Akhenaten: Pharaoh or Phreak?

Mary Kate Stringer

Ancient Historiography, Fall 2008 Dr. Peter Brand December 1, 2008

Rarely has an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh captured the modern worlds attention as did Amenhotep IV, or Akhenaten, of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Dubbed the worlds first individual by James Henry Breasted, the earliest recognized homosexual by some, and the original monotheist by others, this man has certainly been the subject of much debate and research. Once depictions and colossi of this king began to emerge, a new deliberation began concerning his physical state. Chronologically, theories about his so-called deformities came and went with the times. Suppositions included early claims of an unfortunate castration, modern medical identifications of Amarna art, and the representation of divinity through the king. Modern scholars and physicians arrive at several dissimilar conclusions that others within their fields refute. Those who dispute or believe these speculations take the arguments very seriously and personally. Each has his or her own preconceptions, biases, and motivations that affect their proposals. Cyril Aldred and A.T. Sandison record one of the earliest claims of Akhenatens abnormal physiology in an article published in the Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Auguste Mariette declared in 1855 that priests castrated Akhenaten in Sudan before he became pharaoh, and he therefore appears effeminate in several portrayals. Their article references an assertion by Eugene Lefebure in 1890 which states that perhaps Akhenaten was actually a woman dressed as a man, as was Hatshepsut before him.1 These early ideas seem to be completely irrelevant today, but they are still valuable to the study of progression of theories and scientific knowledge. Arthur Weigall is one of the first authors that wrote a book solely examining this heretic pharaoh titled The Life and Times of Akhnaton. Published in 1910, this author continues to expound upon the theories of a strangely deformed king. He declares that as a young child, Akhenaten was weak and suffered from epileptic fits and hallucinations due to of his misshapen skull.2 Weigall imagines Akhenaten with eyes as eloquent of dreams and with bodily features that were reminiscent of the best of the art of Rossetti.3 However, Weigall claims the portrayal of the pharaohs legs and hips as over-large and the unseemly paunch are the result of a radical deformity.4 Another scholar, Leslie White, refuted Weigalls allegations of epilepsy and hallucinations in the Journal of the American Oriental Society in 1948. White regards these beliefs as unsubstantiated because the art studied for these claims shows no reason for such certainty.5 Kings and Queens of Ancient Egypt, published in 1924 and illustrated by Winifred Brunton, offers a rather normal representation of Akhenaten. (Figure 1) However, one must remember that the European books of kings and queens heavily influenced Brunton. She depicts the portraits of Ancient Egyptians as white Europeans, and the book goes on to state that her illustration represents the king as he must have been toward the end of his reign. The poetic grace of his youth had gone, and illness and fanaticism had left their mark.6 Looking at the portrait, however, observers will notice that Akhenaten appears nothing like the man seen in other reliefs and sculpture.
1

Cyril Aldred and A.T. Sandison, The Pharaoh Akhenaten: A Problem in Egyptology and Pathology, Bulletin of the History of Medicine XXXVI, no. 4 (1962): 299. 2 Arthur Weigall, The Life and Times of Akhnaton (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1910): 46. 3 Ibid., 52. 4 Ibid., 60. 5 Leslie White, Ikhnaton: The Great Man vs. The Cultural Process, Journal of the American Oriental Society 68, no. 2 (1948): 105. 6 Winifred Brunton, Kings and Queens of Ancient Egypt, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1924).

James Henry Breasted, who bestowed upon Akhenaten the moniker of the first individual, refrains from dwelling upon the physical representations of this king. In the book History of Egypt, Breasted explains that the artists interpretation of Akhenatens body is simply unsolved.7 Similarly, Alan Gardners Egypt of the Pharaohs merely mentions that the illustrations are frankly hideous portraits of Akhenaten. (Figure 2)8 Some view this designation as racist, as Dominic Montserrats historiographical book gives evidence. Visitors to the Brooklyn exhibition of one of Akhenatens colossi commented that the description of Akhenaten as ugly or deformed displays a racist connotation; only a white person would argue that his African features were not attractive.9 Also published in the early 1960s, Fred Brattons historical biography of Akhenaten does not appear as racist as Gardeners interpretation. Instead, the author asserts that a new form of art had developed during this time. He says that the artists of Akhenaten did indeed take some unique liberties with their artistry to produce a caricature of the king and his family.10 Bratton states that the two colossi are fantastic caricatures, with long and emaciated faces, high cheekbones, slit, almost closed eyes, large ears, long beard, thin arms and enlarged stomach. (Figure 3) At the same time, he believes that these representations are accurate and not ideological.11 Bratton is, however, among the first of these early sources to deduce that perhaps Akhenaten suffered from some kind of congenital abnormality, rather than the opinion that he is just a strangely depicted figure.12 One year after Brattons publish date, the aforementioned article by Aldred and Sandison appeared. The authors believe that the limestone statue (Figure 4) shows a certain endocrinopathy, while noting that the whole body is distinctly feminine.13 These authors were the first to postulate a specific disease: Frohlich Syndrome. They arrived at this conclusion because they believed Akhenatens features display characteristics similar to individuals who suffer from changes in the pituitary gland.14 Symptoms of Frohlich Syndrome, according to this article, include a wide pelvis, infertility, and a general feminine distribution of body fat. 15 In contrast, a 1977 article by J. R. Harris observes the same colossus identified as Akhenaten. Rather than arguing for a certain diagnosis of disease, Harris instead suggests that in fact this sexless statue is not as intriguing as originally thought because the subject was Nefertiti.16 Researchers can find proof in this theory in the feminine line of the neck, among other aspects. Therefore, if a researcher were to believe Harris, he or she would consider that the absence of genitalia in this purported representation of Akhenaten because of the fact that it is not a male at all.17 In 1984, Donald Redford published Akhenaten: The Heretic King. In reference to the possibility of a congenital disease, Redford states that artists kept Akhenaten out of his fathers
7 8

James Henry Breasted, A History of Egypt (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1912): 378. Alan Gardner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961): 214. 9 Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt (New York: Routledge, 2000): 120. 10 Fred Gladstone Bratton, The Life and Times of Ikhnaton the King (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961): 145. 11 Ibid., 146. 12 Ibid., 162. 13 Cyril Aldred and A.T. Sandison, The Pharaoh Akhenaten: A Problem in Egyptology and Pathology, Bulletin of the History of Medicine XXXVI, no. 4 (1962): 305. 14 Ibid., 307. 15 Ibid., 308. 16 J.R. Harris, Akhenaten or Nefertiti? Acta Orientalis 38 (1977): 6. 17 Ibid., 7.

monuments because he was hideous to behold.18 However, prior to Ramesses II, pharaohs simply did not include royal sons in their art. The fact that Akhenaten may have looked different most likely had nothing to do with his absence from his fathers art. Redford admits that he is not fond of the pharaoh, which may account for his description of Akhenaten as a man deemed ugly by the accepted standards of the day close to his mother, possibly ignored by his father, outshone by his brother and sisters, unsure of himself.19 The author mentions the possibility of an endocrine disorder in passing but does not expound upon the likelihood in this book.20 In addition, Redfords book explains that the art and representations of Akhenaten changed so much that it is difficult to say what he really looked like, and therefore it is difficult to diagnose any disorders.21 Gay Robins brought her own ideas to the study of Akhenaten and Amarna art in the early 1990s. In an article about sexual characteristics of people in the Eighteenth Dynasty, Robins becomes yet another scholar to discuss the sexless colossus from Karnak (Figure 5). She mentions Aldreds diagnosis of Frohlich Syndrome; he had since abandoned the theory because of evidence that Akhenaten fathered six daughters. Robins also attacks Harris theory that the statue is a representation of Nefertiti; should that be the case, why would she be wearing the kings crown shown on the colossus head? In addition to these counters, the author claims that other female representations of the Amarna period are very different from this example.22 Rather than offering yet another medical diagnosis, Robins suggests that artists depicted Akhenaten in such a feminine way because he represented the male and female traits of a creator god. She explains that while he appears feminine with wide hips and small waist, the artists did not intend for the statues to appear female. As his new religion proclaimed, Akhenaten was the representative of Aton, mother and father of creation, on earth. Robins states that perhaps this colossus was a fecundity figure that represents Hapy, who brought life to the Nile. (Figure 10)23 John Baines explains that these fecundity figures have large breasts and protruding stomachs and are usually nude.24 As discussed later, Robins seems to take these theories to heart. Rather than accepting the next big theory of medical abnormality, Robins progresses to debunk every one. The same year Robins published her article, Alwyn Burridge issued a new diagnosis of Akhenatens condition. Choosing to suggest that the art of the Amarna Period is realistic and anatomically correct, the author does not conform to the idea of religious symbology as a reason for Akhenatens appearance. Instead, Burridge looks at the representations to discover the medical reason behind the art.25 The article addresses other theories that have come and gone, including that of Elliot Smith who claimed, along with Aldred, that the pharaoh suffered from Frohlich Syndrome. Burridge states that the symptoms of Frohlichs would explain some of Akhenatens un-kingly

18 19

Donald Redford, Akhenaten: The Heretic King (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984): 58. Ibid., 233. 20 Ibid., 58. 21 Ibid., 63. 22 Gay Robins, The Representation of Sexual Characteristics in Amarna Art Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 23 (1993): 31. 23 Ibid., 37. 24 John Baines, Fecundity Figures (Warminster: Aris and Phillips, 1985). 25 Alwyn Burridge, Akhenaten: A New Perspective, Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 23 (1993): 63.

behaviors, but Smith does not attempt to assess the other symptoms present in representations. 26 The fact that artists show Akhenatens children and wife in a similar fashion with an elongated face and skull would not fit with Frohlich Syndrome because children cannot inherit the disease. An explanation to justify the Frohlich theory is that artists show the family in a comparable way to make a tribute through imitation.27 Moreover, these strange depictions would facilitate the identification of the royal family by the largely illiterate public.28 As for the nude colossus, some believe is an androgynous depiction of Akhenaten as the creator god, and still others have thought that it was possibly the victim of intentional ruin following the rulers reign. Burridge however has yet another conclusion concerning the nontraditional portrayals of the pharaoh. By looking at several representations, the author proposes that Akhenaten actually suffered from the genetic disorder called Marfan Syndrome.29 Burridge presents in her article the usual symptoms that are associated with Marfan Syndrome and how these symptoms relate to Akhenaten. Reliefs and statues often show Akhenaten as very tall with a long neck, large buttocks and wide hips, long fingers and toes, a jutting chin, and an elongated skull. Marfans patients are generally tall, with an arm span that is longer than they are tall. Distribution of fat in unusual areas, called adiposity, is another common trait, as is dolichocephy, or an elongated skull.30 Furthermore, Burridge believes that the detail artists used on Akhenatens eyes points to yet another Marfan Syndrome symptom: enophthalmos, deeply recessed eyes that appear slit-like (Figure 5).31 Patients with enophthalmos and other eye disorders caused by Marfan Syndrome complain that their eyesight is more acute when in bright light, such as sunlight. Burridge explains that this symptom explains why Akhenaten worshipped the sun and had temples open to the sun.32 Marfan Syndrome does not affect cognitive or emotional development, which is yet another indication that Akhenaten may have suffered from the disorder.33 As for the familial similarities, Marfan Syndrome is inherited which would account for the daughters comparable appearance. Burridge sees the daughters high waists and wide hips as a manifestation of Marfan Syndrome in females.34 Artists often show Akhenatens wife Nefertiti with the same wide hips and large thighs as her husband. Rather than believing that this is a form of tribute to the pharaoh, Burridge hypothesizes that they were characteristics belonging to Nefertiti; she did indeed give birth to six children within ten years.35 Gay Robins wrote another article concerning what she considers the incorrect conclusions in 2003. Having already seen several theories regarding medical conjectures, Robins seems determined to discredit all subsequent theories by explaining the style of Amarna art. She begins by attacking Alwyn Burridges article that suggests Marfan Syndrome as the cause for the strange depictions. As no confirmed body or mummy of Akhenaten is available for study, Robins uses art to test for Marfan Syndrome. She explains the way that artists depicted humans in Egyptian art:
26 27

Ibid. Ibid., 65. 28 Ibid., 71. 29 Ibid., 66. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid., 70. 32 Ibid., 71. 33 Ibid., 72. 34 Ibid., 69. 35 Ibid., 71.

Artists drew standing figures on a grid of twenty squares between the soles of the feet and the hairline, with roughly another square to the top of the head, making twenty-one squares in all. The distance between the fingertips and the head of the top of the arm is approximately eight-and-ahalf to nine squares.36 Therefore, when placed within this grid, Akhenatens forms show no evidence of an elongation of the limbs. There is, however, an extra grid block in both the head area and the torso. A longer face and longer torso result from these additional squares, which makes Akhenaten appear taller.37 Robins goes on to conclude that it is pointless to speculate whether or not Akhenatens physical appearance in life in any way inspired how he was represented in art.38 She deduces through her studies that there is no way to make any kind of precise diagnosis of Akhenatens medical condition without a body to test. However, suppositions regarding the possibility of a religious reason for his deformities, such as her theory from a previous article, are plausible. This exhibits a certain disregard for others ideas in favor of personal hypotheses. James Allen at the Newport Art Museum presented another take on the style of Amarna art in a lecture. The author provided a transcript of this presentation for examination. Allen explicates that while some of the conventional aspects of Ancient Egyptian art are present, the king and his family do not conform to earlier styles. The art shows them as grotesque or deliberately ugly, and it reveals them as a family of ordinary people who played with their children. (Figure 6) 39 Robins article Image and Reality in Amarna Art confirms this opinion by explaining that canonical representations of pharaohs showed the life of royals as idealized; instead of showing what individuals actually looked like, artists portrayed them as the same as their ancestors before.40 Allen argues that instead of a physical disorder, there was an undiscovered message that Akhenaten was trying to convey through his artistic representations. The author asks the valid question of what would be so important to communicate that artists would show the most powerful man and beautiful woman in such an ugly and distorted way.41 The article then compares the art style of the Amarna Period to the highly symbolic paintings of El Greco in the sixteenth century. He considers that the disfigurement is actually a product of deliberate artistic convention. In order to show the royal family as unattainable or beyond the reach of the common Egyptians, the artists showed the royals as different from everyone else. 42 Allen explains that artists meant the public to understand images of Akhenaten on a spiritual, rather than physical, level.43 This theory completely disregards any previous medical diagnosis provided by others, leaving room only for the conjecture that the reason for Akhenatens appearance is simply a new art style.
36 37

Gay Robins, Image and Reality in Amarna Art, BDE 138 (2003): 226. Ibid., 227. 38 Ibid., 228. 39 James Allen, Akhenaten and El Greco, (Newport Art Museum, Newport, 17 January 2004): 2. 40 Gay Robins, Image and Reality in Amarna Art, BDE 138 (2003): 225. 41 James Allen, Akhenaten and El Greco, (Newport Art Museum, Newport, 17 January 2004): 4. 42 Ibid., 8. 43 Ibid., 9.

Dominic Montserrats historiographical investigation of Akhenaten offers even more insight into theories proposed throughout the years. He explains that Redfords personal dislike of the pharaoh taints his opinions regarding Akhenaten; The Heretic King also offers what could be considered a psychobiography with Freudian elements that is entirely assumed from art works.44 Other unnamed sources claim that Akhenatens strange appearance is due to an extraterrestrial invasion of Egypt. Still others assert that Akhenatens thicker lips and wide nose are indicative of African traits; the afro-centric view of the king tends to support the theory of a Blacknaten instead of the traditional analysis suggested by the early Europeans. 45 Montserrat goes on to state that the common consensus today is that people should not read into the deformities in such a literal way.46 However, many continue to do exactly that. More recently, medical doctors and physicians have taken on the question of Akhenatens physicality. Philip Mackowiak is an MD Professor and Vice Chairman of Medical Services at the Baltimore Medical Center in Virginia and the author of an investigative book into the physical conditions of historical figures. Post-Mortem opens with an entire chapter devoted to the study of Akhenaten, and, as one would expect from a physician, Mackowiak offers his own diagnosis of Akhenatens condition. Citing Donald Redford as a source, Mackowiak claims Amenhotep III considered Akhenaten so deformed in his time that his father hid him from the public during his reign.47 To verify that the Amarna Art was not simply stylistic, the author again uses Redford as a source. In The Heretic King it is explained that Akhenaten told his artists that his, form was to be portrayed in such a way to emphasize the attributes that differentiated him from a traditional and royal subject.48 However, the author questions whether some of the depictions are realistic or not. Some scholars believe that a bust found at the studio of Thutmose in Amarna is a representation of Akhenaten, though some believe it is of his successor, Smenkhare (Figure 7). Does this mean that other reliefs and statues are wrong or exaggerated? Mackowiak does not believe so; he thinks that the reason is disease.49 Referring to Akhenaten and other figures as the patient throughout his book, Mackowiak tries to explain Akhenatens behaviors with a disease. He reviews the previous theories already covered. Aldreds theory advocating for Frohlich Syndrome would justify the absence of genitalia on the Karnak colossus. In addition, Frohlich Syndrome would make temperature regulation of the body difficult, possibly explaining the reason behind outdoor temples and sun worship. However, the impotence and infertility that go along with Frohlich Syndrome make that diagnosis unlikely.50 Marfan Syndrome is also a possible affliction as shown by symptoms depicted in Amarna art, but this disease does not explain several symptoms such as the large belly, hips, and buttocks as Burridge claimed.51

44 45

Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt (New York: Routledge, 2000): 29. Ibid., 47. 46 Ibid., 48. 47 Philip Mackowiak, Post-Mortem: Solving Historys Greatest Medical Mysteries (Philadelphia: The American College of Physicians, 2007): 1. 48 Donald Redford, Akhenaten: The Heretic King (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984): 63. 49 Philip Mackowiak, Post-Mortem: Solving Historys Greatest Medical Mysteries (Philadelphia: The American College of Physicians, 2007): 10. 50 Ibid., 13. 51 Ibid., 14.

Instead of trying to stray further from Occams Razor to justify a diagnosis, Mackowiak comes up with his own theory: Klinefelter Syndrome. Patients with this condition are males with an extra Y-chromosome, and they are typically taller than average.52 Other symptoms include a long face and prominent jaw, adiposity, and weak muscles (Figure 8). Individuals with Klinefelter Syndrome are generally infertile, but not in every case.53 Mackowiak goes on to propose that no other explanation fits Akhenatens symptoms better than his diagnosis. He uses his theory to explain the artists illustrations of the pharaoh lounging on stools and chairs limply, eating massive quantities of food, and the absence of images of the pharaoh doing such manly things as hunting or battling enemies. Poor muscle tone associated with Klinefelters explains Akhenatens paunch of stomach.54 However, Mackowiaks analysis does not take into consideration the absent genitalia of the colossus of Karnak, which he was unable to explain away earlier in the book. Nor does Klinefelter Syndrome explain the similar physical representations of Akhenatens family because the disorder is not genetic. Even so, Dr. Mackowiak maintains that should doctors examine Akhenaten as something other than just extraordinarily ugly then there is no other explanation than Klinefelter Syndrome.55 The University of Maryland School of Medicine also addresses the case of Akhenatens corporeal appearance. Dr. Philip Mackowiak, Dr. Irwin Braverman, and Donald Redford all attended a conference hosted by the University of Maryland and Maryland Healthcare System to discuss the problems presented by Amarna art.56 USA Today advertised this conference in an article by Alex Dominguez. The article claims that Akhenaten wasnt the most manly pharaoh, even though he fathered at least a half-dozen children. In fact, his form was quite feminine, which has puzzled experts for years. And he was a bit of an egghead.57 Instead of assigning just one diagnosis to his situation Dr. Irwin Braverman, a professor of dermatology at Yale University School of Medicine, determines that Akhenaten suffered from two separate diseases. From looking at several representations, Braverman determines that familial gynecomastia and craniosynostosis explain the feminine figure and strangely shaped head.58 Familial gynecomastia is a hormonal disorder in which hormones associated with male characteristics improperly change into hormones with female characteristics. This leads to an excess of estrogen and results in feminization of men. In women, this disorder causes early puberty and large breasts. Patients generally inherit this disorder and are likely to pass it on to their own offspring. Braverman claims that he found evidence that other family members of Akhenaten had familial gynecomastia including his grandfather and father Amenhotep III and his children. He finds confirmation of this theory in a picture (Figure 6) of Akhenaten and Nefertiti
52 53

Ibid., 15. Ibid., 16. 54 Ibid., 17. 55 Ibid., 19. 56 University of Maryland School of Medicine, A Feminine Physique, a Long, Thin Neck and Elongated Head Suggest Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten Had Two Rare Disorder, http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/akhenaten_deformities.htm, (accessed November 9, 2008). 57 Alex Dominguez, The Androgynous Pharaoh? Akhenaten Had Feminine Physique, USA Today Online, May 2, 2008, http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-05-02-2816187364_x.htm, (accessed November 9, 2008). 58 University of Maryland School of Medicine, A Feminine Physique, a Long, Thin Neck and Elongated Head Suggest Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten Had Two Rare Disorder, http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/akhenaten_deformities.htm, (accessed November 9, 2008).

playing with their children with, a third princess who appears to be 6 to 7 years old, with breasts indicating isosexual precocity. Braverman, a medical doctor and not an Egyptologist, does not mention artists commonly illustrated children and other figures as smaller than the pharaoh in art no matter what their actually age was. 59 Craniosynostosis, Bravermans explanation for Akhenatens elongated skull, is a condition that causes the bones to fuse earlier than normal resulting in a longer, malformed skill. Children commonly inherit this disorder from their parent, which explains again the depictions of Akhenatens daughters. Several of Bravermans attempts to explain the historical reasons for Akhenatens behavior and the images of his daughters fall short of Egyptological ideas and standards.60 Of course, being a doctor, many may not consider Braverman qualified to comment on the style and history of Ancient Egyptian art. Yet another medical doctor offered his opinions on Akhenaten in 2008. George M. Burden, a family practitioner in Nova Scotia, tackles both the religious and medical questions surrounding the pharaoh in his article Pharaoh and Prophet. Burden is of the opinion that Akhenatens portrayal is realistic in his Amarna art. He explains the religious revolution instigated by the pharaoh with his physical deformities. Because he was deformed, Akhenaten had an axe to grind with the old gods prompting him to just start a completely new religion.61 In addition, Burden agrees with Burridges claim that Akhenaten suffered from Marfan Syndrome. He goes even further with this theory to explain the appearance of the sun in Amarna art. He hypothesizes that Akhenaten had ectopia lentis, displaced lenses associated with Marfan Syndrome, which causes poor vision. Ectopia lentis causes the sun to appear very prominent, and rays diffract into halos. Burden believes that the illustrations of the sun are similar to the way that patients with ectopia lentis would see it (Figures 6 and 9). Therefore, without considering any other symptoms or the style of art, Burden determines that Marfan Syndrome is the most likely diagnosis for Akhenaten.62 This article also mentions that Akhenaten died only sixteen years into his reign and at a young age. The author speculates, with no sources or evidence to back him up, that Akhenaten died from heart problems associated with Marfan Syndrome or that he was murdered by devotees to the original Egyptian religion.63 At the time of writing this paper, Gay Robins had not yet issued another rebuttal to these new theories. Historiographically, the story of Akhenaten is fascinating. Changes and advancements in medicine have contributed to new theories, as have changes in the perception of Amarna art. In one historiography lecture this semester, it was suggested that viewers cannot always trust art styles to be completely realistic. For instance, Ancient Egyptian artists often showed women with yellow skin in paintings. Rather than assuming that all women in Egypt were actually yellow-skinned, observers understand that materials used by artists are the reason behind the coloring. This may be the case with the artwork of the Amarna age. Each person mentioned in this paper brings his or her own biases and motives into the arguments presented. Therefore, it is unlikely anyone will solve the mystery until someone decisively identifies a mummy as Akhenaten.

59 60

Ibid. Ibid. 61 George M. Burden, Pharaoh and Prophet, Medhunters.com, http://www.medhunters.com/articles/pharaohAndProphet.html, (accessed November 9, 2008). 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid.

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Figure 8

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Bibliography Aldred, Cyril and A.T. Sandison. The Pharaoh Akhenaten: A Problem in Egyptology and Pathology. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, No. 4 (1962): 293-316. Allen, James. Akhenaten and El Greco. Newport Art Museum, Newport, January 2004. Baines, John. Fecundity Figures. Warminster: Aris and Phillips, 1985. Bratton, Fred Gladstone. The Life and Times of Ikhnaton the King. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961. Breasted, James Henry. A History of Egypt. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1912. Brunton, Winifred. Kings and Queens of Ancient Egypt. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1924. Burden, George M. Pharaoh & Prophet. Medhunters.com. http://www.medhunters.com/articles/pharaohAndProphet.html (accessed 9 Nov. 2008). Burridge, Alwyn. Akhenaten: A New Perspective. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 23, (1993): 63-74. Dominguez, Alex. The Androgynous Pharaoh? Akhenaten had feminine physique. USA Today Online 2 May 2008. < http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2008-05-022816187364_x.htm > (accessed 9 Nov. 2008). Gardner, Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961. Harris, J.R. Akhenaten or Nefertiti? Acta Orientalis 38 (1977): 5-10. Mackowiak, Philip. Post-Mortem: Solving History's Great Medical Mysteries. Philadelphia: The American College of Physicians, 2007. Montserrat, Dominic. Akhenaten: History, Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge, 2000. Redford, Donald B. Akhenaten: The Heretic King. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984. Robins, Gay. Image and Reality in Amarna Art. BDE 138 (2003): 225-229. Robins, Gay. The Representation of Sexual Characteristics in Amarna Art. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 23 (1993): 29-41. University of Maryland School of Medicine. A Feminine Physique, Long, Thin Neck and Elongated Head Suggest Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten Had \Rare Disorders. 9 Nov. 2008. <http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/akhenaten_deformities.htm >.

Weigall, Arthur. The Life and Times of Akhnaton. London: Thornton Butterworth, 1910. White, Leslise. Ikhnaton: The great Man vs. the Cultural Process. Journal of the American Oriental Society 68, No. 2 (1948): 91-114.