Various stresses in ships structure

Stress is defined as a force (or forces) acting on a solid structure that causes a deformation, known as strain. Stresses are defined by how forces act on any material: Tensile Stress Caused by forces that tend to pull the material in parallel but opposite directions away from the centre, increasing the tension and the length of the material before breaking it in two. Compression Stress Caused by forces that tend to push the material in parallel but opposite directions towards the centre, causing the material to buckle or crush and decreasing its length until the force exerted becomes equal to the strength of the material. Shear Stress Caused by non-parallel forces that tend to pull the material in opposite directions away from the centre, causing the material to shear under the influence of the exerted force. Torsional Stress Caused by forces acting in opposite directions, causing a twisting moment in the material. In other words, if a shear stress occurs in a transverse direction, it is referred to as torsional stress. The following terminology is important in understanding stresses on ships: Moment This is the effect of a force applied around any pivot point on a structure, causing it to turn around that point. For example, if a force `F' is applied at a distance `d' from a pivot point, the moment `M' can be given by the formula M = F x d. Bending Moment The bending moment is the amount of bending caused to the ship's hull by external forces. For example, the bending moment is the highest in the midship section when the ship's ends are supported by crests of a wave , known as `sagging' or `positive bending'. When the ship is riding the crest of a wave at its midships, the bending moment is known as `hogging' or `negative bending'. Bending moments are measured in tonne- metres. Shearing Force When two external parallel forces act in opposite directions on any part of a structure to break it apart or shear it, the forces are known as shearing forces and are measured in tonnes. Shearing stress is, therefore, the stress that may break or shear the structure apart. For ships, this force is considered by taking the difference between the buoyancy and the weight force acting on it. According to Archimedes' principle, for a ship to float the weight force must be balanced by the buoyancy force. Wherever one of these forces exceeds the other, shearing stresses are likely to occur. The most likely areas for shearing stresses are at about 25% of the ship's length from stem or stern, particularly at the transverse watertight divisions at this length. For bulk carriers, it has been found that the highest shearing stresses occur at the boundary of the accommodation and the last cargo hold. Shearing Stress is calculated by the formula : Shear Stress = F / A , where F = Shear Force, and A = Area of cross section. The Chief Officer must plan the stowage to ensure that loads are distributed evenly within the ship at all stages.

Structural members that increase a vessel's resistance to shearing forces are the centre girder, intercostal side girders, deck and side plating and longitudinal frames where fitted. They should be given particular attention during inspections to detect any signs of damage to the structure. Since shear forces are greatest at the bulkheads, this is compensated for by placing angle brackets at each side of the bulkheads. The stresses on ships can be categorised by the forces causing them Static Stresses These result from differences in the weights loaded/ discharged or moved within a ship. They tend to act constantly and continuously as long as the source of stress is not moved, eg by a change in load distribution on the ship. These stresses can be caused by any load, from the weight of the ship itself, its structure, equipment, machinery, cargo, bunkers, stores or the constant pressure of seawater on the hull. Dynamic Stresses These result from the movement of the ship at sea, the varying effects of sea and swell, and the motion of the ship through the water. The ship may also be subjected to internal dynamic stresses caused by the movement of liquids within holds or tanks. Localised Stresses These include all stresses not classified as static or dynamic stresses. They tend to change with the operation, eg using a crane causes vibration and point load stresses.

Related article: Categories of ship stresses :Pounding, hogging, sagging, panting, drydocking, racking and more

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Development of general cargo ships transporting various commodities worldwide

The ship, once stored and provisioned, becomes the ideal in selfsufficiency, capable of the transport of cargo, livestock, troops, passengers gas, fluids, minerals etc.The fact that the vessel

provides a source of power which can cope with varying degrees of emergency and still be able to sustain itself says a lot for the developed marine industry. The ship is equipped with such ancillary equipment as required to be able to load and offload, in a safe condition, all cargoes and passengers as the vessel is designed to accommodate. Bearing the function of the ship in mind, it is not difficult for seafarers to realise how their characters have been influenced by the independent nature of their employment. Terms and definitions related with cargo ships Abeam : A bearing projected at right-angles from the fore and aft line, outwards from the widest part of the ship . Ahead : Right ahead is the line the fore and aft line, if projected,would extend in front of the vessel . Opposite to the term astern, when used in relation to relative bearings. It may also be used as an engine-room order to cause the engines to turn in order to move the ship ahead. Amidships : The middle of the vessel in both transverse and longitudinal directions. More commonly used as a helm order, when it is usually shortened to midships . Athwartships : Defined as in a direction from one side of the ship to the other, at rightangles to the fore and aft line. Breadth : The maximum beam of the vessel measured from the outside edge of the shell plating on either side of the vessel is the extreme breadth . The beam of the vessel measured amidships, between the inside edge of the shell plating on either side of the vessel, is the moulded breadth . Camber (or round of beam) : The curvature of the deck in the athwartships direction.The measurement is made by comparing height of deck at the centre of the vessel to height of deck at the side of the vessel . Depth : The extreme depth of the vessel is measured from the bottom side of the keel to the top of the deck beams, the measurement being taken at the side of the vessel. The moulded depth is measured from the top side of the keel to the top of the deck beams, at the side of the vessel. Flare : The outward curvature of the shell plating in the foremost part of the vessel, providing more width to the focsle head and at the same time helping to prevent water coming aboard. Fore and Aft Line : An imaginary line passing from the stem to the stern through the centre of the vessel . Freeboard : This is the vertical distance, measured at the ships side, from the waterline to the top of the freeboard deck edge.The freeboard measurement is taken at the midships point. Deck edge is marked by a painted line 25mm x 100mm, above the plimsoll line. Keel Rake : The inclination of the line of the keel to the horizontal . Length between Perpendiculars (LBP) : The distance between the ford and aft perpendiculars. Length Overall (LOA) : The maximum length of the vessel measured from the extreme for?d point of the vessel to the extreme after point . Perpendiculars : A perpendicular drawn to the waterline from a point on the summer loadline where it intersects the stempost is called the forward perpendicular (FP). A perpendicular drawn to the waterline at a point where the after side of the rudder post meets the summer waterline is called the aft perpendicular (AP). If a rudder post is not fitted, then it is drawn from the centre of the rudder stock. Rise of Floor : This is the rise of the bottom shell plating above the base line (taken from the top edge of the keel . Sheer : This is the curvature of the deck in the fore and aft direction, measured as the height of the deck at various points above the height of the deck at the midships point .

Ships Beam : The widest part of the ship in the transverse athwartships direction Stem Rake : The inclination of the stem line to the vertical. Tumblehome : The inward curvature of the ships side shell plating above the summer loadline .

Effects of various stresses in ships structures and reinforcement required

Panting stresses: Stresses caused by movement of the vessel through water as fluctuations in the water pressure upon shell plating results in `in-out' movement of the plates. Shell plating constantly subjected to panting stresses may fracture due to fatigue. Stress location: Generally for 15% of the ship's length from stem and abaft of the aft peak bulkhead. Reinforcement required : Panting beams, panting stringers, wash bulkhead, additional stiffeners and reduced frame spacing in the panting region reinforce the structure against panting. Pounding: When a vessel slams and pitches heavily in heavy seas, pounding stresses occur. These stresses are rigorous when the vessel is in light condition. Stress location: Severe effects in the region between 5% and 25% of the ship's length from stem. Reinforcement required : Shell plating in the pounding region is thicker, and plate floors are fitted at alternate frames (for longitudinally framed ships) and at every frame space (for transversely framed ships). Hogging & sagging : Hogging is when the ship bends upwards longitudinally. This occurs when there is more weight concentrated at the ends due to uneven cargo distribution or when the vessel rides a wave crest in its middle, causing excessive buoyancy. Hogging stresses cause tensile stress in the deck area and compression stress in the bottom area in the midships region. Sagging: Sagging is the reverse of hogging when the ship bends longitudinally in the downwards direction. This occurs when there is more weight concentrated in the mid length of the vessel due to uneven cargo distribution or when the vessel rides a wave trough in its middle causing excessive buoyancy at the ends. Sagging stresses cause tensile stress in the bottom of the ship and compression stress in the deck area in the midships region. Reinforcement required : Hogging and sagging are both counteracted by reinforcement of the mid length of the vessel through a centre girder, intercostal side girders, and increased thickness of deck, side and bottom plating. Additionally, the prudent watchkeeping officers must ensure that the weights are distributed evenly throughout the vessel's sea passage and during loading and discharging. They must also be vigilant about the vessel being placed on the crest or trough of the wave to cause hogging or sagging when the wavelength is equal to the ship's length. Torsion:

Torsion stresses occur when the ship's hull is twisted due to the effect of oblique sea or unequal transverse distribution of weights. Excessive torsion stresses can cause watertight partitions to buckle and develop leaks through cracks. Stress location: Generally between any two compartments, ie near the transverse bulkheads if caused by oblique seas, and at the partition between any two compartments if caused by unequal distribution of weights about the centreline of the ship. Reinforcement required : The corners of the deck and DB tanks are reinforced by the use of beam knees and brackets respectively. Racking: Racking stresses occur when a ship's hull is distorted transversely due to the effect of rolling. Stress location: The effect is predominantly seen at the joint of the deck stringer and sheer strake, as well as at the turn of the bilge. Drydocking stress : This is the stress that occurs when a vessel takes up bottom blocks in the drydock. Stress location: Along the full length of the vessel where blocks are placed under the bottom of the ship. If shores are used to support the vessel on the sides (eg if a loaded vessel enters drydock), then the stresses occur where support is provided by shores. Reinforcement required : Strengthening of the bottom of the vessel for drydocking. Also, the bottom blocks are positioned under the transverse bulkheads, plate floors, girders, etc.