EI2257 TRANSDUCERS AND MEASUREMENTS LABORATORY

OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lab is to train the students in handling the different kinds of transducers like LVDT, Hall effect, Thermocouple etc., To impart the students an adequate knowledge and work experience of the different types of AC and DC bridges, electronic measurement methods for different electronic instruments.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. smart transducers. 6. 7. for inductance measurement. 8. Calibration of Ammeter and Voltmeter using Student type potentiometer. Wheatstone and Kelvins bridge for measurement of resistance. Schering Bridge for capacitance measurement and Anderson Bridge Displacement versus output voltage characteristics of a potentiometric transducer. Characteristics of Strain gauge and Load cell. Characteristics of LVDT, Hall effect transducer and Photoelectric Characteristic of LDR, thermistor and thermocouple. Step response characteristic of RTD and thermocouple and Study of

tachometer.

9. 10.

Calibration of Single-phase Energy meter and wattmeter. Design, Construction and calibration of series and shunt type

ohmmeters.

CONTENTS

S. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT No 1. 2. 3. Displacement versus output voltage characteristics of a potentiometer transducer. Characteristics of Strain gauge and Load cell. Characteristics of LVDT, Hall effect transducer and photoelectric tachometer. Characteristic of LDR, thermistor and thermocouple. Step response characteristic of RTD and thermocouple and Study of smart transducers. Wheatstone and Kelvins bridge for measurement of resistance. Schering Bridge for capacitance measurement and Anderson Bridge for inductance measurement. Calibration of Ammeter and Voltmeter using Student type potentiometer.

Page No 3 9 15

4.

26

5. 6. 7.

38 43 50

8.

57

9. 10.

Calibration of Single-phase Energy meter and wattmeter. Design, Construction and calibration of series and shunt type ohmmeters.

61 67

1. DISPLACEMENT VERSUS OUTPUT VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF A POTENTIOMETRIC TRANSDUCER Aim To study the characteristics of potentiometric transducer. Appartus Required

S.No 1. 2. 3.

Component Rheostat (400 /1A, 115 /1A, 50 /1A,) Voltmeter (0-15 V) RPS

Quantity 1 1 1

Formula Required %E= Where, K = Xi / X t K2 (K-1) * 100 K (1-K) + Rm / RP Rm = Meter resistance in Rm = Meter resistance in Xi = Length between variable end and common end X t = Total length of potentiometer Eo = Xi / X t (Ei) Theory

A resistive potentiometer or simply a POT is used for the purpose of voltage division. It consist of a resistive element provided with a sliding contact (wiper).The motion of sliding contact may be translatory or rotationally. The translational resistive elements are straight devices and have stroke of about 2mm to 0.5m. The rotational resistive devices are circular in shape and are used for angular displacement. The resistive element of a potentiometer may be excited either an a.c or d.c voltage source. The POT is a passive transducer since it requires external power source for its operation. Procedure 1) To analyze the loading effect of potentiometer 1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram 2. Switch on the supply and vary the potentiometer wiper. 3. The voltmeter readings are noted and the above procedure is repeated for the different positions of the pot. 4. The graphs are plotted between i) eo / ei vs K ii) % E vs Xi 5. The above steps are repeated for the potentiometer with load 2) To analyze the characteristics of the potentiometer 1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram 2. Switch on the supply and vary the potentiometer wiper. 3. The voltmeter readings are noted and the above procedure is repeated for the different positions of the pot. 4. The graphs are plotted between displacement vs output voltage

Without load: Sl.No ei

(

Xt = eo
(

; Rm = Xi (cm) volts)

; Rp = K =Xi /X t eo / ei %E

volts)

With load: Xt = Sl.No ei

(

; Rm = eo
(

; Rp = Xi (cm) K =Xi /X t eo / ei %E Load

volts)

volts)

Tabulation:

Xt =

Sl.No

ei
(

eo
(

Xi (cm)

volts)

volts)

Result

2 A). CHARACTERISTICS OF STRAIN GAUGE Aim To study the characteristics of strain gauge Apparatus Required 1. Strain gauge Kit 2. Unknown weights 3. Multimeter Principle and Theory If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also there is a change in the valve of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained and this property is called piezo resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges. When a gauge is subjected to positive strain, is length increases while its area of cross section decreases .So the resistance of a conductor is proportional to its length and inversely proportional its area of cross section. Resistance of Unstrained gauge R = ( L/A) The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length. Procedure 1. Connect the sensor fixed on the cantilever beam to the sensor interface of the module using a 9 pin D type connector. 2. The input excitation D.C voltage is varied and given to the bridge circuit and the offset control adjust the output voltage when no load is applied. 3. Gain control varies the gain of the signal conditioning. This unit is calibrated to measure the load of ( 0 -1000) grams in terms of (0-5) volt. 4. Load the beam to 100gram and measure the bridge output voltage. Gauge factor Gf = (R/R ) / (L/L)

5. Repeat step 5 by gradually increasing the load in steps of 100 grams. 6. Tabulate the readings and plot the graph of load Vs Output voltage.

10

Characteristics of Strain Gauge

+Vcc

STRAIN

DISPLAY UNIT

T
3

11

Tabulation S.No Applied Load(g) Output Voltage(V) Display ed Load(g) Strain

Result

12

2 B. CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAD CELL Aim To study the characteristics of strain gauge load cell. Apparatus Required 1. Strain gauge load cell 2. Display unit 3. Weights Theory Mechanical Load cell is a combination of an elastic member along with the strain gauge. It consists of a cylindrical thin elastic membrane. On the surface of this membrane strain gauges are cemented. These strain gauges are connected in the bridge circuit. When a force is applied on the elastic membrane the dimensions of the strain gauges change, resulting change in the resistance. The changes in the resistance unbalance the bridge O/P. This unbalanced O/P voltage is proportional to the applied force or weight, which is calibrated in terms of force (kgf). Procedure 1 When there is no load on this steel cylinder all the four gauges will have the same resistances. Hence the output voltage will be zero. (To adjust the calibrating screw for zero setting in display unit) 2 When an unknown weight being measured is applied on the steel cylinder, the balancing of the wheat stones bridge is affected and the change in resistance proportional to the weight is displayed. 3 For different values of unknown weight the o/p of display unit is measured and tabulated and plot the graph between input weights Vs output voltage.

13

14

Tabulation Sl.No Applied load(gm) Weight in tension mode (gm) Weight in compression mode (gm)

Actual load Sl.No (gm)

Measured Weight (gm)

% Error

Result

15

3. A) CHARACTERISTICS OF LVDT Aim To study the characteristics of LVDT and to measure the displacement using LVDT Apparatus Required 1. LVDT TRAINER KIT 2. LVDT transducer set up Theory LVDT is the abbreviation for the Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is a variable inductance transducer which provides an ac voltage output proportional to the displacement of core passing through the windings .The transformer consists of a single primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 & S2 wound on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either side of the primary winding. The primary winding is connected to an a.c source. A movable shaft iron core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core. Core is made up of high permeability, Ni iron which is hydrogen annealed. The assembly is placed in stainless steel housing and the end lids provide electrostatic & electromagnetic shielding. Since the primary winding is excited by an a.c current, it provides an alternating magnetic field, which in turn induces alternating current voltages in the secondary windings. The O/P voltages of secondary, S1 is ES1, and secondary S2 is Es2 In order to convert the O/Ps from S1 & S2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary are connected in series opposition. Thus the O/P voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages differential O/P voltage, E 0 = E S1 - E S2. When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal. E S1 = E S2. Since the O/P is the difference of the two voltages, E
0

is zero at null position. If the core is moved left from

NULL, E S1 > E S2 .so the O/P voltage is in phase with the primary voltage. If the

16

core is moved right from NULL, E S1 < E S2 .so the O/P voltage is out of phase with the primary voltage. Procedure 1. Connect the terminals of primary of the instruments on the front panel to the terminals marked wires. 2. Identically establish connections from terminals marked as secondary. 3. Keep potentiometer on maximum in most anticlockwise position, keep rotary switch SW2 in left hand position. 4.The magnetic core may be displaced and the pointer may be brought to zero position. If the digital panel is not indicating zero use potentiometer marked minimum to get a zero on DPM at zero mechanical position. If the core is displaced in both directions the meter will indicate the value. Now the core can be displaced by a known amount in the range +20mm to 20 mm. Thus the meter reading can be entered in the table. Block Diagram of LVDT primary on the transducer with the help of electric

17

18

Block Diagram Signal conditioning unit Differential Amplifier

LVDT

A/ D converter

DVM

Displaceme nt

Model Graph

Meter reading (v)

Residual voltage (v)

Displacement (mm) 19

Tabulation

Input displacement (mm) RIGHT LEFT

Meter reading (V) RIGHT LEFT

Result

20

3 B). CHARACTERISTICS OF HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCER Aim To Study the characteristic and performance of Hall Effect voltage transducer Apparatus Required 1. Hall Effect voltage transducer set up 2. Multimeter 3. Patch cards Principle The Hall Effect voltage transducer operates on the principle of Hall Effect .A semiconductor carrying current develops an electro motive force when placed in a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both current and magnetic field. The magnitude of the emf is proportional to the field intensity if the current is kept stable. The output (0 5v d.c) of Hall device is signal conditioned to give a input signal ( 0 230 v A.C) proportional to output signal. Procedure 1. Plug and power card into the main a.c. 2. Put the multimeter across the terminal (0-230v a.c) 3. Vary the power and note down the d.c voltage from 0 to -5v d.c across the terminal. 4. The readings are noted and tabulated. 5. Draw a graph between input voltage and output voltage.

21

Black diagram of Hall Effect voltage transducer

230 V AC 50 Hz

Hall Effect Transducer

Signal Conditioning

Precision Rectifier

Filter

(0-5) v DC Power supply Micro processor Kit

Model Graph

O/P voltage Vs I/P voltage

Output voltage (v)

I/P Voltage

22

Tabulation Sl.No Input Voltage (0-230V A.C) Output Voltage (0-5V D.C)

Result

23

3 C). CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOELECTRIC TACHOMETER Aim To obtain the characteristics of Photoelectric Tachometer. Apparatus required i. Photo electric tachometer ii. Multimeter iii. DC motor unit. Procedure 1. 2. 3. Ensure the power is off to the servomotor controller unit and pulse Ensure the speed feedback loop is open, so that the motor is Connect the motor to the output of the power amplifier in the ON / OFF switch is in OFF position operated on open loop. servo controller through (0-2) A ammeter, connect a voltmeter (0-30) V across the motor armature. 4. 5. 6. 7. Set the controller to be proportional by connecting the I controller Set the proportional gain Kp at minimum (unity). Switch on power to the motor controllers and the pulse release Set Vref = 1 Volt slowly increase the gain Kp voltage by means of input to ground.

switch ON position the proportional gain adjustment pot, and find the voltage at which the motor just starts running. 8. 9. Vary the reference voltage in steps, and for each step, note down Plot the graph between Speed Vs Output voltage. the motor speed and armature voltage. Tabulate the readings.

24

Model Graph

(Photo Electric Tachometer)

Speed Vs Output Voltage

Output voltage (v)

Speed (rpm) Tabulation S.No Speed (rpm) Output Voltage (V)

25

26

Result

27

4 A). CHARCTERRISTICS OF LDR Aim To design and construct the circuit to draw the characteristics of LDR by 1. Keeping the supply voltage constant and varying the distance 2. Keeping the distance constant and varying the supply voltage Apparatus Required 1. Autotransformer 2. Lamp 40 w 3. LDR 4. (0-5) V mc 5. RPS (0-5) V 6. IC 741 7. Resistor 1 k ohms 8. Breadboard Theory LDR is a photoconductive cell where conducting is function of incident light radiation. The essential element of a photoconductive cell is ceramic substrate (Germanium, Silicon) with a layer of photoconductive materials like Lithium sulphide & cadmium sulphide. Metallic electrodes connect the device into the circuit. The LDR resistance decrease with increased intensity because of higher number of electron hole pairs generated and the high current carriers decrease the resistance of the material. So LDR (Light Dependent resistor) is having negative resistance coefficient. Design Let R max be the resistance of LDR at dark condition and R min is the resistance of max light intensity radiation readings of the voltmeter. Then Rf is selected so that the voltage doesnt exceed it. Vo = -Rf

28

Vin V S Rf Procedure

Ri = - Rf Ri = -V Rmin S

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram 2. The auto transformer O/P is varied from zero to max voltage and the corresponding O/P voltage is taken. 3. The voltage supply to the lamp is kept constant. The distance between the supply and LDR is varied and the corresponding change in LDR resistance is noted down. Graph The graph was drawn by taking 1 Auto transformer voltage in X axis and O/P voltage in Y axis 2 Distance between LDR and lamp in the X-axis and LDR output of resistance in Y-axis

29

Circuit Diagram for Characteristics of Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

1 Transformer Bulb

220 7

Feedback Resistor

4 0 -230 V AC
5V

0 -5 V

0 -230 / 15 V

LDR

LDR Symbol

IC 741 Basic Pin Configurations:

1, 5 Offset Null 2 Inverting Input 3- Non-inverting Input 4- -Vcc 6- Output 7 - + Vcc 8- No connection

30

Tabulation Distance constant .cm Auto transformer (v) Output voltage (v)

Constant voltage Auto transformer = 220v Distance (cm) LDR resistance (k ohm )

Result

31

4 B). CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTOR Aim To construct the circuit and to draw the thermistor characteristics Apparatus Required 1. IC 741 2. Thermistor 3. Thermometer 4. Resistor 5. 100w bulb 6. Voltmeter (0-5) V mc Theory Thermistor or thermal resistor is a semiconductor device that behaves as a resistor with high negative coefficient resistance, has high sensitivity to change in temperature. The range of temperature is -1000 to 3000 C. They are composed of different mixture of metallic oxide such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and iron. Procedure The connections are made as per circuit diagram. The temperature of the thermistor is raised with the 100W bulb placed near. When supplied with AC mains the bulb glows and the raise in the temperature is recorded with thermometer and corresponding decrease in resistance is measured with multimeter. Now the output voltage is measured and tabulated. Taking resistance in Y axis and temperature in X-axis and also voltage in Y-axis and temperature in X-axis draws a graph.

32

Circuit diagram for Characteristics of Thermistor

1 Transformer Bulb

Thermometer

220 7

Feedback Resistor

4 0 -230 V AC
5V

0 -5 V

0 -230 / 15 V

Thermister Model Graph

Resistance ()

Voltage (V)

Temperature ( oC) Temperature ( oC)

33

IC 741 Basic Pin Configurations

1, 5 - Offset Null 2 - Inverting Input 3 - Non-inverting Input 4 - (-Vcc) 6 - Output 7 - (+ Vcc ) 8 - No connection

Tabulation Temperature (0 C) O/P (Voltage) Resistance (Ohm)

Result

34

4 C). CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMOCOUPLE Aim To study the temperature characteristics of i. J- Type Thermocouple ii. AD590 Thermocouple Apparatus Required 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Theory J- Type Thermocouple: This active transducer made of iron and Constantan metals. There are two junctions. One of the junctions is kept as a reference and other is subjected to the temperature. Depending on the difference in the temperature of the two junctions it develops on output voltage without need of any excitation. The voltage is mill volt. This voltage is suitably signal conditioned to give an output in volts. AD590 Thermocouple This is a temperature sensing element with signal conditioning electronics, all in a single monolithic integrated circuit package. It gives current as the output signal proportional to temperature when the signal to be transmitted over a large distance. AD590 is a better choice as a current signal is not affected by resistance of wire. This is a low constant or linear device. Then the output of AD590 Iout = 1 x 10-6 T Amps Where , T Temperature in 0C.
35

J- Type Thermocouple AD590 Thermocouple Heater Multimeter Thermometer

Or

Iout = 273 x 10-6 + 1 x 10-6 T Amps

Procedure J- Type Thermocouple: 1. 2. 3. 4. Connect the two terminals of the thermocouple to the thermocouple input and ground point. Measure the displayed voltage for in the multimeter for room temperature. Now, insert the thermocouple into the water bath to start heating it gradually Using Voltage Repeat step 4 for different temperature of water bath. Tabulate the reading & plot graph of temperature Vs thermocouple output. AD590 Thermocouple 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Select the thermocouple using the switch & connect the multimeter in volts range across T3 & ground. Now, switch on the power supply to the unit and start heating the thermocouple. Insert a thermometer in water bath. Now the temperature, voltage of T3 & the displayed temperature. Tabulate the readings. Repeat the above procedure for AD-590 by changing the sensor select switch by connecting the multimeter in volt range across T4 & ground. Note down the reading & tabulate it. Calculate the % error & plot the graph of temperature & voltage for both the sensor. The curves may be compared & studied for linearity & accuracy. a thermometer, measure the temperature of the corresponding thermocouple output

36

Tabulation (Characteristics of Thermocouple) S.No Temperatur e (0C) O/P Voltage Without amp (mV) O/P Voltage With amp (V) Displayed Temperatu re (0C)

Model Graph
o/p voltage (v) O/P Voltage Without amp (mV) Temperature (0 C) 9

o/p voltage (v) With amp

Temperature (0 C) 9

37

38

Result

39

5 A). STEP RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF RTD Aim To study the step response characteristics of RTD Apparatus Required 1. IC 741, Resistor 1k 2. Regulated power supply 3. RTD Theory RTD is a temperature sensor. The principle of RTD is based on the fact that electrical resistance of many metals almost directly increases with the temperature. It is given by the equation Rt = Ro (1+ T ) 4. Bread board 5. Stop watch 6. Connection wires

Ro = resistance at 0 deg T = temperature in C = Temperature coefficient of resistance. Procedure 1. Design a wheat stone bridge circuit with RTD at one arm. 2. Balance the bridge circuit by changing the value of the rheostat connected at one end. 3. Immerse RTD in boiling water and temperature is read from mercury thermometer. 4. At balanced condition RTD resistance value and other three arms are connected with some value of R. The bridge circuit detects or indicates 0 value. After some time the temperature raises and RTD O/P of bridge circuit raises. The bridge circuit is connected to instrumentation amplifier gives the values proportional to the temperature of process. 5. For each degree of rise in temperature the change in the value of unbalanced voltage is noted & the graph is drawn between time interval vs temperature and time interval vs unbalanced O/P voltage.

40

Characteristics of RTD

Sl no

Time interval (Min)

Temperature C

Resistance in Ohm

O/P voltage

Result

41

5 B). STEP RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF THEMOCOUPLE Aim To study the step response characteristic of thermocouple. Apparatus Required 1. Water tank 2. Heater 3. Thermocouple 4. Thermometer 5. Multimeter 6. Stop watch Theory Thermocouple consists of two conductors. Two different materials A, B are joined together at one end to form a junction and this junction is heated to a higher temperature with respect to the other end. And the principle behind is Seeback effect, which states that "when two dissimilar metals are connected, and if the two junctions are kept at different temperatures then an e.m.f will be produced at the other end which is proportional to the temperature". The voltage developed in the free ends is the measure of the temperature and is also known as principle of thermoelectricity. Heated terminal is called as hot junction and the other junction is called as measuring junction. Procedure 1. The thermocouple-measuring junction is introduced in water heating glasses. 2. The reference is controlled to be at constant temperature of 00 C 3. Since those two junctions are at different temperature and the voltage developed is measured with the help of voltmeter and the mill voltmeter is calibrated suitable. So that the readings become an indication of temperature. 4. The time interval Vs temp and time interval Vs voltage readings are tabulated and the characteristic of thermocouple is drawn.

40

Step response characteristics of thermocouple

Multimeter

O/p voltage

Thermo meter

Thermocouple

Heater

AC supply

Model Graph

Time (Sec)

Temperature (0C)

o/p voltage (v)

Time (Sec)

41

Tabulation S.No Time interval (min) Temperature (0C ) O / P voltage (mV)

Result

42

6 A) MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM RESISTANCE USING WHEATSTONE BRIDGE Aim To measure the value of unknown resistance using the Wheatstone bridge and also to calculate the percentage error. Apparatus Required

S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. Formula

Component Wheatstone Bridge kit Unknown Resistors Regulated power supply(0 -5V) Connecting wires

Quantity 1 Few 1 Few

R4= ( R2R3 )/R1 Derivation Ratio arms : ac & ad Standard arm: bc R2 & R1 Fixed resistances in . R3 Standard variable resistance in . R4 Unknown resistance in . I1,I2, I3 & I4 Current flowing through ac,ad,bc & bd arms respectively The bridge is balanced when I1 R1 = I2 R2 -- 1. If the galvanometer current is zero then the following conditions exist. I1 = I3 = E / (R1+R3) -- 2. Also, I2 = I4 = E / (R2+R4) -- 3. Substitute equations 2 and 3 in equation 1 I1 R1 = I2 R2 [E / (R1+R3) ]R1 = [ E /( R2+R4 )] R2 R1/ (R1+R3) = R2/ (R2+R4) R1 (R2+R4) = R2 (R1+R3) R1R2+ R1R4 = R2R1+ R2R3 R1R4 = R2R3 R4 = R2R3 / R1 . Theory

43

Wheatstone bridge is used in the measurement of medium resistances. It is an accurate and reliable instrument and is extensively used in the industry. It is an instrument for making comparison measurements and operates upon a null deflection principle. This means the instruments indication is independent of the calibration of the null indicating instrument or any of its characteristics. Since very high degrees of accuracy can be achieved using this bridge. Circuit Description The bridge has four resistive arms R1, R2, R3 and R4 together with a source of emf ( a battery ) and a null detector usually a galvanometer or other sensitive current meter. The current through the galvanometer depends upon the potential difference between the points c and d. The bridge is said to be balanced when the potential difference across the galvanometer is 0V so that there is no current through the galvanometer. This occurs when the voltage from point c to point a equals the voltage from point d to point a or by referring to the other battery terminal when the voltage from point c to point b equals the voltage from point d to point b. Hence the bridge is balanced when I1R1= I 2 R 2 R1R4=R2R3 is the expression for the balance of the Wheatstone bridge. If three of the resistances have known values then the fourth may be determined from the equation R1R4=R2R3 R4= ( R2R3 )/R1 if R4 is the unknown resistor. R3 is called the standard arm of the bridge and resistors R2 and R1 are called the ratio arms. The null detector must have sufficient sensitivity to indicate the balance position of the bridge with the required degree of precision. Procedure 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. The unknown resistor R4 is connected across b and d. 3. The voltage in RPS is set at a particular value. 4. R1 and R2 are fixed values. 5. R3 is varied until the galvanometer reads zero. 6. The unknown resistance can be calculated from the formula R4=( R2R3 )/R1. 7. The procedure is repeated for various unknown resistances. 8. The theoretical value is calculated ( by colour coding method or by using multimeter ) and the obtained practical values are compared to get the percentage error.

44

Circuit Diagram - Wheatstone Bridge

R1, R2 Fixed resistance () R3 Standard Variable Resistance () RX =R4 Unknown Resistance () G Galvanometer

Tabulation S. No. Actual Value in (A) Measured Value in (M) % Error = (A-M/A * 100)

Result

45

6 B) MEASUREMENT OF LOW RESISTANCE USING KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE Aim The aim of this experiment is to construct a Kelvins Double Bridge and to measure the unknown value of the given resistor. Apparatus Required 1. 2. 3. 4. Kelvins Double Bridge Kit Galvanometer Resistors Connecting Wires

Formula Derivation R =( P / Q ) S Under balance conditions, Voltage drop across and b ( Eab )= Voltage drop ( Eamd ) Eab =[ P / ( P+Q ) ] Eac Where , Eac = I [ R+S+( ( p+q )r / ( p+q+r ) ) ] Therefore Eab = P / ( P+Q ) [I [ R+S+( ( p+q )r / ( p+q+r ) ) ] ] Eamd = I [ R+[ ( p / ( p+q ) ) ( p+q )r ) / ( p+q+r ) ] ] Eamd = I [ R + ( pr / ( p+q+r ) ) ] P and Q first set of ratio arms. P and q second set of ratio arms. I total current flowing through the circuit in A. Eab = Eamd P / ( P+Q ) [I [ R+S+( ( p+q )r / ( p+q+r ) ) ] ] = I [ R + ( pr / ( p+q+r ) ) ] On solving the equation, R = ( P / Q ) S is obtained .

46

Theory This bridge is used to measure low resistances. It incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms - hence the name double bridge - and the use of 4 terminal resistors for the low reistance arms. The first of the ratio arms is P and Q. The second set of the ratio arms p and q is used to connect the galvanometer to a point d at the appropriate potential between points m and n to eliminate the effect of connecting the lead of resistance r between the unknown resistance R and the standard resistance S. The ratio p/q is made equal to P/Q. Under balance conditions there is no current through the galvanometer which means Eab=Eamd . R =( P/Q )S is the working equation for the Kelvin Bridge. It indicates that the resistance of the connecting lead, r has no effect on the measurement, provided that the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios. Error is introduced in case the ratios are not exactly equal. It indicates that it is desirable to keep r as small as possible in order to minimize the errors in case there is a difference between ratios P/Q and p/q. The effect of thermo-electric emfs can be eliminated by making another measurement with the battery connections reversed. The true value of R being the mean of the two readings. Procedure Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. Connect the unknown resistance RX Switch on the power supply in the unit. Select the range selection switch at the point where the meter reads least possible value of voltage. 5. Vary the Potentiometer to obtain null balance. 6. Switch of the unit and find out the resistance using multimeter at P1 7. Calculate the vale of unknown resistance using the formula RX = (P/Q)*P1 1. 2. 3. 4. Result

47

Circuit Diagram- KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE

P & Q First set of ratio arms p & q Second set of ratio arms S Standard Resistance () R Unknown Resistance () I Current flowing through the circuit (A) G Galvanometer Rb Limiting resistor Tabulation S. No. Q ( ) q ( ) P1 ( ) Actual Value in (A) Measured Value in (M) % Error = (A-M/A * 100)

48

49

7 A) ANDERSONS BRIDGE Aim The aim of this experiment is to measure the unknown value of a self Inductance using Andersons bridge. Apparatus Required 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Andersons bridge Trainer Kit (VAB-04) CRO Decade Inductance Box (DCB). or Unknown Inductance Audio Amplifier +speaker setup. Multimeter Patch cards. L1 =(R3 C / R4)[r(R2+ R4)+ R2 R4] R1 =[ (R2 R3)/ R4] r1 Where, L1 Self Inductance to be measured (H) R1- Resistance of self inductor (). r1 Resistance connected in series with self inductor (). C Fixed standard capacitor (F). r, R2 ,R3, R4 Known non-inductive resistance(). Procedure 1. Connections are given as per the wiring diagram shown in fig. 2. Connect the unknown inductance at L1 point. 3. Keep r1 and r potentiometer in minimum position 4. Connect A to A and B to B and CRO across P and Q 5. Switch on the unit and vary the potentiometer r such that the amplitude of sine wave decreases to a minimum value and then it will start increasing. At that point, stop the tuning and now vary the potentiometer r1 such that the amplitude of sine wave decreases and at one point it will go to minimum amplitude and then it will start increasing. Stop tuning r1. 6. Repeat the above procedure until the output is zero amplitude or minimum amplitude. 7. Remove the patching at r and find the resistance using multimeter and note down the reading according to the table given below and calculate the value of unknown inductance.

Formula

50

8. The balance condition is verified by connecting the bridge output (P&Q) to the input of audio power amplifier and the user can hear the minimum noise or no noise. Circuit Diagram - Andersons Bridge c r1 L1 a D C1 b R3

R2 d
(0-5V) 1 KHz

R4

Tabulation Inductance L1 (mH) Measur Actual ed

Sl.N o

C R2 (F) ()

R3 ()

R4 ()

r ()

r1 ()

% Error

Result

51

52

7 B) SCHERING BRIDGE Aim The aim of this experiment is to measure the unknown value of a capacitor using a Schering bridge. Apparatus Required 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Schering bridges Trainer Kit CRO Decade Capacitance Box (DCB). or Unknown Capacitor Audio Amplifier +speaker setup. Multimeter Patch cards.

Formula Derivation At balance , ( 1 / jC1 ) (R4 / ( 1+ jC4 R4 ) ) = ( 1 / jC2 ) R3 ( 1 / jC1 )R4 = ( R3 / jC2 ) ( 1+ jC4 R4 ) ( R4 / jC1 ) = ( R3 / jC2 ) + ( R3 jC4 R4 / jC2 ) ( jR4 / C1 ) = ( R3 C4 R4 / C2 ) - ( jR3 / C2 ) Equating the imaginary term , R4 / C1 =R3 / C2 C1 = R4 C2 / R3 Dissipation Factor = C4 R4 Where , C1 = Capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined ( F ). C2 = standard capacitor ( F ). C4 = variable capacitor ( F ). R3 = non-inductive resitance (). R4 = variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with C4 ().

Theory Schering Bridge is an ac bridge extensively used for the capacitance measurements. Although it is used for the capacitance measurements in
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general sense, it is particularly useful for measuring the insulating properties ie, for the phase angles very nearly 90 degrees. The standard arm 2 contains only a capacitor. Arm 4 contains a parallel combination of a resistor and a capacitor. The inspection of the circuit shows a strong resemblance to the comparison bridge. The standard capacitor is usually a high-quality mica capacitor for a general measurement work or an air capacitor for the insulation measurements and hence it is loss free. However it is necessary , a correction can be made for the loss angle of this capacitor . A good quality mica capacitor has a very losses ( no resistance ) and therefore a phase angle of approximately 90 degrees. An air capacitor when designed carefully, has a very stable value and a very small electric field ; the insulating material to be tested can be easily kept out of any strong fields. The balance conditions require that the sum of the phase angles of arms 1 and 4 equals the sum of the phase angles of arms 2 and 3 . Since the standard capacitor is in arm 2 the sum of the phase angles of arm 2 and 3 will be 0+90 = 90 degrees. In order to obtain the 90 degree phase angle needed for balance, the sum of the angles of arm 1 and arm 4 must equal 90 degrees, it is necessary to give arm 4 a small capacitive angle by connecting capacitor C4 in parallel with R4 . A small capacitive angle is R4 . Procedure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Connections are made as per the wiring diagram show above. Connect the unknown capacitance at the C1(unknown ) point Keep R4 in minimum position Connect A to A and B to B Connect the CRO across P and Q Switch on the unit and vary R3 (above 2K is suggested) Choose C2, such that a maximum variation of output is obtained Vary the Potentiometer R4 such that the amplitude of sine wave decreases and at one point it will go to a minimum of zero amplitude and then it will start increasing. Stop tuning at that point and switch off the unit. 9. Remove the patching at R4 and find the resistance using multimeter and note down the reading according to the table given below and calculate the value of unknown capacitance. 10. The balance condition is obtained by connecting the bridge output (P&Q) to the input of audio power amplifier till the minimum noise or no noise is heard.

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Circuit Diagram - Schering Bridge c c R1 C1 a D C2 d

(0-5V) 1 KHz

R3 b

C4 R4

Tabulation S.No C2 (F) R3 () R4 () Capacitance C1 (F) % Error Measured( M) Actual (A)

Result

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8 A) CALIBRATION OF AMMETER Aim To calibrate an Ammeter using 10 wire potentiometer Apparatus Required 1. Ammeter 2. 10 wire potentiometer 3. Variable Power Supply. Formula True Value = Vin * l/L Vin Supply Voltage ( volts) L Total Length of potentiometer l- length of wire at which balance condition is obtained. Correction = (I-I0) I- True Value of current I0 - Measured value of current. % Error = (I I0 ) / I * 100 Theory The magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to be applied is determined by making a periodic comparison of PMMC meter with standards which are known to be constant. The entire procedure laid down for making, adjusting or checking a scale is such that the readings of an instrument or a measurement system confirm an accepted standard called calibration. The given ammeter is calibrated by comparing the readings of the meter with the true value using 10 wire potentiometer. Procedure 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. The supply is given to the potentiometer 3. The contact is made on the potentiometer and length is noted 4. The current for the corresponding length is noted. 5. True value is calculated using the formula. 6. Error is calculated using the above data.

Circuit Diagram - CALIBRATION OF AMMETER

57

Tabulation S.No Ammeter reading (Io) Base length (l) True Correctio value (I) n (I-Io) % Error

Result

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8 B) CALIBRATION OF VOLTMETER Aim To calibrate a voltmeter using 10 wire potentiometer Apparatus Required 1. Voltmeter 2. 10 wire potentiometer (Rheostat) 3. Variable Power Supply. Formula True Value = Vin * l/L Vin Supply Voltage ( volts) L Total Length of potentiometer l- length of wire at which balance condition is obtained. Correction = (V-V0) V- True Value of current V0 - Measured value of current. % Error = (I I0 ) / I * 100 Theory The magnitude of the error and consequently the correction to be applied is determined by making a periodic comparison of PMMC meter with standards which are known to be constant. The entire procedure laid down for making, adjusting or checking a scale is such that the readings of an instrument or a measurement system confirm an accepted standard called calibration. The given ammeter is calibrated by comparing the readings of the meter with the true value using 10 wire potentiometer. Procedure 1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. The supply is given to the potentiometer 3. The contact is made on the potentiometer and length is noted 4. The current for the corresponding length is noted. 5. True value is calculated using the formula. 6. Error is calculated using the above data. Result

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Circuit Diagram - CALIBRATION OF VOLTMETER

Tabulation S.No Voltmete r reading (Vo) Base length (l) True value (V) Correctio n (v-Vo) % Error

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9 A) CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER Aim The aim of this experiment is to calibrate a single phase energy meter by actual loading. Components Required 1. Voltmeter (0 - 300) V MI. 2. Ammeter (0 - 5) A MI. 3. Wattmeter (1500W, 5 / 10A). 4. Energy Meter (230) V. 5. Stop Watch. 6. Lamp Load. 7. Connecting wires Formula Measured Value = No.of revolutions / Energy meter Constant % Error = [( Calibrated Reading - Actual Reading ) / Calibrated Reading] * 100. Energy Meter Constant: 1kwh = 1200 rev. 5 rev = (1000 * 3600 * 5) / 1200 = 15,000ws. Procedure 1. The connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. The load is applied by switching the lamps and the corresponding voltage, current and energy are noted. 3. At the initial condition the wattmeter reading is noted. 4. The time required for the 5 revolutions is noted by using the stop watch. 5. The same procedure is repeated for various loads. 6. The percentage error is calculated from the formula: % Error = (W2 - W1) / W2 where, W2 = 15,000ws. W1 = Wattmeter Reading * Time. 7. Graph (Error Vs Load Current) is plotted.

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Circuit Diagram - CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

62

Model Graph

Error

Load Current (Amps) Tabulation Volta ge (V) Curre nt (A) Wattmet Practic Theoreti er al cal Value Reading Value (T) (W) (P) % Error = (P-T/T * 100)

S. No.

Result

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9 B) CALIBRATION OF WATTMETER Aim The aim of the experiment is to calibrate the given wattmeter by direct loading. Components Required 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Voltmeter (0 - 300) V MI. Ammeter (0 - 5 )A MI. Wattmeter (1500W, 5 / 10A). Lamp Load. Connecting wires

Formula Used True Value = Voltmeter reading * Ammeter Reading * Power factor Actual reading = Wattmeter reading % Error = [(True Value - Actual Reading) / True value] * 100. Procedure 1. The connections are given as per the circuit diagram. 2. The Auto transformer is initially kept at minimum position and main supply is switched on. 3. Now the auto transformer is varied slowly up to the supply voltage value. 4. Vary the load in steps and note down the corresponding voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter reading and tabulated. 5. The Graph ( Error Vs Load Current ) is plotted. The percentage error is calculated from the formula: % Error = [( True Value - Actual Reading ) / True value] * 100.

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Circuit Diagram - CALIBRATION OF WATTMETER

65

Model Graph

Error

Load Current (Amps)

Tabulation

S. No.

Volta ge (V)

Curre nt (A)

Practic Theoreti al cal Value Value (T) (P)

% Error = (P-T/T * 100)

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Result

10. DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND CALIBRATION OF SERIES AND SHUNT TYPE OHMMETERS. A) DESIGN OF SERIES TYPE OHMMETER Aim To design and calibrate a series type ohmmeter. Components Required

S.No 1. 2. 3. Formula

Component Galvanometer or voltmeter or ammeter Resistors RPS RPS ( 0- 30)V

Quantity 1 Few 1

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Theory The unknown resistance RX = 0 (terminal A and B shorted) maximum current flows through the meter. Under this condition resistor R2 is adjusted until the basic movement indicates full scale current Ifs. The full scale current position of the pointer is marked 0 on the scale. Similarly when R X is removed from circuit, RX = (terminal A and B are open) the current in the meter drops to zero and the movement indicates zero current which is the marked . Thus the meter will read infinite resistance at the zero current position and zero resistance at full scale current position. Since zero resistance is indicated when the current in the meter is maximum and hence the pointer goes to the top mark.Whwn the unknown resistance is inserted at terminal A,B the current through the meter is reduced and hence pointer drops lower on the scale. Therefore the meter has 0 at the extreme right and at the extreme left. Intermediate scale marking may be placed on the scale by different known values of resistance RX to the instruments. Design

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In series type ohmmeter, the movement to be used required 0.5A for full scale deflection and has an internal resistance of 50 . The RPS has a voltage of 3 V. The desired value of half scale resistance is 3000 . Calculate 1. The value of series and parallel resistance R1 and R2 2. The range of value of R 2, if the battery voltage may vary from 2.7V to 3.1 V. Use the value of R1 calculated in 1.

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Result

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10 A) DESIGN OF SHUNT TYPE OHMMETER Aim To design and calibrate a shunt type ohmmeter. Components Required

S.No 1. 2. 3. 4.

Component Basic meter (Galvanometer or voltmeter or Ammeter) Resistors RPS ( 0- 30)V Break Switch

Quantity 1 Few 1 1

Formula

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Theory Shunt type ohmmeter consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistor R1 and a basic meter. The unknown resistance is connected across terminals A and B, parallel with the meter. In this circuit it is necessary to have an ON-OFF switch to disconnect the supply from the circuit when the instrument is not in use. When the unknown resistance RX = (A and B are open), the current finds path only through the meter and selecting a proper value for resistance R1. The Pointer may be made to read full scale. This ohmmeter therefore has zero mark on the left hand scale (no

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current) and infinite mark in the right hand side of the scale (Full scale deflection current). Design A shunt type ohmmeter uses a 100mA basic meter with an internal resistance of 5. The supply is 3 V. It is desire to modify the circuit by adding appropriate shunt resistance across the movement so that its instrument indicates 0.5 at the mid-point on its scale. Calculate 1. The value of shunt resistance. 2. Find the value of current limiting resistor R1.

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Result

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