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia the bio data of Monier
Williams has been given wherein it is mentioned after his
appointment to the professorship, Williams declared that the
conversion of India to Christian religion should be one of the
aims of the orientalist scholarship. In his book Hinduism he
predicted the demise of the Hindu religion and called for
Christian evangelism to ward off the spread of Islam. His first
version of Sanskrit-English dictionary was published in 1872.
He founded Indian Institute at Oxford in 1883 which also
provided training ground for Indian Civil Services. He visited
India in 1883 itself to solicit the moral and financial support of
the native princes and other leading men.
4289. The controversy which we are shouldering upon to
adjudicate largely involved historical, religious, philosophical,
social and sociological aspects. The development in growth of
Hindu religion runs concurrent as per beliefs of some about four
thousand years and for others ranging from eight to ten
thousands years to more than a crore years. This itself makes the
complexity of the problem patent. To appreciate the historical
developments, it would be of some interest if we have the idea
and broad features of Hindu religion in this part of Asian
continent which we now call India or Hindustan or Bharat. The
first and foremost aspect of the matter would be whether Hindu
religion by itself is only a religion or it talks of a particular set
of people known by some common features of social and
behavioural pattern including the religious one or denoted by
4743
geographical sense or otherwise. Though there is a lot of
diversion of opinion and presently a serious thought is otherwise
under current amongst the scholars. Upto now the general
accepted version by scholars has been that the word Hindu
had its genesis in the river Sindhu, otherwise known as Indus
flowing from Punjab. Sir Moniar Williams in his Book
Hinduism has said:
That part of the great Aryan race, which
immigrated from Central Asia, through the mountain
passes into India, settled first in the districts near the river
Sindhu (now called the Indus). The Persians pronounced
this word Hindu and named their Aryan brethren Hindus.
The Greeks, who probably gained their first ideas of India
from the Persians, dropped the hard aspirate, and called
the Hindus "Indoi".
4290. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.
VI, has described "Hinduism" as the title applied to that form of
religion which prevails among the vast majority of the present
population of the Indian Empire.
4291. As observed by Dr. Radhakrishnan; "The Hindu
civilization is so called, since its original founders or earliest
followers occupied the territory drained by the Sindhu (the
Indus) river system corresponding to the North-West Frontier
Province and the Punjab. This is recorded in the Rig Veda, the
oldest of the Vedas, the Hindu scriptures which give their name to
this period of Indian history. The people on the Indian side of the
Sindhu were called Hindu by the Persian and the later western
invaders".
4292. What Hindu religion is we have already said while
4744
dealing with Issue No. 17 (Suit-3). As we have seen, if not
impossibly, it is very difficult to define this term or even to
adequately describe it. Hindu religion does not claim any one
prophet, it does not worship a single God, it does not subscribe
to one dogma, does not belief in one philosophical concept, does
not follow any one set of religion, rites or performance. Broadly
speaking, it does not appear to satisfy the traditional features of
any religion or creed as is known in other religions which
narrow down its area of spread and influence. Broadly, it is
described as a way of life and nothing more. The people lacking
in depth knowledge of concept of Hinduism surprise as to what
this name seems to without any content. Is it a museum of
beliefs, a medley of rites, or a mere map, a geographical
expression? Dr. Radhakrishnan posed these questions which
disturbed foreigners when they think of Hinduism and then
explained that the term Hindu had originally a territorial and
not a credal significance. It implied residence in a well-defined
geographical area. A boriginal tribes, savage and half-civilized
people, the cultured Dravidians and the Vedic Aryans were all
Hindus as they were the sons of the same mother. The Hindu
thinkers reckoned with the striking fact that the men and women
dwelling in India belonged to different communities,
worshipped different gods, and practiced different rites. That is
how Hinduism has steadily absorbed the customs and ideas of
peoples with whom it has come into contact and has thus been
able to maintain its supremacy and its youth. Hindu religion is a
reflection of the composite characters of the Hindus, who are
not one people but many. It is based on the idea of universal
receptivity. It has always aimed to accommodate itself to
4745
circumstances, and has carried on the process of adaptation
through more than three thousand years. It has first borne with
and then, so to speak, swallowed, digested, and assimilated
something from all creeds. Monier Williams observed that it
must be borne in mind that Hinduism is far more than a mere
form of theism resting on Brahmanism. It presents for our
investigation a complex congeries of creeds and doctrines which
in its gradual accumulation may be compared to the gathering
together of the mighty volume of the Ganges, swollen by a
continual influx of tributary rivers and rivulets, spreading itself
over an ever-increasing area of country and finally resolving
itself into an intricate Delta of tortuous steams and jungly
marshes.
4293. Normally, any recognised religion or religious creed
subscribes to a body of set philosophic concepts and theological
beliefs but it does not apply as such to Hindu religion.
Philosophy in ancient India was not an auxiliary to any other
science or art, like other countries but always held a prominent
position in independence. The Mundaka Upanisad speaks of
Brahma-vidya or the science of the eternal as the basis of all
sciences, 'sarva-vidya-pratishtha'. Philosophy is the lamp of all
the sciences, the means of performing all the works, and the
support of all the duties according to Kautilya. Dr.
Radhakrishnan said that in all the fleeting centuries of history, in
all the vicissitudes through which India has passed, a certain
marked identity is visible. It has held fast to certain
psychological traits which constitute its special heritage, and
they will be the characteristic marks of the Indian people so long
as they are privileged to have a separate existence. The
4746
development of Hindu religion has always been inspired by an
endless quest of the mind for truth based on the consciousness
that truth has many facets. Truth is one, but wise men describe it
differently. The Indian mind has, consistently through the ages,
been exercised over the problem of the nature of godhead and
problem that faces the spirit at the end of life, and the
interrelation between the individual and the universal soul. If we
can abstract from the variety of opinion and observe the general
spirit of Indian thought, we shall find that it has a disposition to
interpret life and nature in the way of monistic idealism, though
this tendency is so plastic, living and manifold that it takes
many forms and expresses itself in even mutually hostile
teachings, says Dr. Radhakrishnan. The monistic idealism which
can be said to be the general distinguishing feature of Hindu
Philosophy has been expressed in four different forms : (1) Non-
dualism or Advitism; (2) Pure monism; (3) Modified monism;
and (4) Implicit monism. These different forms of monistic
idealism purport to derive support from the same ancient
literature that we called vedas, Upanishads, Puranas etc.
Shankaracharya, Ramanujam, Vallabhacharya and
Madhvacharya all based their philosophic concepts on what they
regarded to be the synthesis between the Upanishads, the
Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Philosophic concepts and
principles evolved by different Hindu thinkers and philosophers
varied in many ways and even appeared to conflict with each
other in some particulars, they all had reverence for the past and
accepted the Vedas as the sole foundation of the Hindu
philosophy. It appears that since its beginning, it was realized by
Hindu religion that truth by truth was many-sided and different
4747
views contained different aspects of truth which no one could
fully express. This knowledge inevitably bred a spirit of
tolerance and willingness to understand and appreciate the
opponents point of view. That is how the several views set forth
in India in regard to the vital philosophic concepts are
considered to be the branches of the self-same tree. The short
cuts and blind alleys are somehow reconciled with the main
road of advance to the truth. As soon as we appreciate this broad
sweep of the Hindu philosophic concepts, it can be realised that
under Hindu philosophy, there is no scope for ex-
communicating any notion or principle as heretical and rejecting
it as such. Max Muller had observed, the longer I have studied
the various systems, the more have I become impressed with the
truth of the view taken by Vijnanabhiksu and others that there is
behind the variety of the six systems a common fund of what
may be called national or popular philosophy, a large manasa
(lake) of philosophical thought and language far away in the
distant North and in the distant past, from which each thinker
was allowed to draw for his own purposes. The development of
Hindu religion and philosophy shows that from time to time
saints and religious reformers attempted to remove from the
Hindu thought and practices elements of corruption and
superstition and that led to the formation of different sects
despite of his common and divergent respective views of such
saints and religious reformers; underneath there is a kind of
subtle indescribable unity which keeps them within the sweep of
the broad and progressive Hindu religion. Whether it is
Buddhism of Gautam Buddha or Jainism of Mahavir, Lingayat
founded by Basava, Varakari cult initiated by Dnyaneshwar and
4748
Tukaram, Sikhism inspired by Guru Nanak Arya Samaj founded
by Dayananda and Bhakti cult commenced with Chaitanya has
found the teachings of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda etc. All of
them revolted against the dominance of rituals and the power of
the priestly class with which it came to be associated; and all of
them proclaimed their teachings not in Sanskrit which was the
monopoly of the priestly class, but in the languages spoken by
the ordinary mass of people in their respective regions. Beneath
the diversity of philosophic thoughts, concepts and ideas
expressed by Hindu philosophers who started different
philosophic schools, their lie certain broad concepts which can
be treated as basic, though all accept Veda as the highest
authority in religious and philosophic matters. It implies
necessarily that all the systems claim to have drawn their
principles from a common reservoir of thought, i.e., the Veda.
Then all of them accept the view of the great world rhythm. Vast
periods of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each
other in endless succession. The systems of Hindu philosophy
believe in rebirth and pre-existence. We do not find that all the
Hindu worship the same temples or the same God. There are
certain sections of the Hindu community which do not believe
in the worship of God. In the Hindu Pantheon, numbers of idols
are worshipped by the Hindus. It presents the spectacle of a very
large number of gods who are worshipped by different sections
of the Hindus, but many a times idols in a temple or a temple as
such may not be necessarily to profess the beliefs of Hinduism.
We have discussed these aspects in some detail while
considering the issues relating to juridical personality of deities
of plaintiffs 1 and 2 (Suit-5).
4749
4294. We are of the view that the historicity of Lord Rama
cannot be restricted by any preconceived notion since, if any
such attempt is made not only in respect to Lord Rama but in
other matters also, that may result in havoc and will amount to
playing with the sentiments and belief of millions of people
which are bestowed upon them from generations to generation
and time immemorial.
4295. Rigveda Samhita Vol. II (Mandalas 2, 3, 4, 5)
verse 3365 translated by H.H. Wilson and Bhasya of
Sayanacarya
sscr. i - ii i -i- li - |
,i iiii ii n l-i ; n|ii i ||
Let (his worshipper) cause his ears to listen so as to
invigorate him (by praise), and to give him pleasure in
every acceptable place; and being well moistened with the
Soma juice, may the vigorous Indra render the holy places
(conducive) to our wealth, and free from danger.
4296. Rigveda Samhita Vol. II (Mandalas 9, 10) of H.H.
Wilson (supra), verse 9110:
so. iil i|ln n -ii-n| --- - -i|
i- ln- ii i - nii-i -||s||
3. The sacrifice has been prepared: the invigorating
portions (of the oblation) approach the beautiful (god) of
excellent birth, as (the waters) at a holy spot (approach
the gods): may we obtain the happiness of heaven: may we
have a real knowledge of the immortals.
Waters at a holy spotSayana, as at a tirtha (sacred
ford) the portions of water sprinkled in the act of tarpana
(libation) go to the assembly of the gods. The use of the
term is worthy of notice, as indicating a considerable
4750
advance in legendary mythology.
May we have a real knowledge, etc.--(Sayana
explains navedasah as na na vettara vettara eva, i.e.,
svarupato jnatara eva, knowing personally, but it is
difficult to see how not-knowers, which is Sayana's
derivation, and also that of Panini, vi. 3. 75, to whom he
refers, can come to mean knowers. In his comment on i.
34. 1. Sayana explains it as no paretam vetti, he does not
know falsely)
4297. The work of the Black Yajus Schools entitled
Taittiriya Sanhita, Part 2, Kandas IV-VII, translated by
Arthur Berriedale Keith, first published in 1914 and the second
issue in 1967 by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, says:
vi. 1. 1. He makes a hall with beams pointing east. The
gods and men divided the quarters, the gods (obtained) the
eastern, the Pitrs the southern, men the western, the Rudras
the northern. In that he makes a hall with beams pointing
east, the sacrificer approaches the world of the gods. He
covers it over, for the world of the gods is hidden from the
world of men.
4298. Adhyay-9, verse 381 Yajurveda Samhita,
translated by R.T.H. Griffith, third edition 2002 (first edition
1997). It says:
ss. i- ii -i li i il n|
l- ii liln l,i i l- i -ii -- -iri|| zr||
Surely the furtherance of strength pervaded all
these existing worlds in all directions. From olden time the
King moves round, well knowing, strengthening all the
people and our welfare.
1
4751
4299. Atherva-Veda ka Subodh Bhasya, Tritiya Bhag
(Kanda 7-10), translated by Dr. Sripad Damodar Satvalekar
published in 1985, at 2. 31, 32 says:
-i i ,ii ii i i| n-i lr ii -ni
i lnii n||s||
nl-- lr- ii l l lnl-n | nl-- i-i--n n,
r -lil ||sz||
(-i i, ,ii, ii ii | ) l- i- r ,
i i ,i r , | r i i i | n| r | (n-i lr i i
i lnii i n -n ||) - n -| ii r , i n l i -n
r | ||s||
Ayodhya is such abode of Gods, which has eight
Chakras (wheels) and nine portals. It has a Tejaswi
Kosh (golden vessel), which amounts to heaven full of
luminosity. (E.T.C.)
(l , li ln-n , nl-- nl-- lr ii , n
i--n i n r - l l ) n| i n, n| i -
l-in, | n -| i i - i i--i i r i l r -i
| -in r | ||sz||
The self knowing Yaksha (demi God), who exists in
that Tejaswi Kosh surrounded on three sides with three
focal points, is definitely believed so by Brahma Ji.
(E.T.C.)
4300. Atharva-Veda Samhita, Books VIII to XIX,
translated by William Dwigth Whitney (Revised and edited by
Charles Rockwell Lanman) first published in Cambridge in
1905 and re-printed in 2001 by Motilal Banarsidass, at X. 31
and 32 says:
31. Eight-wheeled, nine-doored, is the impregnable
stronghold of the gods; in that is a golden vessel, heaven-
4752
going (svarga), covered with light.
32. In that golden vessel, three-spoked, having three
supportswhat sou-possessing monster (yaksa) there is in
it, that verily the knowers of the brahman know.
4301. Skanda-Purana, translated and annotated by Dr.
G.V. Tagare, Part-VII, first published in Delhi in 1995 by
Motilal Banarasidas at page 142 verses 25, 26-28, 29, 30-31. It
says:
25. Orh, obeisance to that holy lord Vyass of
unmeasured splendour, with whose favour I know this glory
of Ayodhya.
26-28. May all sages with their disciples hear with
attention. I shall recount the splendid glory of the city of
Ayodhya. It was heard by Skanda from Narada. Then it was
narrated to Agastya. Formerly it was recounted to Krsna
Dvaipayana by Agastya.
O ascetics, it was obtained from Krsna Dvaipayana
by me. With great respect I shall recount it to you all who
are desirous of hearing.
29. I bow down to the immutable Rama, the Supreme
Brahman whose eyes resemble lotus, who is as dark-blue
as a flower of flax (in complexion) and who killed Ravana.
30. Great and holy is the city of Ayodhya which is
inaccessible to perpetrators of evil deeds. Who would not
like to visit Ayodhya wherein Lord Hari himself resided?
31. This divine and extremely splendid city is on
the banks of the river Saray. It is on a par with Amaravati
(the capital of Indra) and is resorted to by many ascetics.
4302. Page 216 to 219 Chapter-IX verse 54-58, Chapter X
4753
verses, 1-2, 3-6, 7, 8-12, 13-16a, 16b-17, 18-19, 20, 21, 22, 23-
25, 28, 32, 33, 35 and 36 of Skanda-Purana (supra) says as
under:
54-58. Gold and cooked rice should be given in
accordance with the injunctions to Brahmanas. This must
be performed with great faith by piously disposed men. To
the west of it is the excellent Jatakunda where Rama and
others dropped and removed their matted hairs. Thus
Jatakunda is well-known as the most excellent of all
excellent Tirthas. By taking the holy bath here and by
making charitable gifts, one attains all desires. In the
previous (?eastern) Kundas Bharata should be worshipped
along with Sri. In the Jatakunda Rama and Laksmana
should be worshipped along with Sita. The annual festival
shall be on the fourteenth day in the dark half of Caitra.
Thus in accordance with the great injunctions one
shall worship Rama and Sita (first), then in Bharatakunda
one shall worship Laksmana. The couple should take the
holy plunge in the Amrtakunda duly. Thereby the devotee
dwells in the world of Visnu as an embodiment of
meritorious deeds.
1-2. The devotee should worship Ajita (Visnu) by
abstaining from food or taking in only milk. Siddhi
(spiritual achievement) comes within his hands (power).
The great festival should be celebrated with vocal
and instrumental music. An intelligent devotee who does
like this and performs the rites in this manner, shall attain
all desires.
3-6. To the north of this is the auspicious Tirtha of
4754
Vira, the great elephant in rut. O sage regularly performing
holy rites.
After taking the holy bath, the devotee should stay
there in front of it determinedly. He attains the complete
Siddhi on realising which he does not bemoan or regret.
Vira (Hero, the elephant deity here) is the defender of
Ayodhya and bestower of all desired objects. The annual
festival shall be celebrated on the Pancami (fifth) day
during Navaratris (Festival on nine days in Asvina). The
deity should be worshipped carefully by means of scents,
incense, flowers etc. and food offerings in accordance with
the injunctions. The deity shall be the bestower of all
desired objects. Whatever he may desire, he shall attain.
7. The the south of this is the demoness names
Surasa. O Brahmana, she is a perpetual devotee of Visnu.
She is a bestower of Siddhis.
8-12. By devoutly worshipping her one shall realise
all desires. She was brought from her abode in Lanka by
Rama of Magnificent activities. She was installed in
Ayodhya for the sake of its defence. People must observe
vows and restraints, worship her duly and visit her with
great respect. The festival for the sake of realising all
desired objects, bestows auspiciousness. It should be
celebrated with great effort by means of vocal and
instrumental music.
The annual festival shall be celebrated on Trtiya
(third day) during the Navaratris. It is conducive to the
attainment of happiness and progeny. It bestows great
objects. It shall be made pleasant by means of songs,
4755
musical instruments and dances. If everything is done thus,
one shall be well-protected always. There is no doubt about
this.
13-16a. In the western direction to this is installed a
very great warrior of excellent heroism called Pindaraka.
He is to be worshipped with great effort by means of scents,
flowers, raw ricegrains etc. As a result of this worship
Siddhis shall be within the reach of men. The worship of
that deity should be performed by men in accordance with
the injunction of worship. The devotee shall take his holy
bath in the waters of Sarayu and then worship Pindaraka
who deludes sinners and bestows good intellect on men of
good deeds always.
The (annual) festival should be celebrated during
Navaratris with great luxury.
16b-17. To the west of it, the devotee should
worship Vighnesvara by seeking whom not even the least
obstacle remains (in the affairs) of men. Hence
Vighnesvara, the bestower of all desired benefits, should be
worshipped.
18-19. To the north-east of that spot is the place of
the birth of Rama. This holy spot of the birth is, it is said,
the means of achieving salvation etc. It is said that the
place of birth is situated to the east of Vighnesvara, to the
north of Vasistha and to the west of Laumasa.
20. Only by visiting it a man can get rid of staying
(frequently) in a womb (i.e. rebirth). There is no necessity
for making charitable gifts, performing a penance or
sacrifices or undertaking pilgrimages to holy spots.
4756
21. On the Navami day the man should observe the
holy vow. By the power of the holy bath and charitable
gifts, he is liberated from the bondage of births.
22. By visiting the place of birth one attains that
benefit which is obtained by one who gives thousands of
tawny-coloured cows everyday.
23-25. By seeing the place of birth one attains the
merit of ascetics performing penance in hermitage, of
thousands of Rajasuya sacrifices and Agnihotra sacrifices
performed every year. By seeing a man observing the holy
rite particularly in the place of birth he obtains the merit of
the holy men endowed with devotion to mother and father
as well as preceptors.
28. By (visiting) the city of the Son of Dasarath (i.e.
Rama) in Kali Yuga, it is said, one gets that merit which is
obtained by persons who perform Gayasraddha and then
visit Purusottama (Jagannathapuri).
32. By visiting the city of Dasarath's Son in
Kaliyuga (even) for half a moment one obtains the merit of
taking a holy plunge in Ganga for sixty thousand years.
33. If living beings contemplate on Rama for a
moment or half a moment, it becomes the destroyer of
ignorance which is the cause of the worldly existence.
35. Sarayu is Brahman itself in the form of water. It
always bestows salvation. There is no question of
experiencing the effects of Karma here. The man assumes
the form of Rama.
36. Beasts, birds, and animals and all those living
beings of inferior species, become liberated and they go to
4757
heaven in accordance with the words of Srirama.
4303. Shri Narsinghpuranam, Samvat 2056, published
by Geeta Press Gorakhpur, Chapter 62 verse 4, 5 and 6 says:
- il- liil-nn |
- -i - li i-i || ||
n i l ini i -|liii- |
ln-i-~ ,|i ilni r rl||r||
ni n i r i -il ln-i |
n i r -n - lli -- n-|||c||
|-i | ri si, - | l-nn -| ini li
| lli ni ri r , l i i| - lni
- li i (-i i) i in r r | ln - r i l
ini i ln - r | nili i i lni l r
- r| ini | l-iln r nii i ii | l,i r , l ln-i
- ini i li r | ;l l n , , r , -i l
( | ) i l n-i ; i | i i i i - i ni i
l l i - l i ,i i ni i ni r | i ni
- r , n -i l i l n-i i - i | i n-
- n- r|| (Hindi Translation)
Sri Markandey Ji said- Well, I am telling the method
of worshipping extremely luminous Lord Vishnu by virtue
of which all the sages have attained Param Nirvan
(liberation). For those offering Hawan in fire, Bhagwan
(God) is present in fire. For the wise and the Yogis, God
exists only in their respective hearts, and for those having a
little intellect, God exists in statues. Thats why, the sages
have prescribed for due worship of God in fire, the Sun,
heart, altar and idol. The God is omnipresent. So the
worship of God is good in altars and idols as well.
(E.T.C.)
4758
4304. Sri Ramacaritamanasa published by Geeta Press
Gorakhpur, first edition 1968, 11
th
edition 1999-Balkanda
Chaupai 1-4, Doha 34, page 33 and Uttara-Kanda Chaupai 1-
4, page 679 says:
i o lr lli l || l il n i |||
l r| l i|| n ii lr in ii|||||
i llr i; -iii| l i- n niii||
n ir n|i| ii rl il niii||z||
i -| ii - i -i -ii| i | r ln ii||
lr l i- - ln nilr | n|i nri l ilr ||s||
in in - l i| i; lr i i i||
- -ri - l r i i | lr i- |ln nii||||
Putting away all doubts in this way and placing on
my head the dust from the lotus feet of my preceptor. I
supplicate all with joined palms once more, so that no
blame may attach to the telling of the story. Reverently
bowing my head to Lord Siva, I now proceed to recount the
fair virtues of Sri Rama. Placing my head on the feet of Sri
Hari I commence this story in the Samvat year 1631
(1574 A.D.). On Tuesday, the ninth of the lunar month
of Caitra, this story shed its lustre at Ayodhya. On this
day of Sri Rama's birth the presiding spirits of all holy
places flock there-so declare the vedasand demons,
Nagas, birds, human beings, sages and gods come and pay
their homage to the Lord of Raghus. Wise men celebrate
the great birthday festival and sing the sweet glory of Sri
Rama
i o -lr r i ||
lr i- il i -i- |||s||
Numerous groups of pious men take dip in the holy
4759
water of the Sarayu river and, visualizing in their heart the
beautiful swarthy form of Sri Rama, mutter His name.
(34)
io ;ri ii - li| lr iin n -i r||
| n i| i | l r i|| ||
nl - iii| i lln n ii||
i | - l lr i +| r n i; i i +||z||
- il- -- | ril| -n ll r il||
i - n llr ii| -- -| ilr ii||s||
ln l -i lr ;ri i|| -- ii-i | i i|||
ri l l i i|| i i i i- ii|||||
At the other end Sri Rama, who brought delight to
the solar race as the sun to the lotus, was busy showing the
charming city to the monkeys. Listen, Sugriva (lord of the
monkeys), Angada and Vibhisana (Lord of Lanka), holy is
this city and beautiful this land. Although all have extolled
Vaikuntha (My divine Abode), which is familiar to the
Vedas and the Puranas and known throughout the world, it
is not so dear to Me as the city of Ayodhya: only some rare
soul knows this secret. This beautiful city is My birthplace;
to the north of it flows the holy Sarayu, by bathing in which
men secure a home near Me without any difficulty. The
dwellers here are very dear to me; the city is not only full
of bliss itself but bestows a residence in My divine Abode.
the monkeys were all delighted to hear these words of the
Lord and said, Blessed indeed is Ayodhay, that has evoked
praise from Sri Rama Himself!
4305. History of Dharmashastra, translated by
Pandurang Vaman Kane, Part-IV Third Edition 1991 published
by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Poona, Chapter XI
4760
Tirthayatra says:
All religions have laid great emphasis on the
sacredness of certain localities and have either enjoined or
recommended with great insistence pilgrimages to them.
Among the five incumbent practical religious duties of a
Moslem, pilgrimage at least once in his life to Mecca
and Medina, the birth place and burial place of the
prophet Mohammad, is one. The four places of
pilgrimage for Buddhists have been the place of the birth of
Buddha (Lumbini or Rummindei), the place where he
attained perfect enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), the place
where he set in motion the wheel of dharma by delivering
his first sermon (at Sarnath near Benares) and the place
where he passed away into the state of nirvana (Kusinara).
Vide Mahaparinibbanasutta (S.B.E. Vol. XI, p. 90). For
Christians Jerusalem has been the holiest place and no
religious community except the Christians undertook in
historic times several great military pilgrimages. The
crusades were launched to free the Holy Land of Christians
from the domination of Moslems. In spite of what Gibbon
says somewhat cynically about those who joined the
crusades, it must be admitted that there were thousands
among the crusaders who risked their lives and fortunes in
the pursuit of an ideal. (page 552)
. . . . Benares and Ramesvara were held sacred by all
Hindus, whether they hailed from the north of India or
from the peninsula. (page 553)
The word tirtha occurs frequently in the Rgveda and
other Vedic samhitas. In several passages of the Rgveda
4761
tirtha appears to mean a road or a way (e.g. In Rg. I, 169,
6 'tirthe naryah paumsyani tasthuh', Rg. I. 173. 11 'tirthe
naccha tatrsanam-oko', Rg. IV. 29. 3 'karan-na Indrah
sutirthabhayam ca'). In some places tirtha may be taken to
mean a ford in a river, as in Rg. VII. 47. 11 'sutirtham-
arvato yathanu no nesatha sugam &c.', Rg. I. 46. 8
'aritram vam divas-prthu tirthe sindhunam rathah'. In Rg.
X. 31. 3 'tirthe na dasmamupa yantyumah', tirtha probably
means 'a holy place'. ( page 554)
. . . . .so some localities on the earth are held to be very
holy. Tirthas are held to be holy (on three grounds, viz.)
on account of some wonderful natural characteristic of
the locality or on account of the peculiar strikingness (or
grandeur) of some watery place or on account of the fact
that some (holy) sages resorted to them (for bathing,
austerities &c.). Tirtha, therefore, means a locality or spot
or expanse of water which gives rise to the accumulation
of righteousness (merit) owning to its own peculiar
nature without any adventitious circumstance (such as the
presence of Salagrama near it). (pages 554-555)
In the Rigveda waters, rivers in general and certain
named rivers are referred to with great reverence as holy
and are deified. In Rg. VII. 49 the refrain of all four verses
is 'may the divine waters protect me' (ta apo devir-iha
mamavantu). In Rg. VII. 49. 1 waters are spoken of as
purifying (punanah). Rg. VII 47, X. 9, X. 30 are hymns
addressed to waters as divinities. They are said to purify a
man not only physically but are also invoked to rid a man
of all sins and lapses from the right path. (page 555)
4762
. . . . therefore visiting holy places is superior to
sacrifices. (page 562)
4306. The above book in Chapter XIV Gaya says:
Four of the most important and holy tirthas have
been dealt with at some length so far. It is not possible in
the space allotted to the section on tirthas to pursue the
same procedure as regards other famous tirthas. It is
proposed to devote a few pages to each of half a dozen or
more tirthas and then to give a somewhat comprehensive
list of tirthas with a few reference in the case of each. But
before proceeding further reference must be made to
certain popular groupings of tirthas. There is a group of
seven cities that are deemed to be very holy and the
bestows of moksa. They are Ayodhya, Mathura, Maya (i.e.
Haridvara), Kasi, Kanchi, Avantika (i.e. Ujjayini),
Dvaraka. In some works it is Kanti and not Kanci that is
mentioned. Badarinatha, Jagannatha Puri, Ramsevara and
Dvarakathese four are styled Dhama. There are said to
be twelve Jyotirlingas of Siva, according to the Sivapurana
viz. Somanatha in Saurastra, Mallikarjuna on Srisaila hill
(in Karnul District and about 50 miles from the Krishna
station on the G.I.P. Railway), Mahakala (in Ujjayini),
Paramesvara in Omkara-Ksetra (an island in the
Narmada), Kedara in the Himalayas, Bhimasankara
(north-west of Poona at the source of the Bhima river) in
Dakini, Visvesvara in Banares, Tryambakesvara on the
banks of the Gautami, i.e. Godavari (near Nasik),
Vaidyanatha in Citabhumi, Nagesa in Darukavana,
Ramesvara in Setubandha and Ghasnesa in Sivalaya (i.e.
4763
the modern shrine at the village of Elura, 7 miles from
Devagiri or Daulatabad). The Sivapurana (Kotirudra
samhita) chap. 1 names the twelve Jyotirlingas and
chapters 14-33 narrate the legends connected with the
twelve lingas. The Skandapurana I (Kedarakhanda) chap.
7 verses 30-35 enumerate several lingas including most of
the twelve Jyotirlingas. The Barhaspatyasutra (edited by
Dr. F.W. Thomas) mentions eight great tirthas each of
Visnu, Siva and Sakti, that yield all siddhis. (pages 677-
678)
rsr. i i -i i -ii ii| i | lni| n n-i i -i
|i- -n-i -n-i|| ir -i IVo s ii| in| -iii -i i
,i-l| -i ilni ni - i -i ii || -, ii|i,
c, cs , in| ,iin| ii i -|| -ii | -i i
- l- lni| ii|i zs, / i i . . . lni | | ,in|
i n ni -i iili|| ni ii ( ni)ss. rc In the -,
ini /. in| occurs as capital of Rudrasena and in
Brahmanda III 13 94&97 Kantipuri is described as
possessing a place for Vyasas contemplation a
Kumaradhara and puskarii. If the reading in| is to be
accepted there name of Khatmsndu and capital of Napal
while A.G. identifies it with Kotval 20 miles north of
Gwalior.(page 678 Footnote)
4307. The above book at page 736 under the heading List
of tirthas says:
Ayodhya--(in Fyzabad District in U.P.) on the
Ghagra. One of the seven holy cities (vide p. 678n above).
It is also a place of pilgrimage of Jains, as some of their
saints were born there. Atharva-veda X. 2. 31 and Tai, A.