A2 Psychology Revision Notes Criminological Psychology Revision Notes

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Alexander Hunter

Definitions: Criminological Psychology Looks at the role of psychology in understanding the causes of the crime, ways psychologists can help in the criminal justice process, for example by explaining which affect the identification and judgement of criminals, such as accuracy of eyewitnesses, and in providing interventions to reduce criminal behaviour. Crime A criminal act is one society forbids or punishes However this definition begs the question Why is it forbidden?-One persons crime in one country may be a completely normal act in another Recidivism Repeat offending and the tendency to relapse into crime. Token Economy This is a way to modify the behaviour that can be used with prison inmates, aggressive criminals on community orders and offenders in high security psychiatric hospitals. It uses operant conditioning to positively reinforce, and therefore can increase the frequency of, desired behaviours. These can include non-aggressive and other socially acceptable responses such as helping. There are reinforced with tokens and can be saved up and exchanged for goods or opportunities such as cigarettes, watching TV or exercising in the yard. Anti-Social Behaviour Anti-social behaviour (with or without hyphen) is behaviour that lacks consideration for others and that may cause damage to society, whether intentionally or through negligence, as opposed to prosocial behaviour, behaviour that helps or benefits society. Stereotyping - A commonly held public belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions. Modelling - A type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others. It is argued that reinforcement has the effect of influencing which responses one will partake in, more than it influences the actual acquisition of the new response. EWT- the study of the accuracy of memory following an accident or crime, and an exploration of the types of errors commonly made.
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Methodology: Laboratory Experiments: General Overview and use in Criminological Psychology -Laboratory experiments create a situation in which one or more variables is manipulated whilst all others are kept constant. -In EWT, this can be measuring the accuracy of recall or the exposure to the crime scene. -The effect of the IV on the DV allow cause and effect relationships can be investigated. -In EWT, Lab experiments are normally independent measures designs ie. A different group for each. -E.g. Loftus & Palmer (1974) different ppts heard different verbs, whilst Loftus & Zanni (1975) had questions using either the definite article the or the indefinite article a. -Also possible to have a control group to allow a direct comparison. This was the case in Loftus and Palmer, where ppts in the control group were not asked about speed at all after watching the film of the crash. -The DV is generally measured using questionnaires given to ppts after watching the film. So both quantative and qualitative data is collected. Statistics can be determined from the quantative data collected. -The Laboratory experiment is characterised by scientific vigour. All IVs must be set identically, and all DVs should be investigated objectively. However this is particularly difficult to achieve. Evaluation of Laboratory Experiments as a Research Method in Criminological Psychology +Using closed questions, the researcher avoids the opportunity to be subjective., giving the researcher greater confidence of the results, and makes the experiment more valid as they are measuring what they set out to do. + Controls used in Lab experiments contribute to scientific precision and reliability. Consistency increases reliability. -Not like a real crime scene - Watching a video does not simulate the situation in the same ways, meaning the experiment has very low ecological validity. -Low levels of mundane realism, in which a simulated crime scene does not produce the same level of arousal or motivation as a genuine crime-scene, making the experiment less useful. -Other threats to validity include possible bias caused by experimenter effects. This can be reduced by using standardised instructions or by conducting double-blind trials, where the experimenters vested interests are not considered and demand characteristics are reduced. -Ethically ppts should have enough information to give their full consent to the experiment. It is often necessary to cover the aim and procedure, but all ppts must have the right to withdraw at any point. This allows the achievement of high validity. All studies should have their procedures tested before hand to ensue they are fully ethical. -Independent Measures design - the ppts within groups differ greatly. This way the ppts differ greatly e.g. they may have a greater attention span etc. The most simple way is to randomly allocate each ppt into the separate group. -Often participants guess the nature of the experiment from cues and conform to demand characteristics. Field Experiments: Field Experiments: Advantages/Disadvantages -

A2 Psychology Revision Notes

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-A field experiment is one that takes place in a natural environment but where the IV is manipulated by the experimenter. The DV can still be measured and cause an effect relationships can be established. -An example is Krackow & Lynn (2003) because they manipulated the IVs of touching or not and asking direct or tagged questions. Evaluation of Field Experiments as a Research Method in Criminological Psychology +Ecological validity is higher, as it is in a more natural environment. -However as it is not in an as controlled environment, it is difficult to control variables meaning lower validity. -Participants may guess the objectives of the experiment and conform to demand characteristics. This lowers the validity. However Krackow & Lynn (2003) gained consent before children knew purpose of experiment increasing validity. -Ethics Participants must give full consent and be able to withdraw at any point. However, this is difficult if researchers hope to prevent demand characteristics. Thus, participants are often given a full debrief afterwards and have the option to withdraw their results. -Unethical to stage a situation that is stressful or harmful in anyway. -Not very reliable as it is very difficult to replicate situations with consistency in the field. -It is very difficult to generalise results, as it is not a real situation. There may be problems with the samples. There are normally no control groups, especially when measuring for EWT. Natural Experiments: Overview of Natural Experiments as a research method in criminological Psychology -Natural experiments, are naturally occurring events, in which the IV is manipulated on its own accord, and the DV can be measured naturally. -Natural experiments often are in the form of case or field studies when linking it to EWT. -Examples of Natural experiments within EWT are Yullie & Cutshall (1986) amongst others. These are generally the most effective, as the events are real, and often graphic, so the results should help to indicate the reliability of the situation. Evaluation of Natural Experiments as a research method in criminological psychology +Very high ecological validity, as it is a real life event. Internal and external validity also high. -Not reliable as every case is different, and they are measured in different ways. People may respond to a violent crime differently. Also, quite simply, you cannot repeat it in anyway, as each case is individual, so cannot replicate, meaning results are inconsistent, and proves as a valid but not necessarily reliable form of investigating EWT. -Not very ethical, not everybody wants to be reminded of often traumatic experiences. Although normally investigators need their full consent before investigation. However critics argue, ppts should not be reminded of events that may evoke often traumatic or unpleasant consequences. Therefore can be unethical, as can inflict harm on the individual. _______________________________________________ Content: Explanations of Criminal Behaviour from two different approaches: Learning Approach Social Learning Theory (SLT), and the possible role of media in modelling antisocial behaviour. -Bandura (1977) modelling will occur when the observer pays attention, is able to remember and reproduce what they have observed and when they are motivated to do so. This motivation may be an external reward or some inner drive. Internal motivation may be generated by the model and this can explain why there are differences in the effectiveness of the model. -In other types of learning, like classical or operant conditioning, the process of learning can be seen as the individual learns the behaviour. SLT is different. A new behaviour can be learned by watching, but may not be repeated till much later on (e.g. adult life) child sees father beat mother. -The behaviour does not have to be reinforced to replicate although it can help. Some children may swear or spit in situations where it will annoy parents or teachers, or impress their friends. -The importance of modelling in acquiring aggressive behaviour was influenced by Bandura et al. (1961). Bandura found that children exposed to the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive, both physically and verbally, than the control. This was greater in boys than girls as girls tend to be more verbal. Illustrate potential risk posed by antisocial models as they are quite capable of replicating such behaviour. -Pennington (1986) identifies three categories that affect imitation: -Characteristics of the model e.g. gender, age, status. -Characteristics of the observer e.g. self-esteem. -Consequence of the behaviour for the model e.g. reinforcement or punishment. -Individuals with lower self esteem are more likely to imitate behaviour of models. Vicarious reinforcement. -The potential benefit of thieving or harming someone can be seen as positive for the criminal e.g. stealing sweets, or sexual pleasure. -Bandura (1965) demonstrated a child was more likely to copy an aggressive adult model if the child was reinforced, and less likely if punished. In this sense, as well as the provisions of the model, the environment increases the likelihood of antisocial behaviour. -Media Violence A different aspect of the social environment the media is often claimed to be a cause of childrens aggression. Bandura et al. (1961) modelling the aggressive behaviour by people in real life, and although media role models are not literally in front of the learner, they are important. -The influence of the Television:

A2 Psychology Revision Notes

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-TV characters act as models. Estimates for incidence of violence per programme range from 50-90%, with some of the highest figures corresponding to childrens programmes, especially cartoons. It is dependent on timing, channel etc. -Wilson et al. (2002) counted 14 acts of violence an hour in childrens televisions, but less than 4 in adult TV. Also children are increasingly exposed to programmes originally aired after the watershed, showing acts of violence e.g. the professionals. -Broadcasting Standards Council - 1997 47% of programmes contained violent scenes, 2001 51% of programmes (however unreliable due to coverage of September 11th attacks. Also excludes programmes specifically designed for children. -Huesmann (1986) observed children who identify more strongly with aggressive TV characters and perceive TV violence as more realistic are more aggressive. If a link exists, it can be explained by SLT However need to think further e.g. violent environment. -Bandura (1963), same procedure as his with humans performed by a cartoon cat caused the highest imitation levels in children. -Boyatzis et al. (1995) assessed the effect of power rangers on childrens aggressive behaviour. 52 boys and girls, aged 5-11 were observed playing in their classroom. Half were shown an episode of power rangers and then again. The group who had seen the video was 7 times higher the control group and exhibited behaviours used in power rangers. -Isolated nature of experimental setting can cause uncharacteristic changes. And although Bandura (1961) found aggressive models increase chance of aggression, Kniveton (1976) found the opposite. A model may be imitated for a few minutes, but TV may be much longer, and there are no consequences or long term effects. -Correlational data e.g. Eron et al. (1972) found a positive correlation in level of TV violence watched and aggression. And Eron et al. found an even stronger link in that of boys and violent TV. The more violence boys view, more likely they are to be violent criminals as adults (Eron & Huesmann 1986). -Williams (1981) conducted natural experiment in a town (Notel) where TV was introduced. Found aggressiveness doubled. -Natural findings support the role of TV but studies like Hagell & Newbury (1994) found that young offenders watched no more violent TV than the control group, and were less focused on TV viewing. Charlton et al. (2000) supports this, finding that media violence does not necessarily lead to aggression Charltons study was extremely valid, as it used real-life and pre and post experience to violent settings. There was also good inter-observer reliability. There was also no need to intervene in violent behaviour. -Charlton et al. (1999) showed an absence of significant difference in aggression. However the children used in his 2000 study, did not have access to childrens tv programmes like ninja turtles that children viewed in the west. The influence of Video Games and Computers -Haringer & Thompson (2004) found 98% required the player to be violent, 90% injure, 69% kill and 42% blood. -The two students responsible for Colombia High School massacre had been exposed to hours of violent computer games. -Hopf et al. (2008) 2 year longitudinal study on German teenagers Both violent films and video games increased chance of violent crime, but stronger relationship was with video games. Supports SLT and desensitisation. -After an individual has acquired a behaviour by imitation, may internalise this learning so it becomes part of their self-concept. This is called identification characterised by behaviour becoming more automatic and more general. Konijn et al. (2007) found aggressive behaviour after playing violent video fames was greater when the player identified strongly with the game aggressor/character. The study found boys who played realistic video games shouted more loudly and wanted to be the character. -Social learning may not be sufficient to explain patterns found in Konijn et al. (2007). They could be explained by desensitisation. Staude-Muller at al. (2008) 42 men played high or low violence game. Ppts then watched aggressive and unpleasant images, and their heart rate and galvanic skin response was measured. Those who had played first person shooters were less affected and in the short-term had been desensitised. -Sheese & Graziano (2005) found video games increase violent behaviour by reducing pro-social behaviour. They found that in the violent condition, fewer ppts worked with others in act of selfishness to get the reward compared to 1 in non-violent condition. The Social Approach The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy -People hold stereotyped beliefs about others, and with young people it is that thye are all hooded thugs, who intimidate others. As a consequence of holding these stereotyped beliefs, a person may apply them and falsely label others. However the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy (SFP) suggest stereotypes held by an observer affect the behaviour of the observed. The observer may respond in such a way that they are likely to elicit the expected behaviour and confirm expectations and reinforce stereotype. -SFP suggests criminal behaviour arises if the observer expects others to behave in antisocial ways. This causes them to behave in this way and change the way they act socially as a result the anticipated antisocial actions are demonstrated, confirming the intitial beliefs. -E.g. New student behaves badly immediately punished sees he is treated differently so continues to atc that way. -SFP explains recidivism once the person is labelled as a criminal, it is difficult to shift. It becomes part of the individuals self-concept and they produce further deviant behaviour e.g. Jon Venables (Bulgers Killer). Should be careful as labelling as problem child.

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Alexander Hunter

-As with criminal psychology- difficult to obtain valid evidence in ethical ways need to base it on natural occurrences. -Levy & Hatocollis (1976) Compared incidence of antisocial behaviour in two psychiatric units, one staffed by women, the other with bot male and female staff. Over one yearm the unit staffed by women had no instances of violence, compared to 13 in the unit with mixed staff. This suggests the expectation of violence, and the consequent use of male nurses, may have led to the violent incidents as patients behaviour fulfilled expectations because staff behaved differently towards them. However could be flawed, if based solely on risk of violence in each ward led to different sex nurses on wards. -Jahoda (1954) found that Ashanti people name their children Monday if less violent and Wednesday if more violent. They found 22% of violent crimes were committed by Wednesdays and only 7% by Mondays. This may be due to the cultural expectations were fulfilled. -Ageton & Elliott (1974) found treatment of youth offenders by police and courts could lead to further deviance. In a longitudinal study, they found delinquents treated worse had lower self-esteem. SFP explains this, as responses from others would have led the boys to exhibit behaviours in line with their criminal label. However those not caught had a higher self-esteem. -Madon et al. (2003) found mothers expectations of their teenage childrens drinking habits They found their beliefs on future habits were likely to be fulfilled it may be possible that mothers are good judges of their children. -Zebrowitz & Andreoletfi (1998) investigated whether baby-faced adolescent boys, who stereotypically expect to be nice but weak, fulfilled this expectation. An analysis of their behaviour, showed contrary to SFP, and found they were more likely to commit crimes. -Gibbs (1974) findings contradict Ageton & Elliott. He found very little difference in self-esteem between those who had been in court. Describe and Evaluate three studies into EWT, including one Lab experiment, one field study (case study) and one other. Loftus & Palmer (1974) Reconstruction of automobile destruction: example of interaction between language and memory Aim: Investigate the effect of a leading question about a car accident that implies damage on subsequent recall of speed and of damage caused. Procedure: Experiment 1 -A sample of 45 students was shown clips of traffic accidents. They were then asked a series of question about the film including one that read about how fast were the cats going when they... each other? -The missing verb was either: smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted. Experiment 2 - 150 students were shown a film that included a four-second scene of a car accident (no broken glass) and asked some questions. -One third of the participants were asked the critical question How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? -A third were asked the same question but the word hit, The final third were not asked about speed. Week later questionnaire + broken glass question. Results: Experiment 1 More severe verbs resulted in higher estimation of speed. This distance was significant at p < 0.005. -Smashed 40.5mph, Collided 39.3mph, Bumped 38.1, Hit 34.0mph, Contacted 31.8mph Experiment 2 Again the estimate of speed was higher for smashed (mean 10.46 mph) than hit (mean 8mph), a difference that was significant at p < 0.05 -With a more severe verb, participants were more likely to report having seen (non-existent) broken glass. A chi-squared test had shown a significant difference (0.025). -Probability for saying yes to broken glass question is 0.32 for smashed but only 0.14 for hit. Conclusion: -The leading information of the verb in the speed question affects the way in which the event was represented in memory. -Over time, the misleading information from the question was integrated with the original memory so that, at the retrieval, the memory was reconstructed to include this new information Evaluation of Loftus and Palmers study (1974) +Useful in doubting effectiveness of EWT. Police can learn from such evidence. +Shows leading questions can have an effect on result. Police should not ask leading questions. +Well structured procedure. +Able to control extraneous variables as in a lab environment a film can be shown. +Both qualitative and quantative data could be gathered and then later analysed. -Small sample so difficult to generalise, and reliability is poor. -Not accurate reflection of a car accident, as a lab situation. The film does not evoke same arousal as real event. -Ethnocentric and all students. And all psychology students may have guessed what study was about demand characteristics. -Independent measures design is weak as different type of people in each group age/gender/IQ etc. difficult to generalise.

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-Evidence from Yullie and Cutshall amongst others goes against this conclusion.

Alexander Hunter

Yullie & Cutshall (1986) Real life case of leading questions and eye-witnesses. Aim To investigate the accuracy of recall in eyewitnesses to a real violent crime, over time in response to leading questions. Procedure - -Sample of 21 witnesses to real shooting interviewed by police. Of these, 13 agreed to a research interview, 4-5 months later. -The sample were aged between 15 and 32, and included 3 females. -They all witnessed a fatal shooting, where a thief entered a gun shop, tied up the owner, stole money and guns and left the shop, before the owner freed himself, noted the cars registration and shot the thief from 6ft away, 6 times with a revolver. -The accuracy of witnesses recall at the later date was compared to initial testimonies and the effect of leading questions was assessed. -Asked questions not previously asked, and ones that were. In both police and research interviews, witnesses had been asked for a free recall account of the event, and then asked specific questions. -Their response was scored for the number of accurate action, person and object descriptions (such as movements, gun shots etc.). -The research interview also asked alternative versions of two questions relating to non-existant objects (yellow panel on car and broken headlight). Witnesses also self-rated the stress they had felt at the time on a 7 point scale. Results -Witnesses were very accurate and there was little change in the amount they recalled or their accuracy over time, although some aspects of their description e.g. hair colour, age did demonstrate errors. -The amount of details recalled by witness depended largely on their position in relation to the incident, with central witnesses recalling more than those of a peripheral viewpoint, especially in relation to action details. -There was however no significant difference in accuracy of these two groups. -Make and colour of car fairly well recalled, 83% accurate at time, and 67% five months later. -Differences that did exist: -12 were within =/- 1-9% accuracy over 4-5 months, but one witnesses accuracy fell by over 20%. -Although very few errors were reported in either police or research interview, 2/3 related to shop owner reported by just 2 witnesses and 2/3 relating to others was reported by just 2 witnesses. -Most witnesses incorrectly reported pattern or number of gun shots. Only accurate one had knowledge of guns and dismantled the shop owners gun after he had fired, so may have seen number of rounds discharged. -Only one witness correctly reported date and time of the event in research interview shop owners wife traumatic event. -10/13 witnesses were unaffected by the leading questions. -Of the 3 1 had no knowledge of the car so was not asked the questions, another assumed the answer was yes to the leading question -3 witnesses reported nonexistent events without misleading questions. -3% reported physical contact between thief and shop owner. The witnesses reports who included reconstructed memories had ,more limited viewpoints and were further away or in a passing car. -Witnesses who were more stressed by the incident were more accurate than those who were less stressed 93% to 75% (police interview) and 88% 76% (research interview). The ones who were more stressed reported sleeping problems. Conclusion -Eyewitnesses to real crimes are more accurate and less influenced by leading questions, than lab research would suggest. -Findings show witness can recall one detail incorrectly but provide many other accurate facts so judges should not dismiss witness evidence on the basis of one inaccuracy alone. Especially when it concerns minor details. -Little reconstruction of the memory occurs except when the viewpoint is limited.

Evaluation of Yullie & Cutshall (1986) +Supports the idea that EWT is reliable in graphic events. +High ecological validity is a natural event, and an emotionally charged one. Useful when investigating reliability of events. +All participants gave their consent to taking part. Some opted not to right to withdraw exercised. +Showed witnesses were often unfazed by leading questions, showing a real event is different. -Difficult to generalise Every event is different. -impossible to replicate the design, as cannot cause stress. -The event itself caused stress on the participants, however they all gave their consent. -Not every witness took part in the study, meaning unreliable, and lower validity. -Androcentric Mainly men witnesses, and all under the age of 32 meaning all very young. Krackow & Lynn (2003) Is there touch in a game of twister? Effects of innocuous touch and suggestive questions on childrens EWT Aim To investigate whether leading questions affect childrens recall of real-life events. Procedure - 48 children (aged 4-5 years and 10 months) recruited using advertisements in paediatricians offices, pre-schooles etc. -Participated with parents consent in a field experiment where they played twister and a game called shapes.

A2 Psychology Revision Notes

Alexander Hunter

-2 conditions where children were either touched (on hands/arms/calves or feet) or not touched by an assistant Amy. -Children randomly assigned to 1 of 4 possible groups being touched/not touched/direct question/tagged question. The parents were told it was a study on memory and were asked not to tell the children. Children were asked if they wished to play the game so they gave their consent and had their picture taken with Amy. -1 week later, children prompted to describe everything they could remember and reports were analysed for content. -Children also asked 30 questions There were abuse questions of two types e.g. Did Amy touch your bottom? Or Amy touched your bottom didnt she? Questions about picture were also asked as well. All questions videoed for analysis. Results Childrens reports scored for number of ideas children recalled and whether were complete. Interobserver reliability was between 0.87 and 1.00. Where differences arose between observers, they were resolved. -In free recall, children who had tagged questions recalled significantly more, but no effect of contact on childrens answers. -In analysis of abuse related questions. Significantly more children said yes to tagged questions than to direct ones. Whilst those who answered direct questions were correct 98% of the time, only 44% were right in leading questions. -Children asked leading questions significantly more likely to incorrectly agree with general forensic questions. Conculsions Use of tags (leading questions) make child witnesses less accurate. Using direct questions led to a higher degree of accuracy in both abuse and forensic questions. -Important so that children giving evidence arent given tagged questions. -Also suggests innocuous touch is unlikely to create false memories and therefore unlikely lead to false accusations of abuse. Evaluation of Krackow & Lynn (2003) +Field Experiment higher ecological validity. However extraneous variable can have an influence. +Useful for learning how to deal with child witnesses. +Good inter-observer reliability therefore reliable in this sense. +Good Sample size we are however unaware of the gender split. +Independent measures so not exposed to same questions. However different ages, and IQs could result in different responses. -Unethical -Gained parents consent, not the childs. -Unethical Element of deception. No debrief for the children. -False beliefs of assistant Amy may harm them in the long term. -Low reliability difficult to replicate such a study. Describe and Evaluate two ways of treating offenders including the Token Economy Programme and one other (Anger Management) Token Economy Programme -Token economy programmes are used to obtain desirable behaviour in closed institutions such as prisons, and they are used for juvenile and adult offenders. They are a form of behaviour modification using operant conditioning to positively reinforce. -These programmes started in the 1960s and there was hope that this would be extremely successful, given the success of the use of learning theories in changing behaviour. -A token economy programme involves a system of rewards being set up for desired behaviour, sometimes with punishments to discourage behaviour which is undesirable. -Rewards are usually tokens (hence the name!) or points, and these can be periodically exchanged for something that the individual wants (the economy part of the name). This is secondary reinforcement. -Setting up a TEP: -Tokens Usually toy money/stamps etc. That can be changed for goods. Must be difficult to counterfeit. -Target behaviours Inmates should be aware of desirable behaviours that they are looking for and defining them. -Consistency Sufficient staff to reward immediately for actions, and prevent any thieving of tokens. -Primary Reinforces Must be desired by inmates the objects that they see as meaningful and want to earn. -Exchange system Secondary reinforces should be redeemed for primary reinforces at set time and place. -Recording Progress Baseline behaviour should be assessed and daily records of behaviour tokens etc. should be recorded. -Schedules + Shaping Initially should be readily available, but over time decrease to shape a higher standard of behaviour. -Generalisation is part of learning theory principles and is important when talking about token economies. -The idea is that desired behaviour, once reinforced and established in an institution, would be generalised to outside the institution so that appropriate behaviour would be established. -Generalisation in learning theory is when a behaviour learned in one situation is transferred to another, or when learning of one behaviour is transferred to a similar behaviour. HOBBS & HOLT (1976) -Investigated effectiveness of TEP with 125 boys detained in a correctional institution for offences ranging from truancy to homicide. -Average age was 14 and most had more than 6 criminal charges.

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Alexander Hunter

-Compared boys in accommodation units 3 on TEPs, one which wasnt and one control. -Behaviours like rule-following, co-operation, not-violent were targeted. -17 members of staff were trained for the programme, and supervised each boys tokens. Tokens earned drinks/sweets/cigarettes. -Tokens could also be saved in a bank which paid interest, to save for more expensive activities like football off site. -Release depended on the number of tokens earned. -Hobbs & Holt found that TES improved targeted behaviours in participating cottages, whilst behaviours of those not on it remained fairly constant. -Cost of programme was 250 per year But in terms of time relatively cheap to administer. Evaluation of TEP as a treatment for offenders +There needs to be no delay between the desired behaviour and the reward. +Anyone can give the tokens +Clear rules mean staff know when to award a token, so the programme is relatively easy to administer. + can be administered by anyone (with training) and tokens and rewards are relatively cheap, so the programme is not expensive and there are more benefits than costs. +Has been found to be successful by many studies, even thought there tends to be 10 20 % of people who do not respond well to TEPs. +Ayllon and Milan (1979) reviewed a number of programmes and found that they worked for clear behaviour e.g. the general keeping of rules and control over interpersonal aggression. +Milby (1975) found that programmes were successful in psychiatric hospitals and helped in preparing someone to leave hospital BUT we do not know if the effects worked long term. +Field et al (2004) looked at a TEP used with young people with behavioural problems. The programme was generally effective although there were still a number of young people who did not respond. Later these youths were placed on a special programme where the rewards were more immediate and more frequent and the results were positive. This suggests that the programme should be designed so that the rewards suit each individual. -In the 1970a when TEPs were evaluated to see if they worked, it was concluded that they did not! -Staff are not committed to the programme, so they do not focus on it sufficiently -Inconsistent rewards are given for the same behaviour -There is a failure to plan for transferring to the home environment or any environment outside the institution. - Learning may not transfer to the home environment, so there might be recidivism. - Programmes have to be carefully planned and controlled, and there are many areas where problems can occur such as lack of consistency from staff. Anger Management -Offenders can be treated using anger management programmes, which focus on people with aggressive behaviour that needs to be controlled. It involves three key steps: -Cognitive Preparation Group members helped to recognise their own anger patterns and identify situations that trigger aggressive behaviour. -Skill Acquisition Individuals learn behavioural and cognitive coping strategies, e.g. relaxation, which will help control feelings of anger and replace these emotions with acceptable responses. -Application and Practice Individuals act out skills in role play + actual situations + are positively reinforced for appropriate and non-aggressive behaviour. -Anger management in general uses strategies such as identifying what triggers anger and learning to control those triggers. -Proper eating regimes are suggested as well as relaxation techniques. -Learning to cope with different opinions from others is also important in the programme. -Anger is considered a normal healthy response, but if it becomes rage (takes a person over), it isnt healthy + puts a strain on the body. -Anger can trigger aggressive out-bursts which may lead to harming someone else. -Some offenders are put on anger management programmes as part of their treatment, because of the nature of the offence or because of personal characteristics. -The theory of anger as an outburst links to Freuds ideas of negative emotions being locked away in the unconscious, only to burst out later. -Freud believed sport and other energetic activities could release such emotions. -Currently there is more focus on what triggers the outburst of anger or aggression and how that trigger, often based on thought processes, can be changed. -Such anger is thought of as inappropriate thought patterns and reactions rather than outbursts. -Watt et al (1999) - Western Australia - violent male adult offenders on an anger management programme were compared with offenders on a waiting list, who acted as a control. Two groups were measured in terms of anger knowledge, anger expression, observed aggressive behaviour and misconduct in prison. -Ireland (2004) found 92% of prisoners in experimental group showed an improvement in reducing angry behaviour. -Loza & Loza-Fanous argue anger-management is not effective with violent criminals as anger is not the cause of their criminality. They propose programmes can be harmful as they encourage the offender to attribute their violent acts rather than taking responsibility. Evaluation of Anger Management +Studies show the success of anger management programmes from self report data, which are likely to be valid as they come from prisoners themselves. BUT they may fill these in a desirable way.

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Alexander Hunter

+The programmes focus on learning about triggers from angry episodes and give people the tools to control their anger in the future, so they should have long term benefits. -The study found no special gain for the offenders on the AMP compared with the control, suggesting such programmes have no value for violent offenders. -The programmes do not include a discussion of morality or understanding from victims POV which has been said to limit their success. -It has been claimed that they turn physical aggression into other ways of expressing aggression, such as verbal or emotional abuse. -Many studies do not look further into the future to predict recidivism rates. ________________________________________ Studies in Detail Loftus and Palmer (1974) and Yullie & Cutshall (1986) Please see above _________________________________________________ Key Issue and Practical Key Issue Can criminals be rehabilitated through Token Economy Programmes and Anger Management or are they simply born bad? -Widespread evidence to suggest that through schemes such as anger management, and token economy systems that criminals can be rehabilitated into society through action. -There is significant evidence from studies such as Hobbs & Holt (1976), Jenkins et al. (1974), Krigin et al. (1982) that rate of crime with young offenders in particular those who have committed minor offences such as theft, burglary and assault are significantly reduced after receiving Token-Economy treatment. -And there is equally important evidence from studies such as Ireland (2004) and Hillbrook (1997) to suggest that anger management as a treatment can seriously improve reconviction rates among criminals who have committed assault or affray. Irelands study was particularly successful showing a 92% improvement rate. -In serial offenders however this is a different case. Loza & Loza-Fanous found that anger management is ineffective with violent criminals, as they are encouraged to re-enact their violence rather than taking full responsibility for this. It is also possible to examine reconviction rates across the globe In order to establish whether rehabilitation can have an effect. -This may stem from the belief that criminals are born rather than made their genes are predetermined to be more violent, so little can be done to rehabilitate them. -Others who argue that it stems from SFP (A stereotype), or the influence of SLT and the media, would predict that changes in the environment and reducing the stereotype through these techniques can reduce recidivism rates. -Despite low recidivism rates in minor criminals, the recidivism rates in serial offenders is much higher, supporting the hypothesis that criminals will always be criminals. -Some serial offenders, such as Mary Bell, who killed two boys when she was just 11, was fully rehabilitated in society. But others cannot be rehabilitated, e.g. the case of Bulgers killer Venables, who was recently imprisoned on committing yet another disgusting crime. -This means we can conclude quite simply that criminals who commit lesser crimes, such as theft or an ASBO, can be rehabilitated into society through evidence like Hobbs & Holt, Jenkins etc. Serial offenders, such as murderers and rapists cannot be rehabilitated into society, because although some may proved to be perfectly normal citizens we never know. -This casts serious doubt over the justice system, which was made pathetic, on the Labour Governments stupid decision to sign the Lisbon Treaty. Criminals now have more rights, effectively, than us decent folk. This world is crazy! -A solution is to treat offenders of the less bad kind with techniques like education, Anger management, as they can be normal. For serial killers, and rapists, we cannot take that risk. We do not know who will and who will not go on to be a murderer, or go on to reoffend. Yes some may return to be perfectly normal citizens, but for the security of the rest of the population, it is not safe or morally acceptable to take that risk and release a murderer back into society, because we dont know who is going to do it again. -Argue this you probably wont get 100%, but you will at least tell the truth Practical Aim: To establish whether different politically aligned newspapers believe that criminals can be rehabilitated to prevent recidivism, using the case of James Bulgers killer Jon Venables as an example. Comparison: Daily Mail is more anti-rehabilitation and pro-punishment than the Guardian which identifies the fact that criminals can really change. One can argue that the differences are clear from the outset with the mails title being Vile Fantasies: Why Venables never should have been freed. The Guardian on the other hand resorts to a seemingly lenient title: Child Porn charges send James Bulgers killer back to jail. Both articles however suggest that rehabilitation has not been effective in this case, and even the Guardian hints that Venables should never have been released. Both newspapers stress the severity of his crime, and the sick actions he engaged in, including posing as a woman called Dawn Smith, in an attempt to gain access to more images. This casts real doubt over whether Venables can ever change, as his earlier rehabilitation had clearly failed. Surprisingly however the Guardian identifies that a number of people involved in his rehabilitation had little faith. Even Malcolm Steven who drew up the plan confirms I was not optimistic, simply because we know that people who have been brought up in institutions for years and years have a devil's own job to adjust, to resettle That is very, very difficult. A particular interesting aspect is each newspapers view towards the judiciary system. The Mail says Venables actions represent a slap in the face for the criminal justice system whilst the Guardian tends not to criticise it but rather suggest that it was an impossibility to rehabilitate him. The Daily Mail ends with the line The British state has already given too much leeway to this dangerous young man and should think very carefully before doing so again. This suggests that the Mail is not in favour of his re-release as they believe he can not be rehabilitated. The

A2 Psychology Revision Notes

Alexander Hunter

Guardian however ends on a slightly different note where Venables solicitor states He says that he appreciates there was no blueprint available to him, or those offering him support he felt like a canary down a mine. The return to prison was something of a relief when it came. He intends to learn lessons to help him face this challenge again. This suggests that the Guardian believes Venables can change as a person and be rehabilitated into society. Conclusion: The political status of a newspaper influences the opinions on criminal rehabilitation. Although the difference isnt shocking, it can still be considered significant. The tone of the Daily Mail is far harsher and questions the success of rehabilitation, whereas the Guardian tends to focus more on the difficulty in rehabilitating a young offender. It is clear that the Mail is against release of serial offenders, as they recognise the dangers to society. The Guardian however suggests rehabilitation can work and that serial offenders should be given the opportunity to re-enter society again.