Works Cited Primary Sources "1931 - The Infamous "Scottsboro Boys" Ordeal Begins." The Afro-American 18 Apr. 1931.

Print. We used this source to see how the black press reacted to the Scottsboro case. The black press gave the Scottsboro case great coverage and was instrumental in rallying support for the youths. In this specific article, we used two quotes and one picture of a rally outside of the White House. "American Consulate Stoned in Germany as Protest Against Executions." The Evening Independent [St. Petersburg, Florida] 18 June 1931. Print. This article details two protests in Leipsic, Germany and Dresden, Germany. In both incidents, students threw stones and vandalized American consulates in protest of the Scottsboro verdicts. We used this article to show how far-reaching and intense the public reaction was to the trials. Andy Wright. Plea from a Scottsboro Boy. The Nation. 7 August 1937. Print. The Nation published a letter from Andy Wright after he was sentenced to 99 years in prison in 1935. In the letter, Wright details how all of the Scottsboro Boys were innocent and how rampant racism in the South was the main factor in producing the young mens fate. Baltimore Afro-American, 15 April 1933, p. 3. We quoted this article that had many editorial opinions on the Scottsboro case. Since the Afro-American is a black, Northern newspaper, the editorials were very negative towards the South and its justice system. This helped us in detailing the reaction of blacks in America towards the Scottsboro trials. Baltimore Afro-American, 13 May 1933, p.1. This article covers the details of the first set of the retrials in Scottsboro and editorializes the proceedings. We quoted one of the editorials and a section from the article, in addition to using a photo of a rally in front of the White House from the front page. Baltimore Afro-American, 6 February 1932, p.18. This article, as a part of the extensive coverage given to the Scottsboro case by the AfroAmerican, quotes many Southerners and Alabamians who were in support of the

Scottsboro verdicts. In addition, it addresses the importance of the Scottsboro case to the development of racial equality in the South. Birmingham News, April 16, 1933, p.6. We used this article to gauge Southern perception of the trials. We quoted a section that detailed the role of the NAACP and Northern newspapers. Also, this article quoted several Northern newspapers, and we used a quote from the New York Herald Tribune. Daily Worker, April 16, 1931, p. 1. We used the headline from this article as evidence of public perception of non-Southern press. Since the Daily Worker was a Communist newspaper, it provided greatr coverage of the trials in order to show the Communists efforts to attack injustices in the South against blacks and the working class. Daily Worker, December 1, 1933, p.2. We used a quote from this article describing the outcome of the decision in the retrial of Clarence Norris. He and Haywood Patterson were sentenced to death, which was the second time for Norris and the third for Patterson. Daily Worker, November 23, 1935, p.1. We quoted this article describing the state of the Alabama justice system after Norris v. Alabama. It detailed how Southern states failed to comply with the ruling that all-white juries were unconstitutional. Daily Worker, November 25, 1933, p.3. We quoted this article and used its headline as a picture. It attacked Judge William Callahan for displaying blatant racial bias against the defendants and not allowing Samuek Leibowitz to properly argue his case. Daniell, F. R. "Girl Repeats Story in Scottsboro Case." New York Times 4 Apr. 1933. Print. This article summarizes the testimony of Victoria Price in the second trial. In her testimony, Victoria Price repated her story that she had been raped, despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, including Ruby Bates testimony that they had not been raped. Daniell, F. R. "JUDGE WILL SPEED SCOTTSBORO TRIAL." New York Times 23 Nov. 1933. Print. This source will be used to see how corrupt the trials were. It shows how racist the mindset and environment of the time influenced the judge.

Daniell, F. R. "ROOSEVELT IS ASKED TO INTERVENE TO PROTECT SCOTTSBORO NEGROES." New York Times 20 Nov. 1933. Print. We will use this to see how other people viewed the sentence of the boys. This has the opinion of Roosevelt, the president at the time. Daniell, F. R. "SCOTTSBORO CASE ENDS AS 4 GO FREE; 2 MORE GET PRISON." New York Times 25 July 1937. Print. This is will give us information as to how whites reacted to the freeing of a few of the boys. We will see if they thought it was fair, and how it compared to how the blacks reacted. Daniell, F. R. "SCOTTSBORO CASE GOES TO THE JURY." New York Times 23 Jan. 1936. Print. This is another newspaper primary source we will use to see how the mostly white press reacted to the rulings by the judge. We will use this to see how whites thought about the fairness and justification of these trials. Decatur Daily, April 15, 1933, p.1. We used this article to quote a statement from attorney Samuel Leibowitz. He was addressing the racial bias evident at the trials against both him and the defendants. Foster, John, and George Rufle, dirs. "Plane Dumb." Tom and Jerry. New York City, New York, 4 June 1932. Television.

We used this 1932 cartoon to show how racism had pervaded popular culture during the time of the Scottsboro trials. This cartoon specifically features many racist images and stereotypes about blacks. We included a clip of it in our historical context section.

Hughes, Langston. Scottsboro Limited: Four Poems and a Play in Verse. New York: Golden Stair, 1932. Print. This is a collection of works by Langston Hughes in support of the Scottsboro Boys. We quoted two poems from it.

Huntsville Daily Times, April 12, 1933, p.4. Print. We used this article to learn what the Southern reaction to Communist interference in the trials was. We quoted a section detailing that reaction. John Gould Fletcher, Correspondence, Is This the Voice of the South?, 137 The Nation 734 (1933). We used this letter to The Nation to provide a quote that detailed the Southern mindset surrounding the trials. John Hammond, Jr. The Trial of Haywood Patterson. The New Republic 12 Feb 1936. Print We quoted this article to detail the actions and beliefs of Judge William Callahan and an overview of the case. Leadbelly. Jim Crow Blues. Leadbelly. Document Records, 1940. MP3.
We used this recording of Leadbellys Jim Crow Blues on the historical context.

Leadbelly. "Scottsboro Boys." The Library of Congress Recordings, Vol.5. Leadbelly. Document Records, 1997. MP3. We used this recording of the Scottsboro Boys in the media portrayal tab. "Leningrad Academicians Oppose Alabama Sentences." The Montreal Gazette 4 July 1931. Print. This article, found in the Canadian Montreal Gazette, details how students in Leningrad, Soviet Union voiced their opposition to the Scottsboro verdicts through an academic newspaper. It also details the shock of many people in the Soviet Union over the verdict. We used this article to show the international reaction to the trials. "Letter from Haywood Patterson." Letter to Louis Engdahl. 10 Dec. 1931. Print. We used this letter from Haywood Patterson, the most well-known of the Scottsboro Boys, to evaluate the mindset of the accused boys as they were waiting in prison. It showed that they were innocent and desperate to free themselves. "Letter from Olen Montgomery." Letter to Mr. George Chamblee. 25 May 1931. Print. This letter from Olen Montgomery, one of the Scottsboro Boys, shows us the personal feelings of the boys during their imprisonment, and how they yearned for justice.

Lewis, Catherine M., and J. Richard Lewis. Jim Crow America: A Documentary History. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 2009. Print. A collection of primary source documents detailing the Jim Crow laws of the South. It provided us with a greater knowledge of the Jim Crow laws and how they restricted the rights of blacks. Montgomery Advertiser, April 14, 1931, p.4. This article reprinted an article from the Jackson County Sentinel that we used to gauge Southern reaction to the trials. "NEWSPAPER ARTICLES - Scottsboro - Famous Trials - UMKC Law." School of Law | University of Missouri-Kansas City. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. http://law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/scottsboro/Newspapr.html>. A primary source showing us the public opinion and reaction to the trials. We also got many quotes from it. New York Times, April 9, 1933, p. 16. We used this article to quote Judge Hortons speech to the jury in Haywood Pattersons second trial. New York Times, April 10, 1933, p.12. We quoted a section from this article that concerned Northern surprise at the verdicts in the Decatur trials. New York Times, April 11, 1933, p.1, 11. We used this article to quote a statement from the National Urban League on justice for blacks in the South. New York Times, January 23, 1936, pp. 1, 7. We used this article to quote a statement from defense attorney Clarence Watts to the jury in Haywood Pattersons fourth trial. New York Times, July 14, 1931, p. 21.

We used this article to show the worlds reaction to the trials. We quoted a section that described how the Governor of Alabama received mail from all over the world in protest of the verdicts. New York Times, June, 23, 1933, pp. 1, 11. We used this article to quote Judge Hortons decision to grant a retrial to Haywood Patterson. Norris v. Alabama. United States Supreme Court. 1 Apr. 1935. Law.umkc.edu. University of Missouri-Kansas City Law. Web. 20 Jan. 2011. This U.S. Supreme Court decision provided us with great understanding of the precedents it set and the reasoning of the overturning of the verdicts. Norris, Clarence, and Sybil D. Washington. The Last of the Scottsboro Boys: An Autobiography. New York: Putnam, 1979. Print. This book is a primary source that we will use to understand how the boys felt during their imprisonment. It is written by one of the boys, Clarence Norris, and will provide us with excellent insight into the inner workings the trials and the Jim Crow justice system. Pittsburgh Press, 9 November 1932, p.2. This article supplied us with a very insightful glimpse into the Northern reaction to the Scottsboro case. It praises the decision in Powell v. Alabama and details how the decision will affect justice in America and, more specifically, the South. Plessy vs. Ferguson. United States Supreme Court. 18 May 1896. OurDocuments.gov. The National Archives. Web. 14 May 2012. The landmark case of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) played a vital role in shaping the Jim Crow South of the 1930's, as it deemed "separate but equal" public facilitates constitutional. We mention it in our historical context section when we discuss the roots of Jim Crow. Powell v. Alabama. United States Supreme Court. 7 Nov. 1932. Law.umkc.edu. University of Missouri-Kansas City Law. Web. 20 Dec. 2011. We used this Supreme Court decision to gain better understanding of the precedents it established and why the decision was made.

"The Explanation of the Freeing of Four Defendents." Associated Press 24 July 1937. Print. This is a primary source we will use to see why the judges said they finally freed some of the boys. We will have quotes from the time period and we will use those. "The Scottsboro Case, Again." The Milwaukee Journal [Milwaukee] 2 Apr. 1935: 5. Print. We used this article to gauge Northern reaction to the landmark case of Norris v. Alabama. It details how the case will set precedents that will not allow further injustices in the South to be perpetrated against blacks. The Negro Worker. No. 5 (May 1932), pp. 8-9. Print. This black periodical published the Scottsboro Boys letter to the toilers of the world, which provided us with great insight into the mindset of the boys as they were in jail. The New Republic, September 4, 1933, p. 4. Print. This article provided us with an outside perspective on the trials. We found a good quoted describing the frustration of the Scottsboro Boys and their supporters Wells-Barnett, Ida B. Southern Horrors: Lynch Law In All Its Phases. [New York]: New York Age Print, 1892. Print. This book, written by renowned African-American social activist Ida B. Wells, delves deeply into the topic of lynching in the South. It gave us great insight into the psychological factors that cause lynching and its effects on the black citizens of the South. This resource, although written almost forty years before the trials, was still very relevant at the time and helped us understand the practice of lynching much better. Secondary Sources Acker, James R. Scottsboro and Its Legacy: the Cases That Challenged American Legal and Social Justice. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008. Print. James Acker provided an excellent historical interpretation of the case and references many other historians work on the subject. Our group used it to gain perspective and stance on the case. Anderson, Carol. "The Scottsboro Boys." Interview. Emory.edu. Emory University, 13 Feb. 2012. Web. 14 Apr. 2012. This interview is of Associate Professor of African-American Studies at Emory University, Carol Anderson. Anderson gives an excellent overview of the incident and

the trials, and addresses the impact of the case very well. We used an excerpt of the interview that concerns the legal impact of the reforms that resulted from the Scottsboro case. Aretha, David. The Trial of the Scottsboro Boys. Greensboro, NC: Morgan Reynolds Pub., 2007. Print. We used this to gather background on the Scottsboro boys. We gained a broad understanding of the trials and their importance. Also, this source recounts the incident that led to the trials in great detail. Brown, Nikki L. M., and Barry M. Stentiford. The Jim Crow Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2008. Print. This book is a collection of several essays on the legal circumstances of the Jim Crow laws. It covers the laws of institutional racism in the South and the court cases that resulted from those laws. Also, the essays not only delve deeply into the legal and social effects of the laws, but cover the psychological and every-day effects of the Jim Crow laws on blacks in the South. It helped us gain a greater knowledge of the laws that the Scottsboro Boys fought against. Burt, Robert A. "Brown's Reflection." Yale Law Journal 103.6 (1994): 1483-494. JSTOR. Web. 14 May 2012. This article from the Yale Law Journal by Professor of Law at Yale University Robert A. Burt gave us a deep understanding of the reforms that resulted from the Scottsboro Trials. He speaks to the symbolic nature of the reforms and what they represented to blacks in the South. We quoted two passages where he discusses how Powell v. Alabama represented the federal government's desire to correct the injustices of Jim Crow. Bush, William. "Scottsboro Boys." Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States. Ed. David S. Tanenhaus. Vol. 4. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 340-345. Gale U.S. History In Context. Web. 3 Jan. 2012. This overview of the trials provided us with considerable background. We also found several images in the essay, including several individual shots of the boys. Carter, Dan T. Scottsboro; a Tragedy of the American South. London: Oxford UP, 1971. Print.

This book was important in giving us quotes about the South and background on how the majority of people treated African Americans. It is a secondary source which features many primary features such as letters and court documents. Cushman, Robert Fairchild, and Brian Stuart. Koukoutchos. Cases in Constitutional Law. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. Print. This book covers many of the Supreme Courts land mark cases, including Powell v. Alabama. It gave us a better knowledge of the Supreme Court case that arose from the Scottsboro Trials and its precedents and lasting effects on the American justice system. Duggins, Pat, dir. "Scottsboro." Weekend Edition. Alabama Public Radio. Montgomery, Alabama, 17 June 2000. Radio. We used three audio clips from this segment broadcast on Alabama Public Radio about the Scottsboro trials. In the audio clips, a citizen of Scottsboro reads a plaque commemorating the Scottsboro Boys outside of the courthouse they were convicted in. Ethnic Notions. Dir. Marlon Riggs. California Newsreel, 1986. DVD. This documentary focuses on the media portrayal of racism primarily in the early 20th century. It includes many shocking images and clips of racist films, books, television shows, and music. We used it in the historical context section to portray how racism had pervaded popular culture in the 1920's and 1930's. Goodman, James. Scottsboro Case. Violence in America Ed. Ronald Gottesman. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1999. Page #118-page #119. Volume 3. Print. This is an encyclopedia (secondary) source which gave us important dates and insightful legal background as well as providing excellent court records. Gordon-Reed, Annette. Race on Trial: Law and Justice in American History. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002. Print. Annette Gordon-Reed gave our group phenomenal insight into many significant cases of the time and more importantly over viewed the decisions relating to the Scottsboro Boys and explained why they are important. Gross, Ariela Julie. What Blood Won't Tell: a History of Race on Trial in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2010. Print.

Ariela Gross details multiple instances of racial interference in the justice system of America, including the Scottsboro trials. Horne, Gerald. Powell v. Alabama: The Scottsboro Boys and American Justice. New York: Franklin Watts, 1997. Print. An in-depth history of Powell v. Alabama and its importance. Also contains multiple photographs that portray the environment of 1930s Alabama and of the Scottsboro Boys. It gave us a great understanding of the Supreme Court case and how it reaffirmed the Fourteenth Amendment. "Illegal Racial Discrimination in Jury Selection: A Continuing Legacy." Www.nytimes.com. Equal Justice Initiative, June 2010. Web. 02 Dec. 2011. <http://documents.nytimes.com/report-on-racial-discrimination-in-jury-selection-by-theequal-justice-initiative>. It is a report, although admittedly biased (as its created by the Equal Justice Initiative) containing an abundance of information on all white juries and Jim Crow South. It also contains many varying articles which gave us great perspective. Kinshasa, Kwando Mbiassi., and Clarence Norris. The Man from Scottsboro: Clarence Norris and the Infamous 1931 Alabama Rape Trial, in His Own Words. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997. Print. This book has helpful historical commentary from Kinshasa, and many narratives from Clarence Norris, one of the Scottsboro Boys, on his experiences. We quoted these narratives multiple times. Klarman, Michael J. From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. Print. This book details the legal battle that took place from the late nineteenth century into the 1960s over civil rights, specifically in the South. Contains a specific chapter about Powell v. Alabama and the Scottsboro Boys. It helped further our knowledge of Powell v. Alabama and the perpetual struggle for black civil rights during this period. Linder, Douglas O. "Scottboro Boys." UMKC School of Law. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/scottsboro/SB_acct.html>.

Linder tells the entire story of the boys, from the incident to their releases, in this indepth, unbiased account of the trials. We gained a great overview of the events of the multiple trials. Marable, Manning, and Leith Mullings. Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal : an African American Anthology. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. Print. This book provided great background on black resistance and we quoted its reprinting of the Scottsboro Boys letter to the toilers of the world. Mariner, Joanne. "NORRIS V. ALABAMA, 294 U. S. 587 :: Volume 294 :: 1935." US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez. Web. 04 Dec. 2011. <http://supreme.justia.com/us/294/587/>. Joanne Mariner gives the in-depth specifics of the case, includes a court transcript and much more. Our group found it useful in our quotes (twice) and gave us great detail on Norris v. Alabama. Miller, James A. "Remembering Scottsboro." Interview. BookTV.org. C-SPAN, 12 Aug. 2011. Web. 6 Apr. 2012.

This interview, conducted by C-SPAN's BookTV, is of James Miller, the historian and author of the book "Remembering Scottsboro: The Legacy of an Infamous Trial". It gave us great insight into the impact and circumstances of the trials and provided us with great multimedia material. We used two clips of this interview. Miller, James A. Remembering Scottsboro: The Legacy of an Infamous Trial. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 2009. Print.

This book provided us with great background of the experience of the Scottsboro Boys and gave great detail that was previously unknown to us. Miller combines insightful narratives with great uses of primary sources, creating a very well-rounded, informative source. Murray, Jr., Hugh T. "Aspects of the Scottsboro Campaign." Science and Society 35.2 (1971): 177-92. JSTOR. Web. 14 May 2012.

This journal article, written by historian Hugh T. Murray, Jr., gives a deep analysis of the role of the Communist Party in arousing public support, and sometimes resentment, for the Scottsboro Boys. This article covers many specifics of the public reaction that we had not found before, such as the Southern backlash to the trials and the role of the Ku Klux Klan in creating anti-Communist sentiment. We quoted a section where a black miner from Alabama discusses what the Scottsboro case meant to the black working-class in the South. Ritterhouse, Jennifer Lynn. Growing Up Jim Crow: How Black and White Southern Children Learned Race. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2006. Print. This book mainly focuses on oral accounts and autobiographies that detail the environment in which young children, black and white, grew up in the Jim Crow South. It helped us portray the backgrounds that the Scottsboro Boys and the other white teenagers on the train came from. Also helped us gain knowledge of the overall mindset that whites in the South were raised with, which greatly contributed to the outcome of the Scottsboro Trials. Scottsboro: An American Tragedy. Dir. Daniel Anker. Perf. Andre Braugher. PBS Home Video, 2001. DVD. Directed by Daniel Anker, the movie not only overviews the entire trial but gave excellent historical context and gave us an excellent attempt at an unbiased view of the times and the event. "Smart and Safe." Www.naacphistory.org. Web. 4 Dec. 2011. <http://www.naacphistory.org/NAACP/TimelineHistory.aspx?Id=92>. This is a brief overview on the history of the times. We will also use it to see what the role of the NAACP was during the trials and the impact of those actions. Strange Fruit. Dir. Joel Katz. California Newsreel, 2002. DVD. This documentary centers around Billie Holiday and her legendary song "Strange Fruit". It describes how the song was inspired by lynchings in the South, which were rampant at the time. We used a clip from the movie which gives an insightful look into the mentality behind lynching. Tom Nicholas. Does Innovation Cause Stock Market Runups? Evidence from the Great Crash The American Economic Review , Vol. 98, No. 4 (Sep., 2008), pp. 1370-1396. Web. We used an image of the Great Depression, a stock chart, from this essay.

"The First Scottsboro Trials." School of Law | University of Missouri-Kansas City. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. <http://law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/scottsboro/SB_HRrep.html>. This is a secondary source portraying a historians perspective on the Scottsboro trials. We will use it to outline the events of the first set of trials and their outcomes.

"The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. Jim Crow Stories | PBS." PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. <http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories.html>. We learned of the historical context of the time, the Jim Crow South. It shows possible reasons for the controversial reactions of the American populace. "The Scottsboro Trials: Map Showing Key Locations." UMKC School of Law. Web. 02 Jan. 2012. <http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/FTrials/scottsboro/SB_alab.html>. We used this map to show the key locations of the trials and the incident. Williams, Regennia N. "The Scottsboro Boys." Telephone interview. 11 May 2012. We interviewed, by phone, Dr. Regennia N. Williams, Professor of African-American History at Cleveland State University. We discussed many aspects of the Scottsboro case, including the role of the Communist Party and the NAACP. Dr. Williams has great expertise concerning the NAACP, so she was very insightful in that aspect. Also, we discussed the Jim Crow system as a whole and the magnitude of racial discrimination that was present in the South during the 1930's. We used several audio clips of the interview throughout the website and also quoted her in text multiple times.