Understand fitness training principles, including intensity, duration, frequency, overload, specificity, individuality, diminishing returns, variety, reversibility,

maintenance and detraining. Understand training methods including continuous, interval, fartlek, circuit, weight/resistance, flexibility, plyometrics, speed, Swiss ball and core strength training) to improve the health related fitness components Design and participate in and evaluate a 6-week training program that demonstrates the correct application of training principles and methods to enhance and maintain specific health related fitness components

 S I

MAJOR TRAINING PRINCIPLES (SIDOF)

(PRINCIPLE) an athlete must train the specific energy systems, fitness components, and muscle groups used (PRINCIPLE) refers intensity of the training session. Usually measured as a % of Maximum Heart Rate (PRINCIPLE) refers to how long the training sessions or

D F

program lasts

(PRINCIPLE) workloads must be gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress takes place
(PRINCIPLE) the number of training sessions per week; two times for maintenance, three times for improvements

D
D

OTHER IMPORTANT TRAINING PRINCIPLES (DDIVM)

(PRINCIPLE) a rapid return to pre-training levels upon cessation of training.

(PRINCIPLE) as a performer nears their maximal peak in any fitness component, the rate of continued improvement significantly slows down compared with rapid improvements early the early stages of a training program when fitness levels are lower.

(PRINCIPLE) appropriate training has to match the requirements of the sport/position/player. Training programs must be designed for individual needs.

(PRINCIPLE) training that includes a range of training activities within a the required training methods

(PRINCIPLE) fitness levels can be retained with a reduced level of training frequency (twice/week)

Specificity
Replicating characteristics of physical activity in the training. athlete should train the specific; Energy systems Fitness components Muscle groups Skills required
Eg. Tennis Player would use resistance training on the upper and lower body.

An

1. 2. 3. 4.

Team games such as Australian Rules Football requires specific drills and fitness activities to prepare the players for the game. Training usually consists of continuous training with other methods (Fartlek and interval) being used. Skill drills replicate game day fitness and tactical requirements. Pre-season is used to raise the base level fitness of players (aerobic and strength), whilst during the season the fitness needs only to be maintained.

Specificity and the Individual

Athletes differ in; Physiques Muscle fibre composition VO2 max etc. The specific type of training and its effect is specific to the individual athlete. Genetics does have a major role, but the type of specific exercise that we do will shape our bodies and prepare us for sport.

Training which replicates the competitive event is very useful, but the physical requirements of the sport/position/player also need to be considered. Using a variety of training methods is complimentary to athletes preparation prior to an event. Soreness in athletes after games is an indication of a lack of specificity in training. This provides good feedback for coaches.

Energy systems Via a games analysis, (work rest ratio data) energy system requirements for the sport and more importantly the position in teams sports, need to be identified. Once the work rest ratio data is analysed and understood, the energy systems of the sport/position are then better known and SPECIFIC training methods can then be implemented into the training program that will target the appropriate energy system; e.g. if the work rest was found to be 1:1 or 1:1.5 suggesting a predominant use of the aerobic energy system, then continuous training, long interval training or fartlek training methods would be recommended as suitable to develop the aerobic energy system/aerobic capacity fitness component. It is important to ensure work rest ratio used in training, replicate those used in the sport

Specificity

Fitness Components Via a games analysis, (skills frequency & locomotor patterns) fitness components need to be identified. Once this data is analysed and understood, the fitness components of the sport/position are then better known and SPECIFIC training methods can be implemented into the training program that will target the appropriate fitness components e.g. a games analysis of a goal shooter in Netball may identify leg power, agility, speed and strength in the forearms for catching/shooting as key fitness components. Training therefore would need to address these requirements. A games analysis of a Centre, may reveal, aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, LME in the legs as key fitness components; training therefore would need to target and develop these fitness components.

Specificity

Specificity

Specificity

Progressive Overload
The goal of any training program is to cause
chronic adaptations to enhance performance. Consistently applying new physical stresses upon a body in any of the training methods, will over a time, see chronic (long term) physiological adaptations (changes) Once adaptations have occurred, a plateau where no physiological changes occurs, unless we further increase the demands of training / stress on the body by applying PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD to training.

Progressive Overload
The variables of training that are available for
progressive overload are:
Distance of work Duration of work Duration of recovery Number of repetitions Number of sets Number of sessions per week Amount of resistance Range of motion

Question: How and what variables could you

manipulate when interval training (work and rest training)? Progressive overload is particular to individual needs and therefore there is no rigid applications.

 Guidelines for applying Progressive Overload 1.Only ONE variable should be changed at a

Progressive Overload

time. 2.The overload should fall in the range of 2-10%

Overloads of greater than 10% may make training too difficult (over training) and may cause injury. Overloads less than 2% will cause minimal stress and therefore minimal adaptations/improvements.

3.Mindful attention to appropriate recovery

strategies is also important to maximise improvements particularly when an overload is applied. 4.Mesocycle: page 272 (Read)

Applying Progressive Overload

Overload via increasing; Quality of training (Intensity or speed) Quantity of training (Frequency, duration or resistance) Note. Increase only one factor make it gradual. Eg. Running Increasing duration If more than one factor is increased or the overload is too great, it could

Overload via increasing; Periodisation Dividing training into time periods (cycles) Timing when to overload, allowing for tiring and recovery phases, is essential. When the body is adapting, the new overload level should be put in place.

Frequency
Definition: Number of training sessions per week to ensure improvements in the desired fitness components and energy systems. 3 times per week is the general guidelines in order to improve specific fitness components. Allow recovery/rest time.
During training, catabolic effect occurs (the breakdown of muscle tissue & other compounds within the body During rest anabolic effect (repair and chronic adaptations) occurs. APPROPRIATE REST IS JUST AS IMPORTANT AS CORRECT TRAINING

 Once an athlete moves from being a novice and

Frequency

becomes accustomed to consistent training (6 months) the guidelines of 3 times per week can be altered to suit the needs of the sport/position/athlete to enhance further adaptations. The frequency of training sessions can be as much as 12 sessions per week. (2/day). The number of training sessions is determined by: 1. The requirements of the sport 2. The selected training method(s) 3. The fitness of the athlete 4. The stage of the training mesocycle (preparation, pre-competition, competition or recovery stage) 5. The frequency of training must ensure adequate recovery time.

Frequency
Elite 5-7 times per week Club 3 sessions per week Aerobic Training: 5-7 times a week at 75-85% max H.R. Anaerobic Training: 3-5 times a week at 85100% max H.R.

 Duration can refer to:

Duration

1. the length of a each training session e.g. 60 minutes 2. the minimum length of time it takes for the training program to result in improved fitness. Aerobic improvement: 6-12 weeks Anaerobic improvement: 6-8 weeks Flexibility: improvement after a number of sessions 3. the length of time of a bout of exercise during a training program e.g. 10 minutes on bike during a circuit training session Aerobic zone Minimum of 30 minutes to gain benefits. Can be achieved in smaller amounts (Eg. 10,000 steps program). Training programs should be at least 6 weeks long, with 12 weeks being ideal. Sport scientists have structured training into a program

The Training year can be broken down into three main periods (Called macrocycles). A training year consists of; pre-season, in-season and offseason. Each macrocycle can be further broken down into shorter phases of training called mesocycles. Below is three distinct mesocycles to be used for an unfit person.
Periodisation is simply organising a training program into manageable blocks of time that include tapering/unloading (reducing training volumes) and peaking to ensure prime physiological and psychological states for major events.

Periodising the Training Year

Peaking and Tapering

Peaking Refers to the planning of training so that an athlete reaches their optimum readiness at a particular determined time eg. World championships, Olympics, Commonwealth Games. Tapering Decrease in training levels in the weeks leading up to the major event. Allows for more recovery time and extra energy storage. Two methods of tapering are; 1. Step reductions 2. Exponential decay

 Exertion level at which training is being performed

Intensity

(Quality of training). Working at the appropriate intensity is critical in ensuring that the targeted energy system and/or fitness component is being developed. Intensity can be measured by: 1.% of max. heart rate (220-age). Easy way to measure intensity; manually or with heart rate monitors (bpm). 2.% of VO2 max 3.Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) 4.Acceleromters 5.Global Positioning systems (GPS) Energy Systems (% Max HR)
1. Phosphate 95-100% 2. Lactic Acid 85-95% 3. Aerobic 70-85%

Intensity RATE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION the easiest of all Rate of Perceived Exertion
(RPE)
(e.g. Borgs scale).

Sometimes activities lasting less than 30 seconds performed at

maximal intensity will not register as being at maximal levels using any of the monitors listed above because the time is insufficient for the cardiovascular system to be activated to maximal levels. This is where the RPE comes in handy for short training efforts calling upon the two anaerobic energy systems. The monitors listed above are better suited to aerobic training.

It is essential to train at the correct intensity to improve and maximise chronic adaptations.
HR max % 100

Training zones as percentage of HR max and VO2 max

VO2 max %

ANAEROBIC TRAINING ZONE

LACTATE INFLECTION POINT 85 75

AEROBIC TRAINING ZONE

70

55

REST/RECOVERY
For both continuous and sprint training, the most critical factor in guaranteeing Maximal gains in fitness is INTENSITY

Intensity and Lactate inflection point

L.I.P. is the exercise intensity level, where lactic acid
production BEGINS to be greater than dissipation (Approx 75% VO2 Max or 85% Max HR) specific training methods.

The L.I.P. varies in athletes and can be raised via For most people training just above the LIP at 87%
Max HR would elicit anaerobic adaptations. Highly trained endurance athletes would need to train at a greater intensity to train their anaerobic energy system

Design of a Training Year

1. Identify the purpose of the program 2. Conduct a game analysis 3. Select fitness tests for a test battery 4. Select suitable training methods 5. Plan the length of the program 6. Periodise training sessions for each 7.
training method. Timetable training sessions

DESIGN OF A TRAINING YEAR

PRE-SEASON MACROCYCLE: provides a foundation for the
competition season. It should be of a general nature and include a high volume of medium-intensity endurance activity to develop the main physiological requirements of the sport. Any detected weaknesses are corrected. There should be a gradual shift to a second mesocycle where the quantity of training is reduced and the quality is increased by raising intensity.

COMPETITION (IN-SEASON) MACROCYCLE: optimal fitness

level is achieved and precision in the performance of skills should be evident. The intensity of activities and drills approximates the intensity of the competition.

POST-SEASON/OFF-SEASON MACROCYCLE: permits the

athlete to reduce the level of activity and to regenerate, but a balance must occur to avoid detraining.

Post-season macrocycle
Pre-season macrocycle

Competition macrocycle

Individuality
Individual athletes have individual needs because of: 1. Genetic differences
a) Muscle type b) Predispositions to a particular activity (aerobic, anaerobic, highly coordinated)

2. Different fitness levels 3. Different sports 4. Different playing positions 5. Different psychological characteristics

To maximise positive adaptations it is clear that INDIVIDUALISED TRAINING PROGRAMS will hasten this process more quickly than a generalised sport specific training program.

Individuality
In team games, each player has different physiological demands. Individual programs should be developed in addition to team training sessions. Eg. Hockey Compare needs of stationary goalkeeper with a midfielder. However, it is important that teams do train together as it builds club cohesion, mateship etc. Coaches can work on team tactics and strategies. Eg. AFL Training Each player has an individual training program which is based on their playing position(s). Clubs also take into account the players; Training history, injuries, illness etc.

Diminishing Returns
Fitness gains are difficult once into program. Unfit people have greater gains at the start of the program but then have little gains later in the program. Fitness gains diminish once the athlete gets close to their maximal level of fitness. Genetic potential will determine if the unfit athlete will eventually pass the initially fit athlete. Overload can be used when fitness levels plateau.

Diminishing Returns
Everyone has a pre-programmed genetic potential for fitness An untrained person will show greater initial improvements in response to training than their more trained counterparts As a performer gets closer to their potential, their rate of improvement slows.

Variety
Mix training sessions up to avoid boredom from repetition. A variety of training methods should be used. Try minor or major games, but keep skills/energy systems specific. Note. The principle of specificity should be maintained where possible

In team games, the coach should introduce new drills or activities regularly. The coach can also use different club leaders to take training.

Detraining
Also called reversibility. Loss of fitness is very quick than the initial gaining of fitness. The body returns to its untrained state unless fitness is maintained. Most fitness is lost after 4-8 weeks of detraining. Generally, the longer the training program, the more gradual the loss occurring. Physiological changes Increase in HR Decrease in mitochondrial enzymes Decrease in blood volume Aerobic loss is quicker (24 weeks) than anaerobic. Eg. A distance runner and a sprinter both have a months break from training. The distance runner would be worse off than the sprinter.

Maintenance and Retraining

Maintenance Frequency can decrease once at the desired level of fitness. But intensity must remain the same. A maintenance program should be used offseason to avoid the effects of detraining.

Retraining All training benefits must be regained by a new training program after a long period of de-training. After injury, the athlete needs a comparable period of time to regain fitness

The Purpose of Training

Training improves the physiological capacity of athletes to bring out the best performance possible. The demands of the sport can be identified by undertaking an activity analysis. A training program needs to meet the demands of the game and indivdual. Methods of training vary, and a program should be well designed. Using a variety of methods is possible, but must be specific to the sport chosen.

Designing a Training Session

A training session should include; An active warm up which raises muscle temperature and causes sweating. Stretching Stretch major muscle groups used in the physical activity. Prevents injury. Skill Development Basic skills worked on and some tactics can be incorporated. Main Conditioning Session Main training session which works on the major fitness components, energy systems, skill development in isolation and/or more importantly in simulated match conditions. Recovery/cool down Intensity needs to taper off. Reduces stiffness after training sessions. Further flexibility work can also be done.

FITNESS TRAINING PRINCIPLES AND METHODS

INTERVAL TRAINING periods of work are alternated with periods of rest
CONTINUOUS (LONG SLOW DISTANCE) TRAINING performing a bout of activity for an extended period of time FARTLEK TRAINING continuous activity with short bursts of intense work at regular stages CIRCUIT TRAINING involves performing a number of exercises in a sequence PLYOMETRIC TRAINING training specifically designed to develop POWER that involves a rapid eccentric contraction of the muscles, followed by a rapid concentric contraction FLEXIBILITY TRAINING involves stretching exercises that increase the range of motion about a joint WEIGHT TRAINING a form of strength training that primarily improves strength, power and LME depending upon the exercise design

METHODS OF TRAINING
METHOD
INTERVAL TRAINING

FITNESS COMPONENTS TRAINED

Cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular power, anaerobic power/speed, LME

CONTINUOUS TRAINING Cardio-respiratory endurance, LME FARTLEK TRAINING Cardio-respiratory endurance, LME, anaerobic power/speed Cardio-respiratory endurance, strength, power, agility, LME Power, speed, strength, dynamic flexibility, agility, LME Static and dynamic flexibility Strength, power, speed, LME, agility Speed, muscular power, strength, LME Balance, co-ordination, flexibility, LME, Muscular Strength

CIRCUIT TRAINING PLYOMETRIC TRAINING FLEXIBILITY TRAINING WEIGHT TRAINING SPEED TRAINING PILATES (Core Strength Training)

SWISS BALL (Core Strength Training)

MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Balance, co-ordination, flexibility, LME, Muscular Strength

Requires effective integration of all relevant health and skill-related fitness components

Interval Training
Intervals of work followed by rest (ATP/PC replenishment and some oxidization of H+ and LA). Rest time can be active, depending upon energy system being used. Work time and intensity plus recovery time determines energy system used. Variables in interval training; Distance/duration Intensity Duration of rest Activity during rest Number of sets Frequency of training By varying any of the variables we can progressively overload the athlete.

Benefits Highly structured Specific to game Can measure progress All energy systems can be trained. Minimal equipment required

TERMINOLOGY USED WHEN DEVISING AN INTERVAL TRAINING PROGRAM

WORK INTERVAL: Period of time work is undertaken

REST INTERVAL: Relief time, interspersed between work intervals, e.g. 30 seconds WORK INTENSITY: Level of intensity of the work intervals expressed as % of HR Max, e.g. 95-100% or RPE (0-10) INTERVAL DISTANCE: Distance of each repetition in metres, e.g. 50 m
WORK-REST RATIO: Work interval divided by rest interval expressed as a ratio. E.g. 6 / 30 = 1 : 5 TOTAL DISTANCE: Distance of each rep x no. of reps x no. of sets, e.g. 50 m x 8 x 3 = 1200 RECOVERY METHOD: Method used by athlete to recover (active or passive), e.g. passive/rest

THE EFFECT OF MANIPULATING INTERVAL TRAINING VARIABLES TO ACHIEVE OVERLOAD

VARIABLE INCREASE DURATION OF WORK EFFECT Provided intensity is maintained, an increase in duration will result in overload as the athlete will cover more distance Results in an increase in intensity, placing greater demands on the anaerobic systems (ATP-PC and LA). Note: This is not a preferred strategy due to the resultant change in W-R ratio and consequent loss of specificity

DECREASE DURATION OF REST INTERVAL

INCREASE NUMBER OF REPETITIONS/SETS

Will result in increased demands on the targeted energy system(s). This is the preferred option. Once the number of reps is doubled the number of sets can be increased

Interval Training
Interval training has periods of work followed by periods of rest depending on the main energy system involved to make training specific:
Long Interval Primarily trains = Aerobic energy system, but also some LA system benefit Work : rest = 1 : 1 Intensity = 75-85% HR max Duration = 1 4 minutes Recommended rest = 1 4 minutes (same as work period) Commonly used for = team sports with high aerobic base; 800m 3,000 m track events; 100m 800m swimming events

Intermediate Interval Primarily trains = LA system, but also some aerobic energy system benefit Work : rest = 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 Intensity = 85+ % HR max Duration = 15 seconds 1 minute Recommended rest = 45 seconds 2/3 minutes Commonly used for = team sports which have frequent burst of anaerobic efforts lasting 5-10 seconds; 200m 1,500 m track events; 25m 100m swimming events Short Interval Primarily trains = ATP-PC & LA systems Work : rest = 1 : 4 or 1 : 5 Intensity = maximal Duration = 5 15 seconds Recommended rest = 15/20 seconds 1 minute Commonly used for = team sports involving repeated short sprints; 100m track event; 25 m swimming events The longer the rest period, the greater the amount of PC restoration that occurs and hence the more training is likely be of the ATP-PC system.

Continuous Training

Time at least 20 minutes Long, slow distance Benefits; (LSD) training. Less demanding than No rest or break period anaerobic training. for at least 20 minutes. Provides health benefits. Low risk of injury Works aerobic Physiological benefits; energy system. Lowered resting H.R Time should meet Increased stroke volume demands of game Thicker heart muscle length. Increase muscle enzymes Examples; Jogging, cycling, rowing, walking Reach steady state quicker Slower lactate accumulation Max Intensity 8085% max H.R Faster recovery provided Min Intensity - 65appropriate recovery 70% max H.R strategies are implemented

FITT Formula
F = Frequency (At least 3 to 4 sessions per week) I = Intensity (In aerobic zone) T = Time (Minimum of 20 minutes) T = Type (Whole body activities that use large major muscle groups)

Fartlek Training
Variation of continuous training. It involves short bursts of intense work during a continuous activity. Fartlek is Swedish for Speed Play. Works both aerobic and anaerobic systems. Session can be either structured or unstructured. Can be done in small areas and is suitable for all fitness levels.
Intensity sub-maximal which changes. Overload Increase frequency, duration, distance of intense bursts. Covering same distance in less time. Benefits; Energy systems can be trained. Adds variety to a continuous training program.

Circuit Training
Uses stations (6-15) that focus on specific components of fitness. A complete circuit should take between 5 and 20 minutes with 15-30 seconds rest between each station. Coaches can design a circuit manipulating the following variables; Fitness components used Type and number of exercises Number of reps Number of circuits to be completed The length of recovery
Specificity Exercises can be made specific to the game. Time- A lap should take 20 minutes with 15-20 break. Overload Number of reps, time, laps, recovery time, resistance. Benefits; Develops a range of fitness components. Maintains interest can be varied. Can be used to work on weaknesses. Progress can be measured. Examples; Step-ups, sit-ups, press-ups, squat jumps, shuttle runs, pull ups.

Circuit Training Methods

Three main types of circuits; 1. Fixed load 50 seconds per exercise 3 circuits in 20 minutes Loading is increased each set (See table 10.7 p.244)
2. Fixed time Max reps in time given

3. Individual load Max reps in 1 minute. Athlete works at 60,70 or 75% rep max. (See table 10.8 p.245) Or Score is halved and attempted in 2/3 of the time taken to do three complete circuits.

Plyometric Training
New name for skipping, bounding and jumping developed in Eastern Europe and Russia. It develops muscular power from a stretch reflex. Trains eccentric aspect of muscular contraction. Speed is vital. Example; Leaping, bounding, hopping, rebounding. Note Height should not exceed 25cm (Low impact), 35cm high impact. FATIGUE SHOULD NOT BE A COMPONENT OF THIS TRAINING METHOD Overload Altering sets or reps. Low Impact Reps x10 Sets- x 1-5 Recovery 3 min High Impact Reps x10-25 Sets 1-5 Recovery- 10min Benefits; Trains neuromuscular system. Develops power Replicates game movements Minimal equipment required.

Low impact plyometrics

High impact plyometrics

Plyometrics Considerations
Considerations; Athlete needs sound strength and endurance Use less stressful drills for beginners Not recommended for children under 15 years old. Train on shock absorbing surfaces Frequency 2 (off-season) and 1 (in-season). Recovery time 48 hours

Flexibility Training
Ability of specific joints to move through the range of motion required. Methods; 1. Passive (Static) Holding stretch for 15-30 sec 2. Slow Active Stretching (SAS) Stretch, relax then re-stretch. Used in aerobics. 3. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Usually partner assisted stretch. Full lengthening of muscle which contracts isometrically. 4. Ballistic* Moving through range of motion using momentum. *Not recommended unless well warmed up. Frequency 3-4 sessions p.w Should be included in addition to any training program. Flexibility is required in all sports.

Weights (Resistance) Training

Improves muscular strength, power and endurance. Benefits; Non specific groups can be targeted Variety of exercises Terminologyused Rep Single effort Strength, power and Rep Max (RM) max endurance can be number of reps in a row targeted Set Number reps in a Record progress on sequence performance chart. Resistance Amount of weight

Weights (Resistance) Training

Resistance/Weight Training Guidelines for Beginners and Intermediate Performers

Resistance/Weight Training Guidelines for Advanced Performers

Resistance Training Additional information

Muscle fibres are recruited according to intensity levels Slow twitch fibres are recruited at low intensities, fast twitch fibres are recruited as intensity increases to maximal levels Strength, power and hypertrophy training are all anaerobic and focus on fast twitch fibres Power is developed by working with light resistances at 30-50% RM to enable the actions to be explosive and performed rapidly Strength is developed by working with heavy resistances at 70-80% RM to enable the actions to be performed at slow-moderate contraction speed LME is developed by working with moderate resistances at approx 50% RM to enable the actions to be performed quickly with high repetitions

Isotonic Free Weights

1. Free weights
(isotonic) Traditional form Uses dumbbells and barbells Dynamic movement Works concentric and eccentric phases.

Isometric Fixed Resistance

2. Fixed resistance (isometric) Holding a fixed position while the muscle contracts against resistance Tension increases but the muscle stays the same length. Increases strength in the static position minimal use in dynamic sports. Examples Pushing against a wall, handstands, crucifix position on the roman rings.

Isokinetic Machine Resistance

Machines can adjust the load as the body part moves through the range of motion. This is known as accommodating resistance. Limited benefits to the speed in which the machine will operate. Examples; Cybex, Kincom, Biodex and Hydragym.

Speed training draws on other training methods It requires rehearsal of the neural pathways responsible for speed. Speed is dependent on stride frequency and stride length 1. Stride Frequency Speed strength exercise Plyometrics Downhill running Windy day running Resistance techniques (Parachute)

Speed Training

2. Stride Length Developing strength, power, endurance and technique analysis.

Pilates
Gentle method of developing core body strength. Strengthens the deep postural muscles. Classes improve breathing and posture. Integrates physical & mental conditioning, relaxation and breathing techniques. Relieves stress, fatigue, physical discomforts and increases self-confidence.

Swiss Ball
Like pilates, the swiss ball develops the deep postural muscles. The exerciser uses the ball for; Static movements Dynamic movements Postural movements Can be used in gyms (Eg. Fitball) or the workplace.

Swiss Ball

Motor Skill Development

Motor skills can be learnt and developed through training. We obtain some skills genetically, however training will enhance these abilities further. Stages of Learning Cognitive Beginner Associative Learning Autonomous Expert.

Skill level will depend on; Age, gender, feedback given, recognition of faults, being able to correct faults, perceived ability, level of practice, motivation, physical maturation, fitness capacity, memory.