HEWLETT-PACKARD EDUCATION SERVICES

EmbeddedSystems
&Robotics
Basic

http://www.hpesindia.com

Contents

Chapter1 Basics...............................................................................................6
1.1 WhatisaDigitalsystem?....................................................................................................6
1.2 AssigningStates..................................................................................................................6
1.3 NumberSystemsindigitalelectronics...............................................................................6
1.4 TypesofDigitalCircuits.......................................................................................................6
1.5 Clock:Buildingblockofasequentialcircuit.......................................................................7
1.6 LogicGates:Buildingblockofacombinatorialcircuitry.....................................................7
1.7 PracticalCircuitingElements..............................................................................................8
1.7.1

Resistor:......................................................................................................................8

1.7.2

Capacitor:....................................................................................................................8

1.7.3

Breadboard:................................................................................................................9

1.7.4

IntegratedCircuits(IC)................................................................................................9

1.7.5

LED............................................................................................................................10

Chapter2 SomeIntegratedCircuitsandImplementation............................11
2.1 555....................................................................................................................................11
2.1.1

Monostablemode.....................................................................................................11

2.1.2

Astablemode............................................................................................................12

2.2 4029counter.....................................................................................................................13
2.2.1

PinDescription..........................................................................................................13

2.3 7447:BCDto7segmentdisplaydecoder.........................................................................14
2.3.1

PinDescription..........................................................................................................14

2.4 LDR(LightDependentResistor)........................................................................................14
2.5 OperationalAmplifier(Opamp)........................................................................................15
2.5.1

Opampasacomparator...........................................................................................16

2.6 7805VoltageRegulator....................................................................................................16

Chapter3 IntroductiontoEmbeddedSystems.............................................18
3.1 Applications......................................................................................................................19
3.2 EmbeddedSystemTypes..................................................................................................19

Chapter4 IntroductiontoMicrocontrollers..................................................20
4.1 WhatisMicrocontroller?..................................................................................................20
4.2 BasicArchitecturesofMicrocontrollers...........................................................................22
4.3 DigitalIntegratedCircuits(ICs).........................................................................................25
4.4 ProcessorType&MemoryStructures..............................................................................27
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4.5 OrganizationofDataMemory..........................................................................................30
4.6 Compiler/IDE(IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironment)..................................................33
4.7 Programmer......................................................................................................................33
4.8 HowtouseSerialProgrammer'sCircuit(Hardware)........................................................34
4.9 USBProgrammer..............................................................................................................38

Chapter5 CodeVisionAVR(CVAVR).............................................................38
5.1 CHIP:..................................................................................................................................40
5.2 PORT:................................................................................................................................40

Chapter6 IntroductiontoAtmega16Microcontroller.................................43
6.1 Features............................................................................................................................43
6.2 PinConfiguration..............................................................................................................43
6.3 BlockDiagram...................................................................................................................44
6.4 PinDescriptions................................................................................................................45
6.5 DigitalInputOutputPort..................................................................................................46
6.6 Registers............................................................................................................................46

Chapter7 I/OPorts:.......................................................................................47
7.1 DDRX(DataDirectionRegister)........................................................................................47
7.2 PORTX(PORTXDataRegister)...........................................................................................48
7.3 PINX(DataReadRegister)................................................................................................48
7.4 ASMALLNOTEABOUTDELAY.......................................................................................49

Chapter8 LCDInterfacing..............................................................................50
8.1 OverviewofLCDDisplay...................................................................................................50
8.2 CircuitConnection............................................................................................................52
8.3 SettingupinMicrocontroller............................................................................................52
8.4 PrintingFunctions.............................................................................................................54
8.4.1

lcd_clear().................................................................................................................54

8.4.2

lcd_gotoxy(x,y)..........................................................................................................54

8.4.3

lcd_putchar(charc)...................................................................................................54

8.4.4

lcd_putsf(constantstring).........................................................................................54

8.4.5

lcd_puts(chararr).....................................................................................................54

8.4.6

itoa(intval,chararr[])...............................................................................................55

8.4.7

ftoa(floatval,chardecimal_places,chararr[]).........................................................55

Chapter9 ADC:AnalogtoDigitalConverter.................................................56
9.1 Theoryofoperation..........................................................................................................57
9.2 SettingupMicrocontroller................................................................................................57
9.3 FunctionforgettingADC..................................................................................................58

Chapter10

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Timers.....................................................................................59

10.1

WhatisaTimer?...........................................................................................................59

10.2

HowtoUseTimer.........................................................................................................59

10.3

Prescalar.......................................................................................................................59

10.4

TimerMode..................................................................................................................60

10.5

NormalMode................................................................................................................60

10.6CTCMode.........................................................................................................................60
10.7PulseWidthModulation(PWM)Mode...........................................................................61
(A)PWM:PulseWidthModulation...........................................................................................61
(B)PWMSignalGenerationUsingAvrTimers..........................................................................62
(C)PhaseCorrectPWMMode..................................................................................................64
10.8SETTINGUPTIMERSINCODEVISIONAVR.......................................................................66
10.9

FastPWMMode...........................................................................................................70

10.10 CTCMode......................................................................................................................71

Chapter11
11.1

Data Transfer................................................................................................................72

11.2

Classification.................................................................................................................72

11.3

BaudRate......................................................................................................................73

11.4

DifferentCommunicationTechniques..........................................................................74

Chapter12

TheoryofOperation.....................................................................................................75

12.2

SettingupSPIinMicrocontroller..................................................................................80

12.2.1

MasterMicrocontroller........................................................................................80

12.2.2

SlaveMicrocontroller............................................................................................80

DataFunctions..............................................................................................................80

12.3.1

TransmitData.......................................................................................................81

12.3.2

ReceiveData.........................................................................................................81

12.4

ConnectingMCUToAnotherMCU...............................................................................81

Chapter13

USARTCommunication..........................................................82

13.1

USART...........................................................................................................................82

13.2

HardwareAspectofUSART...........................................................................................82

13.3

BaudRate......................................................................................................................82

13.4

DataTransmission.........................................................................................................82

13.5

UART:TheoryofOperation..........................................................................................83

13.6

SerialPortofComputer................................................................................................84

13.7

SettingupUARTinmicrocontroller..............................................................................86

13.8

DockLight......................................................................................................................88

13.9

ImplementingUSARTinYourCode..............................................................................89

13.9.1

putchar()...............................................................................................................89

13.9.2

getchar()................................................................................................................89

13.9.3

putsf()....................................................................................................................89

Chapter14

SPI:SerialPeripheralInterface..............................................74

12.1

12.3

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Communication......................................................................72

Interrupt.................................................................................91

Example..................................................................................................................................92
14.1

Polling...........................................................................................................................92

14.2

Hardwareinterrupt.......................................................................................................92

14.3

HardwareInterruptorpolling?.....................................................................................93

14.4

SettingupHardwareInterruptinMicrocontroller.......................................................93

14.5

FunctionsofInterruptServiceRoutine.........................................................................93

14.6

TimerInterrupt.............................................................................................................94

14.7

OverflowInterrupt........................................................................................................94

14.8

CompareMatchInterrupt.............................................................................................95

Chapter15

EEPROM.................................................................................97

Chapter16

IntroductiontoRobots.........................................................100

16.1

WhatIsARobot?........................................................................................................102

16.2

RobotChassisDesigning.............................................................................................103

16.2.1

Robotwithsteeringwheel:.................................................................................104

16.2.2

Robotwithdifferentialdrive:.............................................................................104

Chapter17

MotorsandMotorDrivers...................................................105

17.1

IntroductiontoMotors...............................................................................................105

17.2

HBridge:....................................................................................................................106

17.3

MotorDriverICs:L293/L293DandL298....................................................................107

17.3.1

DifferencebetweenL293andL298:...................................................................109

17.3.2

SpeedControl:....................................................................................................109

Chapter18

Sensors.................................................................................109

18.1

AnalogSensor.............................................................................................................116

18.2

DigitalIRSensorTSOPSensor...................................................................................117

Chapter19
19.1

ProjectWork........................................................................118

LinefollowingRobot...................................................................................................118

Chapter20DefinitionsofEmbeddedsystem............................................119
Chapter21GLOSSARY................................................................................121
Chapter22References..............................................................................126

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SectionA

DigitalElectronics

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Chapter1 Basics

1.1 WhatisaDigitalsystem?
Inmostgeneralterms,thissystemsbehaviorissufficientlyexplainedbyusingonlytwoofits
statescanbeVoltage(morethanxvoltsorless?),distancecovered(morethan2.5kmorless?],true
falseorweightofanelephant(willmyweighingmachinewithstandit?))

Notethatalthoughineverycase,thealltheintermediatestatesAREPOSSIBLEANDDOEXIST,
ourpointofinterestaresuchthatwedontrequiretheirexplicitdescription.Inelectronicsystems
wemostlydealwithVoltagelevelsasdigitalentities.

1.2 AssigningStates
Thereisnospecificfixeddefinitionoflogiclevelsinelectronics.Mostcommonlyusedlevel
designationistheoneusedinCMOSandTTL(transistortransistorlogic)families:

Logichigh>designatedas1

Logiclow>designatedas0
Where high and low are actually higher and lower with respect to a reference voltage
level (ideally taken as 2.5V)

GOOGLY:Whyassign0and1andnotaandb,xandy,catanddog?
ANS:Computationalease!

1.3 NumberSystemsindigitalelectronics

1. Binary: Only 0 and 1.

2. Hexadecimal: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

1.4 TypesofDigitalCircuits

CombinatorialCircuits:Inthesecircuits,thepaststatesareimmaterial
andtheoutputdependsonlyuponthepresentstate.Examplelogicgates

Sequentialcircuits:Inthesecircuits,thenextstateiscompletely
determinedbythepaststates.Hencethesefollowapredictablestructure
andessentiallyrequireatimingdevice.Ex.counters,flipflops.

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1.5 Clock:Buildingblockofasequentialcircuit
Aclockissimplyalternatehighandlowstatesofvoltagewithtimei.e.essentiallyasquarewave.
Importanttermsrelatedtoclockareitsdutycycleanditsfrequency:

Dutycycle:ItistheratioofThandTh+Tl

1.6 LogicGates:Building block of a combinatorial circuitry

TheseareessentiallycombinatorialcircuitsusedtoimplementlogicalBooleanoperationslikeAND,
NAND,OR,XORandNOT.NOTandNANDarecalleduniversalgatesasanyothergatecanbeformed
usingeitherofthem!

Figure1:TableofLogicGates

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1.7 PracticalCircuitingElements
1.7.1 Resistor:

Acolorschemeisfollowedtogivethespecificationsofaresistor.Thetableforcolorcodeisshown
below:

The1sttwobandsspecifythe2digitsoftheresistorvaluewhereasthe
3rdbandspecifiesthemultiplierintermsofthepowertowhich10is
raisedandmultipliedtothe2digits.

Thetolerancetellsthepossible%variationoftheresistorvalueabout
thevalueindicatedbybands.
Figure2:TableofResistance

1.7.2 Capacitor:

The2typesofcapacitorswefrequentlyuseincircuitsareceramicandelectrolyticcapacitors.While
ceramiccapacitorsdonothaveafixedpolarity;electrolyticcapacitorsshouldbeconnectedintheir
specifiedpolaritiesonlyelsetheymightblowoff!Thispolarityisusuallyprovidedonthesideofthe
capacitorscorrespondingleg.

Figure4:Electrolyticcapwithvepolaritylegseen

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Figure3:Ceramiccapwithvalue15x104pF

1.7.3 Breadboard:

Thisisthebaseusedforsettingupthecircuit.Thishasembeddedmetalstripsinitthatformagrid
ofconnectionsinsideitsbody.Thisallowsustotakemultipleconnectionsfromasinglepoint
withoutanyneedofsoldering/disorderingasinPCBs.Itisalwaysagoodhabittotestthecircuiton
breadboardbeforemakingitonaPCB.

1.7.4 IntegratedCircuits(IC)
ICsorIntegratedCircuitsarepackagedcircuitsdesignedforsome
fixedpurpose.AnIChasitsfixedICname/numberthatcanbeused
togetcatalogofitsfunctionsandpinconfiguration.ICscomein
varioussizesandpackagesdependinguponthepurpose.

NOTE:NumberingschemeofICpinswillbeexplainedinthelab
session.DifferentICsmayhavedifferentnumberofpins.

Figure6:IC

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Figure5:Topviewshowingtheconnectingholes.Bottomviewshowsthecontactmetalstrips

1.7.5 LED
LED(LightEmittingDiode)isfrequentlyusedtodisplaytheoutputsatvariousstagesofthecircuit.It
is essentially a Diode with the energy released in the form of photons due to electron transitions
fallinginthevisibleregion.Hencenormaldiodepropertiesapplytoit.

It glows only in fwd bias mode i.e. with p junction connected to +ve voltage and n junction to
negative.

Diodes are essentially low power devices. The current through the LED should be less than
20mA.Hencealwaysputa220ohmresistorinserieswiththeLED.

Never forget that LEDs consume a significant amount of power of the outputs of the ICs (CMOS
based).Henceitisadvisabletoonlyusethemforcheckingthevoltagelevel(highorlow)andthen
removethem.

Figure7:LEDs

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Chapter2 SomeIntegratedCircuitsandImplementation

2.1 555

555isanICusedtogenerateaclock.The
twoattributesofaclockare

Frequency
Dutycycle.

BothofthesecanbechangedusingthisIC,
howeverthedutycycleisalways<50%.

Therearetwomodesinwhich555canrun.

Figure8:PinConfigurationof555

2.1.1 Monostablemode

Asthenamesuggests;inthismodetheoutputisstableinonlyone(mono)statei.e.offstate.Thus
itcanstayonlyforafinitetime,iftriggered,totheotherstatei.e.onstate.Thistimecanbeset
choosingappropriatevaluesofresistancesintheformula:

T=1.1xR1xC1

Figure9:555inmonostablemode

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2.1.2 Astablemode

Inthismode;theoutputisstableneitherinhighstatenorinlowstate.Henceitoscillatesfrom
onestatetoanothergivingusasquarewaveorclock.WecansettheclockfrequencyandDutycycle
Dbytheformulae:

.
F=
D=

Figure10:555inastablemode

NOTE:CapacitorC2isjusttofilterthenoiseanditsvaluecanbesuitablychosentobe0.01F.Itcan
alsobeneglected.

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2.2 4029counter

Withtheclockmade,wearereadytocountthenumberofpulsespassedintothecircuit.Notethat
anykindofcountingrequiresamemory(yougottoknowthatyouhavejustcounted3togoto
4!).Hence4029canalsobeusedasamemoryelementthatremembersitsimmediateprevious
state.

Figure11:4029pinconfiguration

2.2.1 PinDescription

PINNo.
1

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Name
Parallelload

2
3
4
5

OutputBit3
Parallelinputbit3
Parallelinputbit0
Clockenablebar

6
7

OutputBit0
TCbar

8
9

Gnd
Binary/Hexbar

10

Up/Downbarcount

11
12
13
14
15
16

Outputbit1
Parallelinputbit1
Parallelinputbit2
Outputbit2
Clockpulse
Vdd

Pinfunction
Ifgivenhigh;loadsthevalueof
Parallelbitintotheo/pbits
Mostsignificantbitofo/p
Mostsignificantbitofparalleli/p
Leastsignificantbitofparalleli/p
Lowonthispinenablescountingas
pertheclockreceived
Leastsignificantbitofparallelo/p
Outputbitthatgivesalowwhenthe
countiscomplete.Canbeusedtosignal
theendofcounting.
Neededforpowering
Tochooseb/wbinaryand
hexadecimalmodes
Tochooseb/wupcountingand
downcountingmodes
2ndbitofo/p
2nd bitofi/p
3rdbitofi/p
3rdbitofo/p
Clockpulseisgivenhere
Neededforpowering

Connectionreqd.
Gnd
Topin6of7447
Input
Input
Gnd
Topin7of7447
Noneifyoudont
wanttouseit
Gnd
lowforcount015
highforcount09
Lowfordowncount
Highforupcount
Topin1of7447
Input
Input
Topin2of7447
Clockfrom555
+5V

2.3 7447:BCD to 7 segment display decoder

For displaying the number in the counter output on a seven segment display (i.e. 7 LEDs
making up a figure of 8 as in a general calculator. See fig. )we need to decode the 4 bits and
match them to the 7 pins for lighting the LEDs corresponding to the number. This work is
done by 7447.

Figure12:7447pinconfiguration

2.3.1 PinDescription

PIN
no.
1
2
3

Name

Function

Connectionreqd.

i/pB
i/pC
LampTest
bar

2ndbit(O1)of4029so/p
3rdbit(O2)of4029so/p
UsedtocheckthatallLEDsof7seg
areworking.

4
5
6

BI/RBI
RBI
i/pD

7
8
915

i/pA
Gnd
agasperthe
fig
Vcc

Kepthightoallownormalfunction
Blanks0frombeingdisplayed
Mostsignificantbit(O3)of4029s
o/p
3rdbit(O2)of4029so/p
Forpower
Theo/ppinsto7segmentdisplay

ToO1of4029
ToO2of4029
Highfornormalfn
Lowtoglowall
LEDs
Kepthigh
Kepthigh
ToO2of4029

16

Forpower

ToO2of4029
Connectedtognd
To7segdisplay
Connectedto+5V

NOTE:

TheCOMpinsaretobeconnectedtoVccvia220ohmresistor.Whyresistorisrequired??

Thedotpinisjustfordisplayofdecimalpointandessentiallyonlymakestheupperand
lowersidesdistinguishablefromeachotherforasingledisplay.withouttheasymmetry
producedbydothowwillwebeabletoseewhichsideisupperandwhichislower?

2.4 LDR(LightDependentResistor)
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LightDependentResistor(LDR)orphotoresistorisadevicethatactslikearesistanceandits
resistancevarieswiththeintensityoflightincidentonit.Inthisdevice,ifphotonsofsufficient
energyfallonit,theresistancedropsdrasticallyastheelectronsinthesemiconductorareableto
jumpfromthevalencebandtotheconductionbandandareavailableforconduction.TheLDRsused
aremostlyresponsivetovisiblelight.Theresistancemightdropfromashighas1Minthedarkto1
kinbrightlight.

Figure13:LDRs.Thecoiledportionisresponsivetolight

2.5 OperationalAmplifier(Opamp)

Opampisaveryimportantdeviceusedineverydayelectronics.Itisessentiallyadifferential
amplifierwithaveryhighgainoftheorderof105!BydifferentialamplifierImeanthatitamplifies
thedifferenceof2signalsandgivestheoutput.

Opampequation:

Vout=A(V+V)

whereAisthegainoftheorder105.

Ironically,thishighgaininopenloopmakesitimpossibletouseitasageneralpurpose
differentialamplifierdirectly.

GOOGLY:If(V+V)=0.005V;Vss=12Vwhatwillbetheoutput??

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2.5.1 Opampasacomparator

SimplestuseofOpampisasacomparator.Itcanbeusedtoconvertananalogsignaltoadigital
signaldefinedbyafixedthreshold.SetVasthethresholdvoltagesay2.5Vandapplytheanalog
signaltobedigitizedatV+.Whatwillbetheoutput?Wellifyouhaveworkedoutthegoogly;this
shouldbeapieceofcake!

2.6 7805VoltageRegulator
7805voltageregulatorisusedtoget+5Voutputoutofahighervoltagesupply(7.5V20V).Weuse
adapterssupplytogenerate+5Vhere.Connectthegndand+12Vofadaptertothepinsasshown
andget+5Vdirectlyasanoutputoutofthe3rdpin.Currentupto0.5Acanbeobtainedfromthis
regulatorwithoutanysignificantfallinvoltagelevel.

NOTE:Use2capacitorsofvaluesay0.1Ftofilterthenoiseintheinputandoutputofregulators
supplyasshown.

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SectionB

EmbeddedSystems

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Chap
pter3 Introductio
ontoEmb
beddedSy
ystems

Embed
dded system is a scaled down comp
puter system which is deesigned to perform a specific
task/operation. Unlike a gen
neral purposse computerr
system
m which is ussed for a varriety of tasks, like playingg
music,, games, surffing internet etc. The term
m embedded
d
tellsth
hatwholesysstemisembeddedintoanappliance.A
A
single chip contaains both hardware
h
an
nd softwaree
(technically, firmw
ware). It iss designed to perform
m
operattions which minimize (orr even comp
pletely avoid))
needo
ofhumancon
ntrol.

BasicFFlowdiagram
mforembeddedcomputerrsystemscan
n
besho
ownas:

y VariouswayswecanDeefine
s
is a sspecialpurpo
ose computerr system dessigned to perrform
An Embedded system
eorafewdedicatedfuncttions,oftenw
withrealtimecomputingcconstraints.
one
or
An EmbeddedssystemisaSoftwareproggramonaH//Wchipdesiggnedforaspecific
purrposeandcan
nalsocontain
nsomemechanicalmovinggparts.
Asfeatu
uresgetonad
ddeddailydefinitionitselfisevolving.
or
y AnEmbedd
dedsystemisaspecialpu
urposecomp
putersystem designedto performoneeora
fewdedicattedfunctionss,oftenwithrrealtimecom
mputing.

or
y AnEmbedd
dedsystemisssomecombiinationofcom
mputerhardw
wareandsofttware,eitherfixed
in capability or prograammable, th
hat is speciffically design
ned for a particular
p
kin
nd of
applicationdevice.

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Someimportantthingstonoteaboutembeddedsystems:

1. Once an embedded hardware is programmed for a certain task, it is used forever for the
sametask.Changingthefirmwareafterwardsisnotpossible.
2. Such systems are limited in computational resources like memory, CPU processing speed,
I/Ofacilitiesbutarestillcapableofperformingthetaskgiventothemveryefficiently.
3. Embeddedsystemscanalsobehavingareducedfunctionalityversionofoperatingsystem
calledRTOS(RealTimeOperatingSystem)forhighlyspecializedapplications.
4. Is a system built to perform its duty, completely or partially independent of human
intervention?
5. Is specially designed to perform a few tasks in the most efficient way.
6. Interacts with physical elements in our environment, viz. controlling and driving a
motor, sensing temperature, etc.

3.1 Applications
An embedded system can be defined as a control system or computer system designed to
perform a specific task. Examples:
1. Pen drives (for controlling the communication between P.C. and Flash Chip and also the
small LED!)
2. Hard disks( again for the same purpose)
3. Mouse(Reads and Interprets the Sensors and send final result to P.C.),Keyboards
4. Printers: Ever opened a printer for installing ink cartridge? Then you must have seen the
printed head. There are motors to control the print head and the paper movement. Your
P.C. is not directly connected to them but there is built in MCU of printer to control all
these. Your P.C. just sends the data (pixels) through the communication line (USB or
parallel).But the MCU used here is fairly fast and has lots of RAM.
5. Automobiles
6. Calculators, Electronic wending machines, Electronic weighing scales, Phones(digital
with LCD and phonebook)
7. Cell phones
8. SecuritySystem
9. Alarmsystem
10. Automobilesystem
11. DigitalCamera
12. Environmentmonitoringsystems(usingsensorsandactuators)

Embeddedsystemsareoftenrequiredtoperformrealtimeoperations.ByRealtimeoperations,we
meanthat,operationswheredelayofevenafewmillisecondscouldbedangerous.Somerealtime
systemsmaybe:

1. SensorsysteminNuclearPlants
2. Flightcontrolsystems
3. AutomobileBrakingsystemandenginecontrollingsystems
Thesearesituationswhereweneedveryaccuratetimingandcontrol.Failureinsuchsituationsmay
causegreatloss.

3.2 EmbeddedSystemTypes
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y Non Realtime Embeddedsystemisone inwhichthere isnodeadline,even iffast

responseorhighperformanceisdesiredorpreferred.

y RealtimeEmbeddedSystems:Wheredeadlineistobemet.
Softrealtimeembeddedsystems.
Hardrealtimeembeddedsystems.

y FollowingaresomeapplicationsofEmbeddedSys.butnotrealtime.
SecuritySystems.
MobileandPDA.
AlarmSystem.
Automobilesystem.
DigitalCamera.
y ExamplesofRealtimeEmbeddedsystems.
SensorsysteminNuclearplants.
Missiledefencesystem.
Flightcontrolsystem.
AnticollisionsysteminAutomobiles.

Chapter4 IntroductiontoMicrocontrollers

4.1 WhatisMicrocontroller?
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 WhatisaMicrocontroller?
A Microcontroller is a programmable digital processor with necessary peripherals. Both
microcontrollersandmicroprocessorsarecomplexsequentialdigitalcircuitsmeanttocarryout
job according to the program / instructions. Sometimes analog input/output interface makes a
part of microcontroller circuit of mixed mode(both analog and digital nature).
AmicrocontrollercanbecomparedtoaSwissknifewithmultiplefunctionsincorporatedinthe
sameIC.

Fig.4.1AMicrocontrollercomparedwithaSwissknife

MicrocontrollersVsMicroprocessors

1. A microprocessor requires an external memory for program/data storage. Instruction

executionrequiresmovementofdatafromtheexternalmemorytothemicroprocessoror
viceversa.Usually,microprocessorshavegoodcomputingpowerandtheyhavehigherclock
speedtofacilitatefastercomputation.
2. A microcontroller has required onchip memory with associated peripherals. A
microcontrollercanbethoughtofamicroprocessorwithinbuiltperipherals.
3. A microcontroller does not require much additional interfacing ICs for operation and it
functions as a standalone system. The operation of a microcontroller is multipurpose, just
likeaSwissknife.
4. Microcontrollers are also called embedded controllers. A microcontroller clock speed is
limited only to a few tens of MHz Microcontrollers are numerous and many of them are
applicationspecific.

Development/Classificationofmicrocontrollers(Invisible)

Microcontrollers have gone through a silent evolution (invisible). The evolution can be rightly
termedassilentastheimpactorapplicationofamicrocontrollerisnotwellknowntoacommon
user,althoughmicrocontrollertechnologyhasundergonesignificantchangesinceearly1970's.
Developmentofsomepopularmicrocontrollersisgivenasfollows.
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Intel4004

4bit(2300PMOStrans,108kHz)

Intel8048

8bit

Intel8031

8bit(ROMless)

Intel8051

8bit(MaskROM)

MicrochipPIC16C64

8bit

Motorola68HC11

8bit(onchipADC)

Intel80C196

16bit

AtmelAT89C51
MicrochipPIC16F877

8bit(Flashmemory)
8bit(Flashmemory+ADC)

197
1
197
6
.
198
0
198
5
.
198
2
.
.

Developmentofmicroprocessors(Visible)

Microprocessors have undergone significant evolution over the past four decades. This
developmentisclearlyperceptibletoacommonuser,especially,intermsofphenomenalgrowth
incapabilitiesofpersonalcomputers.Developmentofsomeofthemicroprocessorscanbegiven
asfollows.

Intel4004
4bit(2300PMOStransistors)
1971
Intel8080
8bit(NMOS)
1974
8085
8bit
Intel8088
16bit
1978
8086
16bit
Intel80186
16bit
1982
80286
16bit
Intel80386
32bit(275000transistors)
1985
Intel80486SX
32bit
1989
DX
32bit(builtinfloatingpointunit)
Intel80586I
1993
MMX
1997
CeleronII
64bit
1999
III
2000
IV
Z80(Zilog)
8bit
1976
MotorolaPowerPC
32bit
1993
601

602

1995
603

4.2 BasicArchitecturesofMicrocontrollers
We use more number of microcontrollers compared to microprocessors. Microprocessors are
primarilyusedforcomputationalpurpose,whereasmicrocontrollersfindwideapplicationindevices
needingrealtimeprocessing/control.

22|P a g e

Applicationofmicrrocontrollers isnumerous..Startingfrom
mdomesticaapplicationsssuchasinwasshing
machin
nes,TVs,aircconditioners,microcontrollersareused
dinautomobiles,processccontrolindusstries,
cellph
hones,electriccaldrives,androb+oticsandinspaceaapplications.

MicrocontrollerChips

BroadClassification
nofdifferentmicrocontrolllerchipscouldbeasfollows:
Embedded(SelfContain
ned)8bitM
Microcontrolle
er
16to32Microcontrollerrs
DigitalSignalProcessorss

Fe
eaturesofM
ModernMicrocontrollerss

BuiltinMo
onitorProgram
m
BuiltinPro
ogramMemorry
Interrupts
AnalogI/O
SerialI/O
FacilitytoInterfaceExteernalMemoryy
Timers

IntternalStrucctureofaMiicrocontrolleer

Fiig.4.2InternaalStructureoffaMicrocontroller

Harrvardvs.PriincetonArch
hitecture
At times,
t
a microcontroller can have extternal memo
ory also (if th
here is no intternal memory or
extramemoryin
nterfaceisreequired).Earllymicrocontrrollerswerem
manufactured
dusingbipolaror
NM
MOS technolo
ogies. Most modern
m
micro
ocontrollers are manufactured with CMOS
C
techno
ology,
whiich leads to reduction in
n size and p
power loss. Current
C
draw
wn by the IC
C is also red
duced
23|P a g e

con
nsiderably fro
om 10mA to a few micro Amperes in sleep mode(for a microccontroller run
nning
typicallyataclockspeedof2
20MHz).
Manyyearsago,inthelate1
1940's,theUSGovernmen
ntaskedHarvvardandPrin
ncetonuniverrsitys
to come
c
up with a compute
er architecturre to be used
d in computing distances of Naval arttillery
sheellfordefenseeapplications.Princeton suggestedco
omputerarchitecturewith
hasinglememory
inteerface.ItisalsoknownassVonNeumaannarchitectu
ureafterthe nameofthe
echiefscientistof
theprojectinPrrincetonUniversityJohnVo
onNeumann(19031957
7BorninBudaapest,Hungary).
differentmem
moryinterfaces,oneforth
hedata/variables
Harrvardsuggesttedacomputerwithtwod
and
d the other for
f program / instruction
ns. Although Princeton architecture
a
w accepted
was
d for
sim
mplicity and ease
e
of impleementation, H
Harvard architecture becaame popular later, due to
o the
parrallelismofinstructionexeecution.

Prin
ncetonArch
hitecture(Siinglememo
oryinterface
e)

Fig.4.3 PrincetonArrchitecture

Examp
ple:Aninstrucction"Readaadatabytefro
ommemoryaandstoreitin
ntheaccumu
ulator"isexeccuted
asfollo
ows:
Cycle1
1ReadInstruction

Cycle2
2ReadDataoutofRAMandputintoA
Accumulator

HarrvardArchittecture(SeparateProggramandDaataMemoryinterfaces)

24|P a g e

Fig.4.44HarvardArrcitecture

Thesameinstructio
on(asshownunderPrinceetonArchitectture)wouldb
beexecutedaasfollows:
Cycle1
1
Completepreviousinstruction
DatatoAccum
mulator"instrruction
Readthe"MoveD
2
Cycle2
Execute"MoveDattatoAccumu
ulator"instrucction
Readnextinstructtion
Hence each instrucction is effecctively executed in one instruction cyycle, except for
f the ones that
modifyy thecontenttof the proggramcounterr. For examplle,the "jump
p" (or call)insstructionstakkes2
cycles.. Thus, due to
t parallelism
m, Harvard arrchitecture executes more instruction
ns in a given time
compaaredtoPrinceetonArchitecture.

4.3 DigitalInttegratedC
Circuits(IC
Cs)
YoumustbeknowingaboutDigitalIntegratedCircuits(ICss)right?Foreexample:

7404:HexInverter
7408:Quad
d2inputAND
Dgate
7410:Triplee3inputNAN
NDGate
7432:Quad
d2inputORG
Gate
7457:60:1Frequencydiivider

ThereareAND,XOR
R,NAND,NOR,ORlogicgaateICs,Countters,Timers,SevenSegmeentDisplayDrrivers
andmuchmore.Justcheckout7
7400Seriesaand4000SeriesofIntegrattedCircuits.
etstakeQuaad2inputAN
NDgateIC.It has4ANDgaates,eachhaaving2pinsfo
orinputand 1pin
Nowle
forouttput.Thetrutthtableorthefunctiontableofeachgaateisfixed.TThisisasfollows,
Input1
0
0
1
1
25|P a g e

Input2
0
1
0
1

Output
0
0
0
1

Similarly all the Integrated circuits havetheir functiontables and inputand outputpinsfixed. You
cannotchangethefunctionandnoinputpinactasoutputandviceversa.Sowheneveryouwantto
designsomecircuityoufirsthavetogettheoutputasafunctionofinputsandthendesignitusing
gatesorwhatevertherequirementis.
So once a circuit is built we cannot change its function! Even if you want to make some changes
again you have to consider all the gates and components involved. Now if you are designingany
circuit which involves change of the function table every now and then you are in trouble ! For
exampleifIwanttodesignanAutonomousRobotwhichshouldperformvarioustasksandIdont
justwanttofixthetask.SupposeImakeittomoveinapaththenIwanttochangethepath!How
todothat?
HerecomestheuseofMicrocontrollers!NowifIgiveyouanIntegratedCircuitwith20pinsandtell
you that you can make any pin as output or input also you can change the function table by
programming the IC using your computer! Then your reactions will be wow! Thats nice :) Thats
whatthemostbasicfunctionofamicrocontrolleris.IthassetofpinscalledasPORTandyoucan
make any pin either as output or input. After configuring pins you can program it to perform
accordingtoanyfunctiontableyouwant.Youcanchangetheconfigurationorthefunctiontableas
manytimesyouwants.
There are many Semiconductor Companies which manufactures
microcontrollers.Someofthemare:

Intel
Atmel
Microchip
Motorola

WewilldiscussaboutAtmelMicrocontrollerscommonlyknownasAVRinthissection.

Question:Howamicrocontrollerworks?
Answer:WellIcannotgointolotofdetailsabouttheworkingbecauseitisavasttopicinitself.Ican
justgiveanoverview.
Microcontroller consists of an Microprocessor (CPU that is Central processing Unit) which is
interfacedtoRAM(RandomAccessMemory)andFlashMemory(oneyourpendrivehas!).Youfeed
your program in the Flash Memory on the microcontroller. Now when you turn on the
microcontroller,CPUaccessestheinstructionfromRAMwhichaccessyourcodefromFlash.Itsets
theconfigurationofpinsandstartperformingaccordingtoyourprogram.
Question:Howtomakethecode?
Answer:YoubasicallywritetheprogramonyourcomputerinanyofthehighlevellanguageslikeC,
C++,andJAVAetc.Thenyoucompilethecodetogeneratethemachinefile.Nowyouwillaskwhat
thismachinefileis.Allthemachinesunderstandonlyonelanguage,0&1thatisonandoff.Now
this0&1bothcorrespondsto2differentvoltagelevelsforexample0voltfor0logicand+5voltfor
1logic.Actuallythecodehastobewritteninthis0,1languageandthensavedinthememoryofthe
microcontroller. But this will be very difficult for us ! So we write the code in the language we
understand(C)andthencompileandmakethemachinefile(.hex).Afterwemakethismachinefile
wefeedthistothememoryofthemicrocontroller.
26|P a g e

Question:HowtofeedthecodeintheflashofMicrocontroller?
Answer:Assumingyouhavethemachinefile(.hex)readyandnowyouwanttofeedthattotheflash
of the microcontroller. Basically you want to make communication between your computer and
microcontroller.NowcomputerhasmanycommunicationportssuchasSerialPort,ParallelPortand
USB(UniversalSerialBus).
LetstakeSerialPort,ithasitsowndefinitionthatisvoltageleveltodefine0&1(yeahallthedata
communication is a just collection of 0 &1 ) Serial Port's protocol is called as UART (Universal
AsynchronousReceiver& Transmitter)Itsvoltagelevelsare:12voltfor0logicand +12voltfor1
logic.
Now the voltage levels of our microcontroller are based on CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor)technologywhichhas0voltfor0logicand+5voltfor1logic.
Twodifferentmachineswith2differentwaystodefine0&1andwewanttoexchangeinformation
betweenthem.ConsidermicrocontrollerasFrenchandComputer'sSerialPortasanIndianperson
(obviously no common language in between!) If they want to exchange information they basically
needamediatorwhoknowsboththelanguage.Hewilllistenonepersonandthentranslatetoother
person.SimilarlyweneedacircuitwhichconvertsCMOS(microcontroller)toUART(serialport)and
viceversa.This circuitis calledasprogrammer. Usingthis circuit wecanconnectcomputertothe
microcontrollerandfeedthemachinefiletotheflash.

TheAVR(AdvancedVirtualRisc)isaModifiedHarvardarchitecture8bitRISCsinglechip
microcontroller(C)whichwasdevelopedbyAtmelin1996.TheAVRwasoneofthefirst
microcontrollerfamiliestouseonchipflashmemoryforprogramstorage.

4.4 ProcessorType&MemoryStructures

Microcodedandhardcodedprocessors:

Theimplementationofcomputerarchitecturecanbebroadlyachievedintwoways.Acomputerisa
complexsequential digital circuitwith both combinational and sequentialcircuit components.In a
microcodedprocessor,eachinstructionisrealizedbyanumberofstepsthatareimplementedusing
small subroutines. These subroutines are called microcodes stored within the instruction decode
unit.Hence,amicrocodedprocessorcanbecalledaprocessorwithinaprocessor.

Microcodedprocessor:

27|P a g e


Fig.4
4.5Architectu
ureofaMicroCodedProcesssor

Letustakeanexam
mple.Theinsttruction"MovveAcc,Reg"ccanbeexecuttedinthefolllowingsteps.

1. Outputadd
dresstothedatamemory
2. Configurettheinternalbusfordatam
memoryvalueetobestoredinaccumulattor.
3. Enablebusread.
4. Storethedataintotheaaccumulator.
5. Compared
datareadwithzerooranyyotherimpo
ortantconditionandsetb
bitsintheSTA
ATUS
register.
6. Disabledattabus.

Eachsstepoftheinstructionisrrealizedbya subroutine(m
microcode). Asetofbits intheinstruction
pointstothememo
orywheretheemicrocodefortheinstru
uctionislocatted.

Advan
ntages:
1. Easeoffabrrication.
bug.
2. Easytodeb

Disadvvantage:
1.P
Programexeccutiontakeslo
ongertime.

Hardcoded
dprocessor:

Eachin
nstructionisrrealizedbyco
ombinationaland/orsequeentialdigitalcircuits.Thed
designiscom
mplex,
hardto
odebug.How
wever,thepro
ogramexecuttionisfaster.

28|P a g e

Fig4
4.6Architectu
ureofaHardCodedProcesssor

Me
emoryType

In a
a microcontrroller, two tyypes of mem
mory are found. They aree, program memory
m
and data
memoryrespecttively.Programmemoryissalsoknown as'controlsttore'and'firm
mware'.Itis non
volaatilei.e,them
memoryconttentisnotlosstwhenthep
powergoesofff.Nonvolatiilememoryissalso
calledReadOnlyyMemory(RO
OM).Therearrevarioustyp
pesofROM.

1. Mask ROM
M: Some micrrocontrollers with ROM are
a programm
med while they are still in
n the
factory.ThisROMiscalledMaskROM.Sincethe microcontro
ollerswithMaaskROMare used
for specificc application,, there is no
o need to reeprogram theem. Some tim
mes, this typ
pe of
manufacturringreducestthecostforb
bulkproductio
on.

2. Reprogram
mmable progrram memoryy (or) Erasab
ble PROM (EEPROM):Micrrocontrollers with
EPROMwe
ereintroduced
dinlate1970
0's.Thesedevvicesareelecctricallyprogrrammablebu
utare
erased with UV radiatio
on. The consstruction of a
a EPROM meemory cell is somewhat like a
MOSFETbu
utwithaconttrolandfloatsemiconducttorasshowninthefigure.

Fig4.7StructureofanEPROM

Intheunprrogrammedsstate,the'flo
oat'doesnot haveanychaargeandthe MOSFETisin
nthe
OFF state. To program the cell, thee 'control' ab
bove the 'floaat' is raised to
t a high enough
potentialsu
uchthatachargeleakstothefloatthrroughSiO2inssulatinglayerr.Henceachaannel
is formed between
b
'Sou
urce' and 'Drain' in the silicon substrate and the MOSFET
M
beco
omes
'ON'.Thecchargeinthe 'float'remaiinsforalonggtime(typicaallyover30yyears).Thech
harge
can be rem
moved by exposing the float to UV
V radiation. FFor UV erasaable version,, the
packagingisdoneinace
eramicenclossurewithagllasswindow.
29|P a g e

F
Fig4.8UVeras
sableversiono
ofanEPROM

Usually,theeseversionso
ofmicroconttrollersareexxpensive.

3. OTPEPROM
M:Onetimep
programmable(OTP)EPRO
OMbasedmicrocontrollerrsdonothaveeany
glasswindo
owforUVeraasing.Theseccanbeprograammedonlyo
once.Thistyp
peofpackaging
resultsinm
microcontrolleerthathavethecost10%o
ofthemicroccontrollerswithUVerase
facility(i.e.,1/10thcost).

4. EEPROM:(ElectricallyErrasableProgrrammableRO
OM):Thisissim
milartoEPRO
OMbuttheflo
oat
chargecanberemovedelectrically.

5. FLASH(EEP
PROMMemory):FLASHmemorywasin
ntroducedbyINTELinlate1980's.
Thismemoryissimilarto
oEEPROMbu
utthecellsinaFLASHmem
moryarebussedsothatth
hey
canbeerassedinafewcclockcycles.H
Hencetherep
programmingisfaster.

4.5 OrganizattionofDattaMemory
y

DA
ATAMemorry

Datam
memorycanb
beclassifiedin
ntothefollow
wingcategories
Bits
Registers
VariableRA
AM
Programco
ounterstack

Microccontroller can
n have abilityy to perform
m manipulatio
on of individu
ual bits in ce
ertain registers(bit
manipulation).Thissisauniqueffeatureofam
microcontrolle
er,notavailab
bleinamicro
oprocessor.

Eightb
bitsmakeabyyte.Memorybytesarekno
ownasfilere
egisters.

RegisteersaresomespecialRAMlocationsthaatcanbeacceessedbythep
processorverryeasily.

30|P a g e

Fig4.9StaticRAM(SRAM)m
memorycell

Mmemorycellequivalent
Fig4.10SRAM

ThefiggureofasingleSRAMcellisshownabo
ove.ThisconssistsoftwoCMOSinverterrsconnectedback
tofron
nt,soastoformalatch.

Processsorstacksstore/savethe datainasim
mplewayduringprogram execution.Prrocessorstackisa
partoffRAMareaw
wherethedataissavedinaaLastInFirsttOut(LIFO)faashionjustlikkeastackofp
paper
on a table.
t
Data is stored by executing a 'push' instru
uction and data is read out
o using a 'pop'
instrucction.
I/ORe
egisters:Inad
dditiontothe
eDatamemory,somespecialpurpose registersare requiredthaatare
used in input/outp
put and conttrol operation
ns. These reggisters are ccalled I/O reggisters. Thesee are
importtantformicro
ocontrollerpe
eripheralinteerfaceandcontrolapplicattions.

Hardwareiinterfaceregisters(I/OSppace)

31|P a g e

Aswealreaadyknowam
microcontrolleerhassomeeembeddedpeeripheralsand
dI/Odevicess.The
datatransffertothesed
devicestakesplacethrougghI/Oregisteers.Inamicrroprocessor, input
/output (I/O) devices arre externally interfaced and are mapp
ped either to memory add
dress
(memorym
mappedI/O)o
oraseparateI/Oaddresssspace(I/OmaappedI/O).

In a microccontroller, tw
wo possible architectures can be used i.e., Princeto
on(Von Neum
mann)
architectureandHarvardarchitecturre.

I/ORegisteerspaceinPrincetonarchitecture

InPrincetonarchitecturrewehaveo
onlyonemem
moryinterfaceforprogram
mmemory(R
ROM)
anddatam
memory(RAM
M).Oneoption
nistomapth
heI/ORegisteerasaparto
ofdatamemo
oryor
variable RA
AM area. Thiss architecturee is simple and straight fo
orward. This is called memory
mappedI/O
O.AlternativeelyaseparateeI/Oregisterspacecanbeeassigned.

Fig4.11I/OReggistersinPrinccetonArchiteccture

The drawb
back of mem
mory mapped I/O is that a program which
w
wronggly executed may
overwriteI//Oregisters.

I/ORegiste
erspaceinHaarvardarchiteecture
ThesearetthefollowingoptionsavailableforI/OrregisterspaceeinHarvardA
Architecture.

1. I/OregistersinproggramROM.
2. I/Oregistersinregissterspace(DaataMemoryaarea).
3. I/Oregistersinsepaaratespace.

32|P a g e

Fig4.12O
Organizationo
ofI/OregisterssinHarvardA
Architecture

Thefirstop
ptionissomew
whatdifficultttoimplemen
ntasthereisnomeansto
owritetoprogram
ROM area. It is also complicated to have a sepaarate I/O spacce as shown in (3). Hencee the
secondopttionwhereI/O
Oregistersarreplacedinth
heregistersp
paceiswidelyyused.

4.6 Compiler/IDE(InttegratedD
Developme
entEnvironment)
Atmel Microcontro
ollersareveryyfamousasttheyareveryeasytouse.Therearem
manydevelopment
toolsaavailablefortthem.Firstoffallweneed aneasyIDE fordevelopin
ngcode.Isugggestbeginneersto
useCV
VAVR(CodeV
VisionAVR)Evaluationverrsionisavailaableforfreed
downloadfro
omthewebsiite.It
has lim
mitation of co
ode size. It works
w
on com
mputers with Windows pllatform that is Windows XP &
Vista.
pilers/develop
pmenttoolsssupportingW
WindowsforA
AtmelMicroco
ontrollersaree:
Someffamouscomp

WINAVR(A
AVRGCCforW
Windows)
CodeVision
nAVR(CVAVR
R)
AVRStudio(Atmel'sfreeedevelopingtool)

AVRGC
CCisaveryniiceopensourrcecompilerusedbymosttofthepeoplle.

4.7 Programm
mer
33|P a g e

Programmerbasicallyconsistsoftwoparts:

Software(toopen.hexfileonyourcomputer)
Hardware(toconnectmicrocontroller)

Hardware depends on the communication port you are using on the computer (Serial, Parallel or
USB).Isuggestbeginners touseSerial Programmer asitisvery easytobuild. Software forthatis
PonyProg.SomefamousWindows(XP,Vista)programmersare:

PonyProg(Serial,Parallel)
AVRdude(supportsmanyhardwares)
AVRStudio(supportsAtmel'shardware)
ATProg(Serial)
USBASP(USB)

4.8 HowtouseSerialProgrammer'sCircuit(Hardware)
Thisistheeasiestprogrammercircuittomake.YoujusthavetogetSerialPortconnectorandthree
1Kresistorsandyouaredone!CircuitDiagramisattached.

34|P a g e

NowopenthedatasheetofAtmegayouareusing(IamusingAtmega16).Gotothepin
configurationandfindthefollowingpinsandconnecttheprogrammer.Programmingisdone
throughSPI(SerialPeripheralInterface)whichinvolvesMISO,MOSIandSCKpins.RESETisusedto
resetthechip.0voltonthispinwillresetthechipandfornormalrunningitshouldbepulledupto
+5V.

MOSI(MasterOutSlaveIn)
MISO(MasterInSlaveOut)
SCK(SerialClock)
RESET
GND(Ground)
NowconnectthepowersuppliesthatareVccandGNDtothemicrocontroller.
Vcc=+5VandGND=0V
DonotforgettoconnectResettoVccwitha1K/10Kresistorforpullingup.
Thatisitwearereadywiththehardware.
Note:TheTrainerBoardhasOnBoardSerialProgrammer.
Software
AsItoldyoutherearetwopartsofaprogrammer,hardwareandsoftware.Wecanbuildthis
hardwareasitisveryeasywithjust34components.Nowweneedsoftwarewhichsupportthis
hardwareandcancommunicatewithmicrocontrollerusingthiscircuit.Thereare2goodsoftwares
forWindows.Theyare,

PonyProg
AtProg

BothofthemsupportSerialaswellasParallelport,butIhavealwayspreferredserialportbecauseit
hasonly9pins,henceasmallerconnectorisrequired.
35|P a g e


Nowletusdiscussaboutthem.
AtProg
I consider it as simplest programmer ever. The circuit we discussed is actually based on this
programmer.Downloadthefolderfromthewebsite,unzipit.Ithasanexecutablefilenamedat
prog.exedoubleclicktoexecuteit.
GotoPORTandselecttheaddressofserialport
(bydefaultCOM1).OnceyouclickthatSercon2
detectedshouldappearintheActivitytab.Thatis
thenameoftheprogrammercircuit.
Turnonthepowersupplyandconnectthecircuit
tothemicrocontroller.
ClickonCheck,itshouldshowOKintheActivity
tabanddevicename(ATMEGA16)will
automaticallycomeinthetabbelowcheck
option.Thisistheautodetectoptionofthis
programmerwhichautodetectsthedevicename
connectedbyitssignature.
Nowjustopenthedevicefilefrom File>Open andclickonWrite.Itwillwriteandverifythe
program.Done!Sosimpleisntit?:)

PonyProg
OneofthemostcommonlyusedprogrammersonWindows.Downloaditfromthewebsiteand
installit.Nowletssetitupforourhardware.
FirstselectAVRmicroandAVRAuto(youcanalsospecifydevicename,Atmega16)inthechip
options(lasttwodropdowntabs)

36|P a g e

GototheSetup>InterfaceSetup.Thendothesettingsasshowninthepicturebelow.Then
connectthecircuittothemicrocontroller,turnonthepowersupply. NowclickonProbe.You
shouldgetTestOKmessage.Ifnot,checkyourconnectionsagain.

Now lets read the Microcontroller. Go to Command>Read All. It should start reading the
signatureandtheflashmemory.YoushouldgetReadSuccessfulmessageafterthat.

Sowearedonewiththesettingsandtestings.Everythingisworkingfine:)Nowjustopenthe
hexfilefromFile>OpenDeviceFile

37|P a g e

Go to Command>WriteProgram (Flash). It will start writing and then verifying the code.
Congratulations:)youdidit!

4.9 USBProgrammer

USBaspisaUSBincircuitprogrammerforAtmelAVRcontrollers.ItsimplyconsistsofanATMega48
or an ATMega8 and a couple of passive components. The programmer uses a firmwareonly USB
driver;nospecialUSBcontrollerisneeded.

Chapter5 CodeVisionAVR(CVAVR)
38|P a g e

AnIDEhasfollowingfunctions:

Preprocessing
Compilation
Assembly
Linking
ObjectTranslation
TextEditor

If we just use compiler and linker independently we still need to get a text editor. So combining
everything will actually mess things up. So the best way is to get Software which has it all. Thats
calledanIntegratedDevelopmentEnvironment,inshortIDE.
I consider CodeVisionAVR to be the best IDE for getting started with AVR programming on
WindowsXP,Vista.IthasaverygoodCodeWizardwhichgeneratecodesautomatically!Youneed
notmesswiththeassemblywords.SoinallmytutorialsIwillbeusingCVAVR.Youcandownload
evaluationversionforfreewhichhascodesizelimitationbutgoodenoughforourpurpose.
For all my examples I will be using Atmega16 as default microcontroller because it very easily
available and is powerful enough with sufficient number of pins and peripherals we use. You can
havealookonthedatasheetofAtmega16inthedatasheetsection.
Letstakealookonthesoftware.Themainwindowlookslikefollowing,

NowclickonFile>New>Project

39|P a g e

ApopupwindowwillcomeaskingwhetheryouwanttouseCodeWizardAVR,obviouslyselectyes
becausethatisthereasonweareusingCVAVR!
NowhavealookonthisWizard.IthasmanytabswherewecanconfigurePORTS,TIMERS,LCD,ADC
etc.Iamexplainingsomeofthem

5.1 CHIP:
Select the chip for which you are going to write the program. Then select the frequency at which
Chipisrunning.BydefaultallchipsaresetonInternalOscillatorof1MHzsoselect1MHzifthatis
thecase.Ifyouwanttochangetherunningclockfrequencyofthechipthenyouhavetochangeits
fusebits(Iwilltalkmoreaboutthisinfusebitssection).

5.2
40|P a g e

PORT:

PORTisusuallyacollectionof8pins.
From this tab you can select which pin you want to configure as output and which as input. It
basicallywritestheDDRandPORTregisterthroughthissetting.RegistersarebasicallyRAMlocations
whichconfigurevariousperipheralsofmicrocontrollerandbychangingvalueoftheseregisterswe
can change the function it is performing. I will talk more about registers later. All the details are
providedinthedatasheet.

Soyoucanconfigureanypinasoutputorinputbyclickingthebox.
ForAtmega16whichhas4Portswecansee4tabseachcorrespondingtoonePort.Youcanalsoset
initialvalueofthePinsyouwanttoassign.orifyouareusingapinasinputthenwhetheryouwant
tomakeitaspulluportristated,againIwilltalkindetailsaboutthesefunctionslater.

SimilarlyusingthiscodewizardyoucanveryeasilyconfigurealltheperipheralsontheAtmega.
NowforgeneratingcodejustgotoFile>Generate,SaveandExit(ofthecodewizard)
41|P a g e

Nowitwillaskyounameandlocationforsavingthreefiles.Twobeingprojectfilesandonebeing
the .C filewhich isyour program.try to keep same names ofallthreefiles to avoidconfusion. By
defaultthesefilesaregeneratedinC:\CVAVR\bin
Thegeneratedprogramwillopeninthetexteditor.HavealookithassomedeclarationslikePORT,
DDR,TCCR0 and many more.These are allregisterswhich configuresvariousfunctions ofAtmega
and by changing these value we make different functions. All the details about the registers are
commented just below them. Now go down and find following infinite while loop there. We can
startwritingourpartofprogramjustbeforethewhileloop.Andasformostoftheapplicationswe
wantmicrocontrollertoperformthesametaskforeverweputourpartofcodeintheinfinitewhile
loopprovidedbythecodewizard!
While
{
//Placeyourcodehere

(1)

};
}
Seehowfriendlythiscodewizardis,allthework(configuringregisters)automaticallydoneandwe
dontevenneedtounderstandandgotothedetailsaboutregisterstoo!
Nowwewanttogeneratethehexfile,sofirstcompiletheprogram.EitherpressF9orgotoProject
>Compile.
Itwillshowcompilationerrorsifany.Ifprogramiserrorfreewecanproceedtomakingofhexfile.
SoeitherpressShift+F9orgotoProject> Make.Apopupwindowwillcomewithinformation
aboutcodesizeandflashusageetc.
Sothemachinefileisreadynow!Itisinthesamefolderwherewesavedthose3files.

42|P a g e

Chap
pter6 Introductio
ontoAtm
mega16Microcontrroller

6.1 Features

AdvancedR
RISCArchitectture
Upto16M
MIPSThroughp
putat16MHzz
16KByteso
ofInSystemSSelfProgrammableFlash
512BytesEEEPROM
1KByteInte
ernalSRAM
32Program
mmableI/OLines
InSystemP
ProgramminggbyOnchipB
BootProgram
m
8channel,10bitADC
Two8bitTTimer/CounteerswithSeparratePrescalersandCompaareModes
One16bitTimer/CountterwithSeparatePrescaler,CompareM
Mode,andCapture
FourPWMChannels
ProgrammaableSerialUSSART
Master/SlaveSPISerialIInterface
ByteorienttedTwowireSerialInterfaace
ProgrammaableWatchdo
ogTimerwith
hSeparateOn
nchipOscillattor
Externalan
ndInternalIntterruptSourcces

6.2 PinConfig
guration

43|P a g e

6.3 BlockDia
agram

44|P a g e

6.4 PinDescriptions

VCC:Digitalsupplyvoltage.(+5V)

GND:Ground.(0V)Notethereare2groundPins.

PortA(PA7PA0)
PortAservesastheanaloginputstotheA/DConverter.PortAalsoservesasan8bitbidirectional
I/O port, if the A/D Converter is not used. When pins PA0 to PA7 are used as inputs and are
externallypulledlow,theywillsourcecurrentiftheinternalpullupresistorsareactivated.ThePort
Apinsaretristatedwhenaresetconditionbecomesactive,eveniftheclockisnotrunning.

PortB(PB7PB0)
PortBisan8bitbidirectionalI/Oportwithinternalpullupresistors(selectedforeachbit).PortB
also serves the functions of various special features of the ATmega16 as listed on page 58 of
datasheet.

PortC(PC7PC0)
PortCisan8bitbidirectionalI/Oportwithinternalpullupresistors(selectedforeachbit).PortC
alsoservesthefunctionsoftheJTAGinterfaceandotherspecialfeaturesoftheATmega16aslisted
on page 61 of datasheet. If the JTAG interface is enabled, the pullup resistors on pins PC5(TDI),
PC3(TMS)andPC2(TCK)willbeactivatedevenifaresetoccurs.

PortD(PD7PD0)
PortDisan8bitbidirectionalI/Oportwithinternalpullupresistors(selectedforeachbit).PortD
also serves the functions of various special features of the ATmega16 as listed on page 63 of
datasheet.

RESET:ResetInput.Alowlevelonthispinforlongerthantheminimumpulselengthwillgeneratea
reset,eveniftheclockisnotrunning.

XTAL1:Externaloscillatorpin1

XTAL2:Externaloscillatorpin2

AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A and the A/D Converter. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC
throughalowpassfilter.

AREF:AREFistheanalogreferencepinfortheA/DConverter.

45|P a g e

6.5 DigitalInputOutputPort
SoletsstartwithunderstandingthefunctioningofAVR.WewillfirstdiscussaboutI/OPorts.AgainI
remind you that I will be using and writing about Atmega16. Lets first have a look at the Pin
configurationofAtmega16.Imageisattached,clicktoenlarge.
Youcanseeithas32I/O(Input/Output)pinsgroupedasA,B,C&Dwith8pinsineachgroup.This
groupiscalledasPORT.

PA0PA7(PORTA)
PB0PB7(PORTB)
PC0PC7(PORTC)
PD0PD7(PORTD)

Noticethatallthesepinshavesomefunctionwritteninbracket.Theseareadditionalfunctionthat
pincanperformotherthanI/O.Someofthemare.

ADC(ADC0ADC7onPORTA)
UART(Rx,TxonPORTD)
TIMERS(OC0OC2)
SPI(MISO,MOSI,SCKonPORTB)
ExternalInterrupts(INT0INT2)

6.6 Registers
Alltheconfigurationsinmicrocontrollerissetthrough8bit(1byte)locationsinRAM(RAMisabank
of memory bytes) of the microcontroller called as Registers. All the functions are mapped to its
locations in RAM and the value we set at that location that is at that Register configures the
functioningofmicrocontroller.Therearetotal32x8bitregistersinAtmega16.AsRegistersizeof
thismicrocontrolleris8bit,itcalledas8bitmicrocontroller.

46|P a g e

Chapter7 I/OPorts:
InputOutputfunctionsaresetbyThreeRegistersforeachPORT.

DDRX>SetswhetherapinisInputorOutputofPORTX.
PORTX>SetstheOutputValueofPORTX.
PINX>ReadstheValueofPORTX.

Gotothepage50inthedatasheetoryoucanalsoseetheI/OPortstabintheBookmarks.

7.1 DDRX(DataDirectionRegister)
Firstofallweneedtosetwhetherwewantapintoactasoutputorinput.DDRXregistersetsthis.
EverybitcorrespondstoonepinofPORTX.LetshavealookonDDRAregister.
Bit

PIN

PA7

PA6

PA5

PA4

PA3

PA2

PA1

PA0

NowtomakeapinactasI/OwesetitscorrespondingbitinitsDDRregister.

TomakeInputsetbit0
TomakeOutputsetbit1

IfIwriteDDRA=0xFF(0xforHexadecimalnumbersystem)thatissettingallthebitsofDDRAtobe
1,willmakeallthepinsofPORTAasOutput.
SimilarlybywritingDDRD=0x00thatissettingallthebitsofDDRDtobe0,willmakeallthepinsof
PORTDasInput.
Nowletstakeanotherexample.ConsiderIwanttosetthepinsofPORTBasshownintable,
PORTB

PB7

PB6

PB5

PB4

PB3

PB2

PB1

PB0

Function

Output

Output

Input

Output

Input

Input

Input

Output

DDRB

ForthisconfigurationwehavetosetDDRBas11010001whichinhexadecimalisD1.Sowewillwrite
DDRB=0xD1
Summary

DDRX>tosetPORTXasinput/outputwithabyte.
DDRX.y>tosetythpinofPORTXasinput/outputwithabit(worksonlywithCVAVR).

47|P a g e

7.2 PORTX(PORTXDataRegister)
ThisregistersetsthevaluetothecorrespondingPORT.NowapincanbeOutputorInput.Solets
discussboththecases.
OutputPin
Ifapinissettobeoutput,thenbysettingbit1wemakeoutputHighthatis+5Vandbysettingbit0
wemakeoutputLowthatis0V.
Letstakeanexample.ConsiderIhavesetDDRA=0xFF,thatisallthepinstobeOutput.NowIwant
tosetOutputsasshownintable,
PORTA
Value

PA7

PA6

PA5

High(+5V) High(+5V) Low(0V)

PORTA

PA4
Low(0V)
0

PA3

PA2

PA1

PA0

Low(0V) High(+5V) High(+5V) Low(0V)

0

For this configuration we have to set PORTA as 11000110 which in hexadecimal isC6. So we will
writePORTA=0xC6;
InputPin
If a pin is set to be input, then by setting its corresponding bit in PORTX register will make it as
follows,Setbit0>TriStatedSetbit1>PullUp
Tristatedmeanstheinputwillhang(nospecificvalue)ifnoinputvoltageisspecifiedonthatpin.
PullUpmeansinputwillgoto+5Vifnoinputvoltageisgivenonthatpin.Itisbasicallyconnecting
PINto+5Vthrougha10KOhmresistance.
Summary
PORTX>tosetvalueofPORTXwithabyte.
PORTX.y>tosetvalueofythpinofPORTXwithabit(worksonlywithCVAVR)

7.3 PINX(DataReadRegister)
ThisregisterisusedtoreadthevalueofaPORT.IfapinissetasinputthencorrespondingbitonPIN
registeris,
0forLowInputthatisV<2.5V
1forHighInputthatisV>2.5V(Ideally,butactually0.8V2.8Viserrorzone!)

ForanexampleconsiderIhaveconnectedasensoronPC4andconfigureditasaninputpinthrough
DDRregister.NowIwanttoreadthevalueofPC4whetheritisLoworHigh.SoIwilljustcheck4th
bitofPINCregister.
We can only read bits of the PINX register; can never write on that as it is meant for reading the
valueofPORT.

Summary

48|P a g e

PINX>ReadcompletevalueofPORTXasabyte.
PINX.y>ReadythpinofPORTXasabit(worksonlywithCVAVR).

7.4 ASMALLNOTEABOUTDELAY
Chasinbuiltlibrarieswhichcontainmanyprebuiltfunctions.OnesuchfunctionisDelay,which
introducesatimedelayataparticularstep.Toinvokeitinyourprogram,youneedtoaddthe
followinglineatthebeginningofyourcode:

#include<delay.h>;

Thereafter,itcanbeusedintheprogrambyaddingthefollowingline:

delay_ms(X);
WhereXisthetimedelayyouwishtointroduceatthatparticularstepinmilliseconds.
IhopeyoumusthavegotbasicideaaboutthefunctioningofI/OPorts.Fordetailedreadingyoucan
alwaysrefertodatasheetofAtmega.

49|P a g e

Chapter8 LCDInterfacing

NowweneedtointerfaceanLCDtoourmicrocontrollersothatwecandisplaymessages,outputs,
etc.SometimesusinganLCDbecomesalmostinevitablefordebuggingandcalibratingthesensors
(discussed later). We will use the 16x2 LCD, which means it has two rows of 16 characters each.
Henceintotalwecandisplay32characters.

8.1 OverviewofLCDDisplay
LCD displays are widely used in many applications like mobile phones, robotics, DVD players,
Measurement instruments etc. Intelligent LCD displays are very capable because they can display
complete ASCII character set and even graphics. These displays are easily connected with micro
controller and microprocessors. LCD displays are complete embedded system in them, because it
includemicrocontroller,RAMandROM.

16X2LCDDISPLAY

LCDModulescanpresenttextualinformationtouser.Itslikeacheapmonitorthatyoucanhook
inallofyourgadgets.
Theycomeinvarioustypes.Themostpopularoneis16x2LCDmodule.Ithas2rows&16columns.

Theintelligentdisplaysaretwotypes:

a)TextDisplay
b)GraphicsDisplay
Text display can display all character set and graphics display can show anyGraphics because they
areinterfacedpixelwise.
In recent year the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs (seven segment LEDs or
multisegmentLEDs).
Thisisduetothefollowingreasons:
a)ThedecliningpricesofLCDs.
b)Theabilitytodisplaythenumbers,charactersandgraphics.ThisisnotpossibleinLEDs,whichcan
displaythenumbersandfewcharacters.
c)Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, Thereby reliving the CPU of the task of
refreshingtheLCD.Incontrast,theLEDmustberefreshedbytheCPU(orinsomeotherway)tokeep
displayingthedata.
TheinterfacingofLCDisquitedifficult.Butwewilltrytomakeitsimpleandletusexplainitforyou.
We will learn how to interface the text intelligent LCD display. These displays are available in the
marketof16columnandoneRowandmorethanonerowdisplays.

BlockDiagramofLCDDisplay

50|P a g e

Micro
DataRAM
Code

controller
RAM
MICROCONTROLLER:
ItisthebrainofLCDdisplay.ThisishandlingtheallworkingoftheLCD.
Data
Command
Busy

Register
Register

DATARAM:

ROM

ThisRAMisstoringtheASCIIvaluesofcorrespondingcharacterswhichwillbedisplayedontheLCD.
For each column there is one location in the RAM. When we will store the ASCII value at that
locationthanitscorrespondingcharacterwillbedisplayedonthescreen.

CODERAM:
ThisRAMstoresthebinarypatternaccordingtothecharacter.

ROM:
ThisROMstoresthebinarypatternwhichisaccordingtothePixelsofLCDandtherearepatternsof
everycharacter.

COMMANDREGISTER:
Itstoresvariouscommandsforproperfunctioning.
DATAREGISTER:
This register work as buffer for data lines and the internal buses of LCD. The ASCII values of
characterswillbegiventothedataregister.

BF(BUSYFLAG):
ItindicatestheinternalworkingoftheLCD.ItshowwhetherLCDisbusyinanyoperationornot.
IfBF=0(LCDisidlewecanproceedfornextoperation)
If BF=1 (LCD is busy we cannot proceed for next operation and we have to wait unless operation
completes).

DESCRIPTIONOFPINSISGIVENBELOW:

VCC,VSSandVO:
WhileVCCandVSSprovide+5Voltsandground,respectivelyVEEisusedforcontrollingLCDcontrast
RS(REGISTERSELECT):
TheRSpinisusedtoselectDataRegisterorCommandRegister.
51|P a g e

IfRS=0
0,CRRegisterrisselected,allowingthe usertosend
dacommandsuchascleardisplay,cursserat
theho
omeetc.
IfRS=1
1,DRRegisterrisselected,allowingtheusertosenddatatobedissplayontheLCD.

R/W(R
READ/WRITEE):
WhenR/W=0,Writeoperation..
WhenR/W=1ReadOperation

EN(EN
NABLE):

The En
nable pin is used by the LCD to latch binary bitss available on
n its data pins. When daata is
supplieed to data pins,
p
a negatiive edge is applied
a
to thiis pin So thaat the LCD latches in the data
presen
ntatthedatapins.Thispu
ulsemustbeaaminimumoff450nswidee.
Thereshouldbepo
ositiveedgeattENpinwhen
nreadoperattionisrequireed.

0:
D7D0
Thisis8bitdatapins.D7D0arreusedtoseendinformatiiontotheLC
CDorreadth
hecontentso
ofthe
LCDsiinternalregisters.
BKLED
D(LEDA,LEDK
K):
These pinsareusedtogivetheesupplytoth
hebacklight oftheLCDd
display.So,th
hatcontento
ofthe
LCDdisplaycanbeviewedintheedark.

8.2 CircuitCo
onnection
Thereare16pinsin
nanLCD;SeeereversesideoftheLCDfo
orthePINcon
nfiguration.
Theco
onnectionshaavetobemad
deasshownb
below:

Figu
ure14:LCDconn
nections

8.3 Settingup
pinMicroccontrollerr

When weconnect anLCDtoAttmega16,oneefullPORTissdedicatedto

oit,denoted byPORTXin
nthe
figure..ToenableLC
CDinterfacingginthemicro
ocontroller,justclickontheLCDtabin
ntheCodeW
Wizard
52|P a g e

andselectthePORTatwhichyou wanttoconnecttheLCD.WewillselectPORTC.Alsoselectthe
numberofcharactersperlineinyourLCD.Thisis16inourcase.CodeWizardnowshowsyouthe
completelistofconnectionswhichyouwillhavetomakeinordertointerfacetheLCD.Theseare
nothingbutthesameasintheabovefigureforgeneralPORTX.

Figure15:LCDsettingsonCVAVRwizardwindow.

Asyoucansee,therearesomespecialconnectionsotherthanthosetouC,Vccandgnd.Theseare
general LCD settings. Pin 3 (VO) is for the LCD contrast, ground it through a <1k resistance/
potentiometerforoptimumcontrast.Pin15&16(LEDAandLEDK)areforLCDbacklight,givethem
permanent+5VandGNDrespectivelyasweneedtoglowitcontinuously.

53|P a g e

8.4 PrintingFunctions

Now once the connections have been made, we are ready to display something on our screen.
Displayingournamewouldbegreattostartwith.SomeofthegeneralLCDfunctionswhichyoumust
knoware:

8.4.1 lcd_clear()

Clearsthelcd.Remember!Callthisfunctionbeforethewhile(1)loop,otherwiseyouwontbeable
toseeanything!

8.4.2 lcd_gotoxy(x,y)
Place the cursor at coordinates (x,y) and start writing from there. The first coordinate is (0,0).
Hence,xrangesfrom0to15andyfrom0to1inourLCD.Supposeyouwanttodisplaysomething
startingfromthe5thcharacterinsecondline,thenthefunctionwouldbe

lcd_gotoxy(5,1);

8.4.3 lcd_putchar(charc)

Todisplayasinglecharacter.E.g.,
lcd_putchar(H);

8.4.4 lcd_putsf(constantstring)

Todisplayaconstantstring.Eg,

lcd_putsf(IITKanpur);

8.4.5 lcd_puts(chararr)

To display a variable string, which is nothing but an array of characters (data type char) in C
language . e.g., You have an array char c[10] which keeps on changing. Then to display it, the
functionwouldbecalledas
lcd_puts(c);

Nowwehaveseenthatonlycharactersorstrings(constantorvariable)canbedisplayedontheLCD.
Butquiteoftenwehavetodisplayvaluesofnumericvariables,whichisnotpossibledirectly.Hence
we need to first convert that numeric value to a string and then display it. For e.g., if we have a
variableoftypeinteger,sayintk,andweneedtodisplaythevalueofk(whichchangeseverynow
andthen,200nowand250afterasecond...andsoon).Forthis,weusetheCfunctionsitoa()and
ftoa(),butremembertoincludetheheaderfilestdlib.htousetheseCfunctions.

54|P a g e

8.4.6 itoa(intval,chararr[])

Itstoresthevalueofintegervalinthecharacterarrayarr.E.g.,wehavealreadydefinedintiand
charc[20],then

itoa(i,c);
lcd_puts(c);

Similarlywehave

8.4.7 ftoa(floatval,chardecimal_places,chararr[])

Itstoresthevalueoffloatingvariablefinthecharacterarrayarrwiththenumberofdecimalplaces
asspecifiedbysecondparameter.E.g.,wehavealreadydefinedfloatfandcharc[20],then

ftoa(f,4,c);

//till4decimalplaces
lcd_puts(c);

NowwearereadytodisplayanythingwewantonourLCD.Justtryoutsomethingwhichyouwould
liketoseeglowingonit!

55|P a g e

Chapter9 ADC:Analog to Digital Converter

Most of the physical quantities around us are continuous. By continuous, we mean that the
quantitycantakeanyvaluebetweentwoextremes.Forexample,theatmospherictemperaturecan
take any value within a certain range. If an electrical quantity is made to vary directly in
proportiontothisvaluethenwhatwehaveisanAnalogueSignal.Nowwehavebroughtaphysical
quantityintotheelectricaldomain.Theelectricalquantityinmostcasesisvoltage.Tobringthis
quantityintodigitaldomainwehavetoconvertthisintodigitalform.ForthisanADCoranalogue
todigitalconverterisneeded.MostmodernMCUincludingAVRshaveanADConchip.
AnADCconvertsaninputvoltageintoanumber.AnADChasaresolution.A8bitADChasarange
of0255.(28=256)TheADCalsohasaReferenceVoltage(ARef).WhentheinputvoltageisGNDthe
outputis0andwhentheinputvoltageisequaltoAReftheoutputis255.Sotheinputrangeis0to
ARefandtheoutputrangeis0to255.

InputVoltage
DigitalOutput

0V0
2.5V127
5V255

Youcanseethatanyanaloguesignalisnotperfectlyconvertedafactorthataffectsthe
outputqualityisthesamplingrate.TheADCcannotcontinuouslyreadtheinputsignaland
changeitsoutputitdoessoincertaintimeintervals.Thefrequencyatwhichitsamplesthe
inputiscalleditssamplingrate.

Also,thevalueoftheanaloguesignalreadisnotstoredperfectlyforexample,avoltage
of2.501wouldbereadas2.5Vi.e.127indigitalformat.Thus,thesignalisquantized,or,
inotherterms,thereiscertaingraininesstothedigitalsignalthatyouobtain.Howaccurateyour
digital signal isdepends on your resolution higher resolution will make your digital signal more
accurate.

56|P a g e

9.1 Theoryoffoperation
n

What we have seen till nowthat theinput given to uC wasdigital, i.e., either +5
5 V(logic 1)o
or0V
(logic0
0).Butwhatiifwehavean
nanaloginputt,i.e.,valuevvariesoverarange,say0V
Vto+5V?Theenwe
require
eatoolthat convertsthissanalogvoltaagetodiscrettevalues.AnaalogtoDigitaalConverter((ADC)
issuch
hatool.

uswehave8
8pinsavailab
blewherewecanapplyan
nalog
ADCissavailableat PORTAofAttmega16.Thu
voltage
e and get co
orresponding digital values. The ADC register
r
is a 10
1 bit registe
er, i.e., the digital
d
valuerrangesfrom0
0to1023.Bu
utwecanalso
ouseonly8b
bitoutofit(0
0to255)asto
oomuchpreccision
isnotrrequired.

Refereencevoltage isthevoltageetowhichth
heADCassign
nsthemaxim
mumvalue(25
55incaseof 8bit
and 10
023 for 10 bit). Hence, th
he ADC of Attmega16 divides the inpu
ut analog volttage range (0
0V to
Refereence Voltage)) into 1024 or
o 256 equal parts, depen
nding upon w
whether 10 bit
b or 8 bit ADC is
used. Forexample,iftherefere
encevoltageiis5Vandwe use10bitAD
DC,0Vhasdiggitalequivaleent0,
+5Visdigitally1023
3and2.5Visapproximatelyequalto51
12.

ADC=Vinnx255/Vreff
(8bit)

ADC=Vinnx1023/Vrref(10bit)

9.2 Settingup
pMicrocon
ntroller

57|P a g e

ToenableADCinAtmega16,clickontheADCtabinCodeWizardandenablethecheckbox.Youcan
alsocheckuse8bitsasthatissufficientforourpurposeand10bitaccuracyisnotrequired.Ifthe
inputvoltagerangesfrom0tolessthan+5V,thenapplythatvoltageatAREF(pin32)andselectthe
Volt.Ref.asAREFpin.Butifitrangesfrom0to+5V,youcanselecttheVolt.Ref.asAVCCpinitself.
Keeptheclockatitsdefaultvalueof125kHzandselecttheAutoTriggerSourceasFreeRunning.
Youcanalsoenableaninterruptfunctionifyourequire.

9.3 FunctionforgettingADC

Nowwhenyougenerateandsavethecode,alltheregistervaluesaresetautomaticallyalongwitha
function:

unsignedcharread_adc(unsignedcharadc_input).

ThisfunctionreturnsthedigitalvalueofanaloginputatthatpinofPORTAwhosenumberispassed
asparameter,e.g.,ifyouwanttoknowthedigitalvalueofvoltageappliedatPA3,andthenjustcall
thefunctionas,

read_adc(3);

IftheADCis8bit,itwillreturnavaluefrom0to255.MostprobablyyouwillneedtoprintitonLCD.
So,thecodewouldbesomewhatlike

inta;charc[10];
//declareinthesectionofglobalvariables
a=read_adc(3);
itoa(a,c);
lcd_puts(c);

58|P a g e

Chapter10 Timers

10.1 WhatisaTimer?
Weusetimerseverydaythesimplestonecanbefoundonyourwrist.Asimpleclockwilltimethe
seconds,minutesandhourselapsedinagivendayorinthecaseofatwelvehourclock,sincethe
lasthalfday.AVRtimersdoasimilarjob,measuringagiventimeinterval.
AnAVRtimerinsimplesttermisaregister.Timersgenerallyhavearesolutionof8or16bits.Soan8
bittimeris8bitswide,andiscapableofholdingvaluewithin0255.Butthisregisterhasamagical
propertyitsvalueincreases/decreasesautomaticallyatapredefinedrate(suppliedbyuser).Thisis
thetimerclock.AndthisoperationdoesnotneedCPUsintervention.

TheAVRtimersareveryusefulastheyrunasynchronoustothemainAVRcore.Thisisafancywayof
sayingthatthetimersareseparatecircuitsontheAVRchipwhichcanrunindependentofthemain
program,interactingviathecontrolandcountregisters,andsomethingcalledtimerinterrupts.

10.2 HowtoUseTimer
SinceTimerworksindependentlyofCPUitcanbeusedtomeasuretimeaccurately.Timer
uponcertainconditionstakessomeactionautomaticallyorinformsCPU.Asweknowatimerisan
8bitregisterthatkeepsonincreasingitsvalue,sooneofthebasicconditionsisthesituationwhen
timerregisterOVERFLOWSi.e.ithascounteduptoitsmaximumvalue(255for8BITtimers)and
rolledbackto0.InthissituationtimercanissueaninterruptandyoumustwriteanInterrupt
ServiceRoutine(ISR)tohandletheevent.TherearethreedifferenttimersavailableinAtmega16
andallthetimersworkinalmostsameway.TheyareTIMER0,TIMER1andTIMER2.

10.3 Prescalar
The Prescalar is a mechanism for generating clock for timer by CPU clock. Every CPU has a clock
sourceandthefrequencyofthissourcedecidestherateatwhichinstructionsareexecutedbythe
processor.Atmegahasclocksofseveralfrequenciessuchas1MHz,8MHz,12MHz,16MHz(max).
The Prescalar is used to divide this clock frequency and produce a clock for TIMER. The
Prescalarcanbesettoproducethefollowingtypesofclocks:
NoClock(Timerstop)

Noprescaling(clockfrequency=CPUfrequency)

FCPU/8

FCPU/64

FCPU/256

FCPU/1024

Externalclock,however,itwillrarelybeused.

59|P a g e

10.4 TimerMode
Timersareusuallyusedinoneofthefollowingmodes:

Normal

CTC

FastPWM

PhasecorrectPWM

10.5 NormalMode
Atimerrunninginnormalmodewillcountuptoitsmaximumvalue.Whenitreachesthis
maximumvalue,itissuesanOverflowinterruptandresetsthevalueofthetimertoits
originalvalue.

Intheabovecase,youcanseethatthetimeperiodis256timesthetimeperiodoftheclock.255
clockcyclesarerequiredtoattainthemaximumvalueandoneclockcycletoclearthetimervalue.

So,ftimer=fclock/256

10.6CTCMode
Hereweshallseehowtouseatimerincomparemode.Inthenormalmode,wesettheclockofthe
timer using a prescalar and the let the timer run. When it overflowed, we set up an interrupt to
handletheoverflow.Whilesimple,thismodehasitslimitations.Weareconfinedtoaverysmallset
ofvaluesoffrequencyforthetimer.Thislimitationisovercomebythecomparemode.
ComparemodemakesuseofaregisterknownastheOutputCompareRegisterwhichstoresavalue
ofourchoice.Thetimercontinuouslycomparesitscurrentvaluewiththevalueontheregisterand
whenthetwovaluesmatch,thefollowingeventscanbeconfiguredtohappen:
1. ArelatedOutputComparepincanbemadeset(puttohigh),cleared(puttolow)ortoggled
automatically.Thismodeisidealforgeneratingsquarewavesofdifferentfrequency.
2. ItcanbeusedtogeneratePWMsignalsusedtoimplementaDACdigitaltoanalogconverter
whichcanbeusedtocontrolthespeedofDCmotors.
3. Simplygenerateandinterruptandcallahandler.
Onacomparematch,thetimerresetsitselfto0.ThisiscalledCTCClearTimeronCompareMatch.
In this case, suppose we set our event to toggle the output pin. In that case, the output pin will
remainhighforonetimeperiodofthetimerandwillremainlowforanothertimeperiod.
So,tout=2*ttimer
Fromthenormalcase,wecandrawananalogytofindoutttimer.
ttimer=tclock*(OCR+1)

60|P a g e

So,finally,wehavethefrequencyas,
fout=fclock/(2*(OCR+1))

10.7PulseWidthModulation(PWM)Mode
A digital device like a microcontroller can easily work with inputs and outputs that have only two
statesonoroff.SoyoucaneasilyuseittocontrolaLED'sstatei.e.onoroff.Inthesamewayyou
canuseittoturnonoroffanyelectricaldevicebyusingproperdrivers(transistor,triac,relays
etc).Butsometimesyouneedmorethanjust"on"&"off"controloverthedevice.Forexample,if
youwanttocontrolthebrightnessofanLED(oranylamp),orthespeedofDCmotor,thendigital
on/offsignalswillnotsuffice.Thissituationisverysmartlyhandledbyatechniquecalledas PWM
orPulseWidthModulation.
PWMisthetechniqueusedtogenerateanalogsignalsfromadigitaldevicelikeaMCU.

(A)PWM:PulseWidthModulation
Amicrocontrollercanonlygeneratetwolevelsonitsoutputlines,HIGH=5VandLOW=0V.Butwhat
if we want to generate 2.5V or 3.1V or any voltage between 05 volt as output? For these
requirements,insteadofgeneratingaconstantDCvoltageoutputwegenerateasquarewave,which
hashigh=5VandLow=0V.

AtermcalledasDutyCycleisdefinedas
d=ton/ttotal*100%
So you can see that the duty cycle in the above case is 50%. If the frequency of such a wave is
sufficientlyhigh (say500Hz)thentheoutputyou getishalfof5Vi.e.2.5V.Thusif thisoutputis
connected to a motor (by means of suitable drivers) it will run at 50% of its full speed at 5V. The
PWM technique utilizes this fact to generate any voltage between two extremes (for example
between012volts).Thetrickistovarythedutycyclebetween0to100%andgetsamepercentage
ofinputvoltagetooutput.
Considerthefollowingexamples:

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Herethedutycycleis75%.Sotheequivalentanalogvoltageoutputis3.75V.

Herethedutycycleis12.5%.Sotheanalogvoltageoutputis0.625V.

(B)PWMSignalGenerationUsingAvrTimers
InAVRmicrocontrollers,PWMsignalsaregeneratedbytimers.Therearetwomethodsbywhichyou
cangeneratePWMfromtimers:
1.FastPWM
2.PhaseCorrectPWM
Thesewillbeclearasweproceed.

Wewillusethesimplesttimer,TIMER0forPWMgeneration.Sowehavean8bitcountercounting
from0to255andthenresettingto0andsoon.Thiscanbeshownongraphas:

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The period depends upon the PRESCALAR settings. Now for PWM generation from this count
sequenceOCR0(OutputCompareRegisterZero)isused(ZerobecauseitisforTIMER0andthereare
moreoftheseforTIMER1&TIMER2).Wecanstoreanyvaluebetween0255inOCR0,saywestore
64inOCR0thenitwouldappearinthegraphasfollows(theREDline).

WhentheTIMER0isconfiguredforfastPWMmode,then,whilethetimeriscountingup,whenever
thevalueofTIMER0countermatchesthevalueintheOCR0register,anoutputPINispulledlow(0)
andwhencountingsequencebeginagainfrom0itisSETagain(pulledhigh=VCC).Thisisshownin
thefigure3.ThisPINisnamedOC0andyoucanfinditinthePINconfigurationofATmega32.

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Fromthefigure,youcanseethatawaveofdutycycleof64/256=25%isproducedbysettingOCR0
to64.YoucansetOCR0toanyvalueandgetaPWMofdutycycleof(OCR0/256).Whenyousetit
to0yougeta0%dutycyclewhilesettingitto255willgiveyoua100%dutycycleoutput.Thusby
varyingdutycycleyoucangetananalogvoltageoutputfromtheOC0PIN.
In the inverting mode the value of the OC0 pin is just the reverse of that in the above figure. So
wheneverthevalueoftheTIMER0counterislessthanOCR0valuethentheOC0pinisLOWelseitis
HIGH.Youcanselect the invertingor noninverting mode in the Outputfieldin theCodeWizard
AVR.Theinvertingandnoninvertingmodeswillhavedifferentdutycycleswhicharerelatedas
dinv+dnoninv=100%
Youcanseethat
tout=ttimer=256*tclock

Hence,
fout=fclock/256

(C)PhaseCorrectPWMMode
This mode is very similar to the Fast PWM mode except that whenever the value of the timer
reachesitsmaximumvaluetheninsteadofclearingthevalueofthetimeritsimplystartscounting
down.
ThevalueofthepintogglesonlywhenthevalueoftheOCR0matcheswiththeTIMER0counter.

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Here,
tout=ttimer=256*tclock*OCR
Hence,
fout=fclock/(2*OCR)

TimerscanbeconfiguredintheCodeWizardAVRwindowwhilesettingupanewproject.Tosetupa
timer,followtheseinstructions:
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OpenCodeVisionAVRandclickonFile>New.

Thewindowshownintheabovefigurewillappear.ClickonYes.
OntheCodeWizardAVRwindow,selectyourchipandfrequency.
ClickontheTimerstabonthetop.

10.8SETTINGUPTIMERSINCODEVISIONAVR

The window will allow you to configure TIMER0, TIMER1, TIMER2. For now, you can ignore the
Watchdogtimer.

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TheClockSourcemenuwillallowyoutoselecttheclocksourceforthecurrenttimeryou
can either select the system clock or an external clock. For most purposes, you can select
SystemClock.
TheClockValuemenuwillallowyoutosetthefrequencyoftheclockofthetimer.Select
theappropriatevalue:

SelectthetimermodeintheModemenu:

IntheOutputmenu,selecttheappropriateoptionforyourtimer.Thismenuwillhavedifferent
optionsdependinguponyourtimermode,eg.Toggle,Set,ResetandInverting,NonInverting,etc.:

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YoucanselecttoenableOverflowInterruptandCompareMatchInterruptbyselectingthe
appropriatecheckboxes.
TheTimerValueoptionwillallowyoutoselectthestartingvalueofthetimer.Thedefault
valueis0.
TheCompareValueoptionwillallowyoutoselectthevalueforOCR.Thisvalueisrequired
for CTC and PWM modes as well as Compare Match Interrupt. Enter the value in
hexadecimalnumbers.

Essentially,youredoneconfiguringyourtimer.Youcannowconfiguretheremainingsettingsofthe
timer and click on File > Generate, Save and Exit. After saving the files, you can configure your
Interrupthandlersinthecodewindow,ifyouactivatedany.

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Atmega16hasfollowingtimers,

Timer0,8bit
Timer1,16bitconsistingoftwo8bitparts,AandB

Timer2,8bit

Nowtherearetwoclocks,

1. SystemClock(fs):ThisistheclockfrequencyatwhichAtmegaisrunning.Bydefaultitis1MHz
whichcanbechangedbysettingfusebits.

2. Timer Clock (ft): This is the clock

frequency at which timer module is
running. Each timer module has different
clocks.

Now ft can be in ratios of fs. That is, ft = fs,

fs/8,fs/64...

For example, if we keep fs = 8 MHz then

availableoptionsforftare:8MHz,1MHz,125
KHz...(lookintheimage)

Therearetotal4settingsforTimers,

1. ClockSource:Sourcefortimerclock,keep
it as system clock. You can also provide
external clock. Read datasheet for more
informationaboutexternalclocksource.

2. Clockvalue:Thisisvalueofft.Dropdown
for available options of ft. Chose
whicheverisrequired

3. Mode: There are many modes of timers.

Wewillbediscussingfollowing2modes,

a. FastPWMtop=FFh
b. CTCtop=OCRx(x=0,1A,2)

4. Output: Depending upon the mode we

havechosen thereareoptionsforoutput
pulse.Wewilllookindetaillater.

BasicallyeachTimerhasacounterunitwithsize8bitforTimer0,2and16bitforTimer1.Iwillbe
talkingaboutTimer0andsamewillfollowforotherTimers.

Each counter has a register which increments by one on every rising edge of timer clock. After
countingtoitsfullcapacity,255for8bit,itagainstartsfrom0.Byusingthisregisterwecanhave
differentmodes.

Timer/Counter(TCNT0)andOutputCompareRegister(OCR0)are8bitregisters.

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TOP: The counter reaches the TOP when it becomes equal to the highest value in the count
sequence.TheTOPvaluecanbeassignedtobethefixedvalue0xFF(MAX)orthevaluestoredin
theOCR0Register.Theassignmentisdependentonthemodeofoperation.

10.9 FastPWMMode

PWM=PulseWidthModulation.

Thismodeisusedtogeneratepulsewith

FixedFrequency(F)

VariableDutyCycle(D)

F=Ft/256

D=OCR0/255
(noninverted)

D=(255OCR0)/255 (inverted)

By changing OCR0 value we can change the duty cycle of the

outputpulse.

AsOCR0isan8bitregisteritcanvaryfrom0o255.

0OCR0255

PinsforOutputpulse,

Timer0:OC0,pin4
Timer1A:OC1A,pin19
Timer1B:OC1B,pin18
Timer2:OC2,pin21

Figure16:FastPWMmodeTimingDiagram

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10.10 CTCMode

CTC=ClearTimeronCompareMatch.

Thismodeistogeneratepulsewith,

FixedDutyCycle(D=0.5)

VariableFrequency(F)

F=

D=0.5

By changing value of OCR0 we can change the value of

output pulse frequency. As OCR0 is an 8bit register it can
varyfrom0to255.

0OCR0255

Figure17:CTCModetimingdiagram

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Chapter11 Communication

11.1 Data Transfer

Knowledgeofdatatransferisveryimportantforanyembeddedsystemdeveloper.Inanyembeded
systemdataismovedbetweenseveralunitslikebetweenRAMandCPU.Therearemanymethods
and technique for data transfers each having its own pros and cons. So different data transfer
techniqueisusedindifferentsituations.Someexampleofdatatransferis

SimpleparalleltransferUsedtotransfer8,16,and32...bitsofdatainthesametime.
Asynchronous Serial Transfer (USART) It is an old but still in use mode of serial
communicationusesonly2lines(+1additionallineforGND).
SPISerialPeripheralInterfaceItisastandardmodeofcommunicationbetweendifferent
ICs.
USBAveryadvance,highspeedandcomplicatedserialBususedinPCstoconnectalmost
anythingtoit.

11.2 Classification
ModesofDataTransfercanbebroadlydividedintotwotypes:
1. PARALLEL TRANSFER In this mode a number of bits (say 8,16 or 32) are transferred at a
time. Thus they require as many electrical line as the number of bits to be transferred at
once.Thismethodisfastbutitsdisadvantageisthatitusesmorenumberoflines.Sothey
arebasically usedwhenthe unitsinvolvedin data transferarephysicallycloseandalmost
fixed with each other for a long time. For eg. CPU and RAM, the PCI Cards inside the PC.
These are close to each other and packed inside the CPU box and are disconnected from
eachotherlessfrequently.
2. SERIALTRANSFERInthismodeonlyonebitistransferatonce.Sototransfer8bits,8cycles
are required. So these require less number of physical lines (like SPI use 3 lines). The
advantage is that due to less number ICs using these technologies are small with low PIN
count.

ModesofDataTransfercanalsobedividedinto
1. SYNCHRONOUSTRANSMISSION.InthistypetheactualdataistransferredBITbyBITonthe
DATAline.Theclocklinesignalstheendof1bitandthestartofanotherbit.Whentheclock
linechangesitslevel,thatiswhenitgoesHIGHfromaLOWlevelorviceversathedatais
transferred.WhentheCLOCKlinegoesHIGHitsignalsthatanewbitisavailablefortransfer.
The"other"devicewhichisreceivingthedatareadsthedatalineattherisingedgeorthe
fallingedgeoftheclockdependinguponoursettings.

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Thediagramcorrespondsto
thetransferofthedata
10010111.Itcorrespondsto
thevalueofthedataatevery
risingedgeoftheclock.

2. ASYNCHRONOUSTRANSMISSIONAsynchronoustransmissionallowsdatatobetransmitted
without the sender having to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and
receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each
wordwhichareusedtosynchronizethesendingandreceivingunits.Whenawordisgiven
forAsynchronoustransmissions,abitcalledthe"StartBit"isaddedtothebeginningofeach
wordthatistobetransmitted.TheStartBitisusedtoalertthereceiverthatawordofdata
isabouttobesent,andtoforcetheclockinthereceiverintosynchronizationwiththeclock
inthetransmitter.Onesolutionistohavebothdevicessharethesameclocksource.

11.3 BaudRate
Baud Rate is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication. The devices
thatallowcommunicationmustallagreeonasinglespeedofinformation'bitspersecond'.

Whentheentiredatawordhasbeensent,thetransmittermayaddaParityBitthatthetransmitter
generates.TheParityBitmaybeusedbythereceivertoperformsimpleerrorchecking.Thenatleast
oneStopBitissentbythetransmitter.
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Whenthereceiverhasreceivedallofthebitsinthedataword,itmaycheckfortheParityBits(both
senderandreceivermustagreeonwhetheraParityBitistobeused),andthenthereceiverlooks
foraStopBit.
Inshort,asynchronousdatais'selfsynchronizing'.

Transmission
Asynchronous
Synchronous

Advantages
Simple
Inexpensive
Efficient

Disadvantages
& High Overhead
Complex
Expensive

and

11.4 DifferentCommunicationTechniques

Chapter12 SPI:Serial Peripheral Interface

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12.1 TheoryofOperation

TheSerialPeripheralInterfaceBusorSPIbusisasynchronousserialdatalinkusedtocommunicate
between two or more microcontroller and devices supporting SPI mode data transfer. Devices
communicateinmaster/slavemodewherethemasterdeviceinitiatesthedataframe.Multipleslave
devicesareallowedwithindividualslaveselect(chipselect)lines.

Thiscommunicationprotocolconsistsoffolliwnglinesorpins,

1. MOSI:MasterOutSlaveIn(TxforMasterandRxforSlave)
2. MISO:MasterInSlaveOut(RxforMasterTxforSlave)
3. SCK:SerialClock(Clockline)
4. SS:SlaveSelect(ToselectSlavechip)(ifgiven0deviceactsasslave)

Master:Thisdeviceprovidestheserialclocktotheotherdevicefordatatransfer.Asaclockisused
forthedatatransfer,thisprotocolisSynchronousinnature.SSforMasterwillbedisconnected.

Slave:Thisdeviceacceptstheclockfrommasterdevice.SSforthishastobemade0externally.

MOSI
MOSI

MISO
MISO

Master
Slave
SCK
SCK

SS

PinconnectionsforSPIprotocol

Figure18:SPIDataCommunication

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InSPI,dataistransmittedserially,i.e.bitbybitasopposedtoparallelcommunicationwhereallthe
dataissentmultiplebitsatatime.WewillstudysynchronousSPI,wherethereisaclockgenerated
andthedataistransferredattherateoftheclockpulse.Whatisclockpulse?
Clockpulseisbasicallyasequenceof alternating0sand1sthatisusedtoindicatethatoneBitof
datahasbeensent.Forexample,ifyouweretosendthedata10011000,thesignalyousentwould
looklike:

Nowasitmightbeclearthereshouldbesomewaytotellthissignalfrom1010of100010ofsome
other.Forthis,wecandoeitheroftwothings,setastandardthatataparticularrate,thedatawill
betransferredandwekeepcheckingforvoltageattimemomentsT,2T,3Tsoon,orwealsosenda
clockpulseatthesametime.Likewedecidethatwheneverwesendanewsignal,wewillmakethe
clock1.Thentheclocksignalwouldlooklike:

Nowifthereceivingmachinereadstheincomingdataatnegativeedges,itwillalwaysreadwhatthe
senderactuallymeant.Thistheconceptofsynchronousdatatransfers.Thesenderandthereceiver
aresynchronizedbyaclockpulse.
Now, in SPI set up when we have to set up communication between two systems, first we have
makeonesystemasmasterandtheotherasslave.Thedifferencebetweenmasterandtheslaveis
thattheclockpulseisgeneratedbythemasterandbothmasterandtheslaveagreetoworkonthe
clockfrequencythatissetupbythemaster.
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ThebasicconnectionsinanySPIsetupareasfollows:

MOSIisMasterOutSlaveIn,soitisthechannelwherethemastersendsthedatatotheslaveand
theslavereceivesit.
MISO is Master In Slave Out, so it is the channel where the slave sends the data and the master
receivesit.
Clockistheclockthatissendbythemaster.
SSisslaveselectwhenthemasterwantstosenddatatoaparticularslaveitmakesitsSSpinlow,
sends the data and then again makes it high. It is especially useful when multiple slaves are
connectedtothemaster,butthebasicpurposeistoselecttheslaveandtransmittingdatatoit.
In SPI, the data the data is exchanged between the transmitter and the receiver. It happens as
follows:
Firstthe masterand the slavekeep the databits to transferin their respective registers. Suppose
master wants to send bm1,bm2,bm3..bm8 and the slave wants to send bs1, b s2, b s3 ..b s8.
Whathappensisasfollows:

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78|P a g e

The data is transferred one bit at a time between the master and the slave, and at the end of 8
cyclesthedataiscompletelyexchanged.
ThefollowingfiguresshowatypicalsetupusedwithSPI:

Onemasterandoneslave

Onemasterandtwoslaves

HOWTOUSECODEWIZARDTOSETUPSPICONNECTION

79|P a g e

12.2 SettingupSPIinMicrocontroller

12.2.1 MasterMicrocontroller

OpenCodeWizardandgotoSPItab.EnableSPIandchoose
MasterinSPIType.

Selectclockratedependinguponyourdatatransferspeed
requirement.

Keepothersettingsasdefault.

12.2.2 SlaveMicrocontroller

OpenCodeWizardandgotoSPItab.EnableSPIandchoose
SlaveinSPIType.

Selectclockratedependinguponyourdatatransferspeed
requirement.

Keepothersettingsaskeptinthemastermicrocontroller.

12.3 DataFunctions
80|P a g e


Youcantransmitorreceive1byteofdataatatime.

12.3.1 TransmitData

spi(1bytedata);

Example:spi(A);

12.3.2 ReceiveData

c=spi(0);//cis1bytevariable Example:charc=spi(0);

12.4 ConnectingMCUToAnotherMCU
Just connect the MOSI, MISO, SCK, and SS to SS. Use the following function to send data:
spi(character)
Whenyouusethisfunctioninthemaster,itwritesthecharactertotheregisterandsendsthedata
toslave.Incaseoftheslave,thedataiswrittentotheregisterandthecpuwaitsforthemasterto
senddatawhenitalsotransmitsthedatawrittenintotheregister.

SAMPLEPROGRAMME:

MASTER:
char a=spi(0xFF);
lcd_putchar(a);//displays1onthelcd

81|P a g e

SLAVE:
char b=spi(1);

Chapter13 USARTCommunication

UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) is a way of communication between the

microcontrollerandthecomputersystemoranothermicrocontroller.Therearealwaystwopartsto
anymodeofcommunicationaReceiverandaTransmitter.Hence,ourAtmegacanreceivedataas
wellassenddatatoothermicrocontroller,computeroranyotherdevice.

13.1 USART
Likemanymicrocontrollers,AVRalsohasadedicatedhardwareforserialcommunication.Thispartis
calledtheUSARTUniversalSynchronousAsynchronousReceiverTransmitter.Thisspecialhardware
makesyourlifeasaprogrammereasier.Youjusthavetosupplythedatayouneedtotransmitandit
willdotherest.TheadvantageofhardwareUSARTisthatyoujustneedtowritethedatatooneof
theregistersofUSARTandyourdone,youarefreetodootherthingswhileUSARTistransmitting
thebyte.
AlsotheUSARTautomaticallysensesthestartoftransmissionofRXlineandtheninputsthewhole
byteandwhenithasthebyteitinformsyou(CPU)toreadthatdatafromoneofitsregisters.
TheUSARTofAVRisveryversatileandcanbesetupforvariousdifferentmodesasrequiredbyyour
application. In this tutorial we will show you how to configure the USART in a most common
configurationandsimplysendandreceivedata.

13.2 HardwareAspectofUSART
USART consists of only three connections Rx, Tx and GND. Rx means Receive and Tx means
Transmit.TheGNDconnectionisforacommonreferencelevel.
Heresasimplediagramexplainingtheconnections:

Device1

Rx

Tx

Tx

Rx
2

Gnd

Device

Gnd

NoticehowTxisconnectedtoRx,andRxisconnectedtoTx.

13.3 BaudRate
Baudisameasurementoftransmissionspeedinasynchronouscommunication.Thecomputer,any
adaptors,andtheUARTmustallagreeonasinglespeedofinformation'bitspersecond'.

13.4 DataTransmission
InAsynchronousmode,dataistransmittedinframes.Eachframehasastartbit,databits,optional
paritybit,andstopbits.
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Astartbitsignalsthebeginningofdatatransmission.Databitsaretheactualdatatobetransmitted.
Stopbitssignaltheendoftransmission.
An optional parity bit can be transmitted before the stop bits. This bit represents the number of
logicalhighsinthetransmission.Ifthereareoddnumbersoflogicalhighsinthetransmission,then
theparitybithasalogicalhighvalue.Ifthereareevennumbers,thentheparitybittakesthevalue
logicallow.Paritybitsaregenerallyusedinerrordetection.

13.5 UART:Theory of Operation

Figure16illustratesabasicUARTdatapacket.Whilenodataisbeingtransmitted,logic1mustbe
placedintheTxline.Adatapacketiscomposedof1startbit,whichisalwaysalogic0,followedbya
programmable number of data bits (typically between 6 to 8), an optional parity bit, and a
programmablenumberofstopbits(typically1).Thestopbitmustalwaysbelogic1.
MostUARTuses8bitsfordata,noparityand1stopbit.Thus,ittakes10bitstotransmitabyteof
data.

Figure19:BasicUARTpacketformat:1startbit,8databits,1paritybit,1stopbit.

BAUDRate:Thisparameterspecifiesthedesiredbaudrate(bitspersecond)oftheUART.Most
typicalstandardbaudratesare:300,1200,2400,9600,19200,etc.However,anybaudratecanbe
used.Thisparameteraffectsboththereceiverandthetransmitter.Thedefaultis2400(bauds).

IntheUARTprotocol,thetransmitterandthereceiverdonotshareaclocksignal.Thatis,aclock
signaldoesnotemanatefromoneUARTtransmittertotheotherUARTreceiver.Duetothisreason
theprotocolissaidtobeasynchronous.
Sincenocommonclockisshared,aknowndatatransferrate(baudrate)mustbeagreeduponprior
todatatransmission.Thatis,thereceivingUARTneedstoknowthetransmittingUARTsbaudrate
(andconverselythetransmitterneedstoknowthereceiversbaudrate,ifany).Inalmostallcases
thereceivingandtransmittingbaudratesarethesame.Thetransmittershiftsoutthedatastarting
withtheLSBfirst.
Once the baud rate has been established (prior to initial communication), both the transmitter and the
receivers internal clock is set to the same frequency (though not the same phase). The receiver
"synchronizes" its internal clock to that of the transmitters at the beginning of every data packet
received. This allows the receiver to sample the data bit at the bit-cell center.
A key concept in UART design is that UARTs internal clock runs at much faster rate than the baud
rate. For example, the popular 16450 UART controller runs its internal clock at 16 times the baud rate.
This allows the UART receiver to sample the incoming data with granularity of 1/16 the baud-rate
period. This "oversampling" is critical since the receiver adds about 2 clock-ticks in the input data
synchronizer uncertainty. The incoming data is not sampled directly by the receiver, but goes through

83|P a g e

a synchronizer which translates the clock domain from the transmitters to that of the receiver.
Additionally, the greater the granularity, the receiver has greater immunity with the baud rate error.

The receiver detects the start bit by detecting the transition from logic 1 to logic 0 (note that while the
data line is idle, the logic level is high). In the case of 16450 UART, once the start-bit is detected, the
next data bits "center" can be assured to be 24 ticks minus 2 (worse case synchronizer uncertainty)
later. From then on, every next data bit center is 16 clock ticks later. Figure 2 illustrates this point.
Once the start bit is detected, the subsequent data bits are assembled in a de-serializer. Error
condition maybe generated if the parity/stop bits are incorrect or missing.

13.6 SerialPortofComputer

WewillbeusingSerialPortforcommunicationbetweentheuCandthecomputer.Aserialporthas
9pinsasshown.Ifyouhavealaptop,thenmostprobablytherewontbeaserialport.Thenyoucan
useaUSBtoserialConverter.

84|P a g e


If you have to transmit one
e byte of
data, the
t serial port will transm
mit 8 bits
as onee bit at a tim
me. The advantage is
thata serialportneedsonlyon
newireto
transm
mitthe8bits.

Pin
n3istheTransmit(TX)pin
n,pin2is
theReeceive(RX)pinandpin5iisGround
pin. Other pins are
e used for co
ontrolling
dataco
ommunicatio
onincaseofaamodem.
For th
he purpose of
o data tran
nsmission,
onlyth
hepins3and5arerequire
ed.

Th
he standard
d used fo
or serial
Figgure20:ASerialPort
communicationisR
RS232(Recom
mmended
Standaard 232). Thee RS232 stan
ndard definess the voltagee levels that ccorrespond to
t logical onee and
logical zero levels. Valid signals are plusor minus 3to1
15volts. The rangenear zero
z
volts is not
n a
validR
RS232level; logiconeisd
definedasa negativevolttage,thesign
nalcondition iscalledmarrking,
andhaasthefunctio
onalsignifican
nceofOFF.Logiczeroisp
positive;thessignalconditionisspacingg,and
hasthe
efunctionON
N.

No
owweknow thatthisisn
notthevoltaggelevelatwhichourmicrocontrollerw
works.Hencee,we
needaadevicewhicchcanconverrtthisvoltageleveltothaatofCMOS,i.e.,logic1= +5Vandlogiic0=
0V.Th
histaskiscarriedoutbyaanICMAX23
32,whichisaalwaysusedw
withfour10u
uFcapacitors.The
circuitisshown:

heRxandTxshowninabo
ovefigure(pins11and12
2ofMAX232)aretheRxaandTxofAtm
mega
Th
16(PD
D0andPD1re
espectively).

85|P a g e

USART connection with a computer is accomplished through a protocol called RS232. RS232 is an
asynchronousserialcommunicationprotocolwidelyusedincomputersanddigitalsystems.Asimple
exampleistheserialportusedinoldcomputers.
Onethingtonoteaboutthisprotocolisthat,whileinanMCUcircuit,HIGH=5VandLOW=0,for
RS232thevaluesare+12Vand12Vrespectively.Forthisconversion,anICcalledMAX232isused:

Theschematicsrequiredare:

13.7 SettingupUARTinmicrocontroller
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Once our electronic circuit is complete, we can start with coding. To enable UART mode in
Atmega16,clickontheUSARTtabinCodeWizard.Nowdependinguponyourrequirement,youcan
eithercheckreceiver,transmitterorboth.Yougetalistofoptionstoselectfromforthebaudrate.
Baud Rateistheunitofdatatransfer,definedasbitspersecond.Wewillselect9600asitisfair
enoughforourpurpose,anddefaultsettinginmostoftheapplications(likeMatlab,Docklight,etc.).
Keep the communication parameters as default, i.e., 8 data, 1 stop and no parity and mode
asynchronous.YoualsohaveoptionofenablingRxandTxInterruptfunctions,butwewontdoat
thispoint.

Onceyougenerateandsavethecode,alltheregistervaluesaresetbyCVAVRandyouonlyneed
toknowsomeoftheCfunctionstotransferdata.

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13.8 DockLight

To communicate with the computer, you need a terminal where you can send data through
keyboard and the received data can be displayed on the screen. There are many softwares which
providesuchterminal,butwewillbeusingDocklight.Itsevaluationversionisfreefordownloadon
internet,whichissufficientforourpurpose.

To start with, check the Terminal Settings in Docklight. Go to Tools > Project Settings. Select the
Send/Receive communication channel, i.e., the name by which the serial port is known in your
computer (like COM1). In the COM port settings, select the samevalues as you had set while
codingAtmega16.So,wewillselectBaudRate9600,DataBits8,StopBits1,ParityBitsnone.You
canselectnoneinParityErrorCharacter.ClickOK.

Wearenowreadytosend/receivedata,so,selectRun>StartCommunication,or,pressF5.Ifyour
uCisactingasatransmitter,thenthecharactersitsendswillappearintheCommunicationwindow
ofDocklight.E.g.,
putchar(K);
delay_ms(500);

//SendscharacterKafterevery500ms

HencewhatyougetonthescreenisaKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK..oneKincreasingevery
500ms.Tostopreceivingcharacters,selectRun>StopCommunication,orpressF6.

IfthereceiveroptionisalsoenabledinAtmega16,thenwhateveryoutypefromkeyboardwill be
receivedbyit.YoucaneitherdisplaythesereceivedcharactersonanLCD,controlmotorsdepending
onwhatcharactersyousend,etc.e.g.,

c=getchar();

//receivecharacter
lcd_putchar(c);

//displayitonLCD
if(c==A)
PORTA=255;
//ifthatcharacterisA,makeallpinsofPORTAhigh.

Whenyouaredonewithsendingdata,selectRun>StopCommunication,orpressF6.
88|P a g e

Rx Interrupt and Tx Interrupt are special interrupts that are called every time data is
received/transmitted.Selectingeitheroptionwillenablemoreoptionsleavethemtotheir
defaultvalues.

Baudratewillletyouselectthetransmissionrateinbps.Thelinebelowtheoptionwilltell
you the error rate do not set the baud rate so high that the error is large and the line
becomesred.

CommunicationParameterswillletyousetotherparametersleavethemtotheirdefaults
formostcases.

IMPORTANT:Thesesettingsshouldbethesameforboththedeviceswhicharecommunicatingwith
eachother.

13.9 ImplementingUSARTinYourCode
ImplementingUSARTiseasyallyouneedaretwofunctions:
1. putchar(char);
ThisfunctionwillallowyoutotransmitdatathroughtheUSARTinterface.Theargumentisa
character; you can transmit the ASCII code of the character in hexadecimal form. The
transmitteddataisstoredinaspecialregisterinthedevicewhichisreceivingthisdata.
2. getchar();
ThisfunctionreadsdatafromthespecialregisterreservedforUSARTcommunication.This
functionwillstalltheprogramwhilewaitingforthedatatobetransmittedandstoredinthe
registerifitdoesnotalreadyexist.

13.9.1 putchar()

Tosendonecharactertothebuffer,whichwillbereceivedbythedevice(uCorcomputer)?E.g.,

putchar(A);//sendscharacterAtothebuffer
putchar(c);//sendsavariablecharacterc

13.9.2 getchar()

To receive one character from the buffer, which might have been sent by the other uC or the
computer.E.g.,ifwehavealreadydefinedavariablecharc,then

c=getchar();
//receivesthecharacterfrombufferandsaveitinvariablec

13.9.3 putsf()

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Tosendaconstantstring.Eg,

putsf(MyNameisXYZ);

SAMPLEPROGRAM
InputMCU

//aisacharvariable

a=getchar();

a=inputFromUser();

//Programwillwaitfordata

putchar(a);

//Datatransmitted,nowprint

LCDMCU

printChar(a);

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Chapter14 Interrupt
Whatisaninterrupt?
AspecialeventthatrequirestheCPUtostopnormalprogramexecutionandperformsomeservice
relatedtotheevent.
ExamplesofinterruptsincludeI/Ocompletion,timertimeout,illegalopcodes,arithmeticoverflow,
divideby0, etc.Functions of InterruptsCoordinating I/O activities and preventing CPU from being
tiedupProvidingagracefulwaytoexitfromerrorsRemindingtheCPUtoperformroutinetasks
Interrupt maskabilityInterrupts that can be ignored by the CPU are called maskable interrupts.A
maskable interrupt must be enabled before it can interrupt the CPU.An interrupt is enabled by
settinganenableflag.InterruptsthatcantbeignoredbytheCPUarecallednonmaskableinterrupts.
Interruptpriority
Allow multiple pending interrupt requestsResolve the order of service for multiple pending
interrupts
InterruptserviceCPUexecutes a program called the interruptservice routine.A complete interrupt
servicecycleincludesSavingtheprogramcountervalueinthestackSavingtheCPUstatus(including
the CPU status register and some other registers)in the stackIdentifying the cause of
interruptResolvingthestartingaddressofthecorrespondinginterruptserviceroutineExecutingthe
interruptserviceroutineRestoringtheCPUstatusandtheprogramcounterfromthestack
RestartingtheinterruptedprogramInterruptvectorStartingaddressoftheinterruptserviceroutine
/Interrupt vector tableA table where all interrupt vectors are storedMethods of determining
interrupt vectorsPredefined locations (Microchip PIC18, 8051 variants)Fetching the vector from a
predefined memory location (HCS12)Executing an interrupt acknowledge cycle to fetch a vector
numberinordertolocatetheinterruptvector(68000andx86families)
Stepsofinterruptprogramming
Step1.Initializingtheinterruptvectortable
Step2.Writingtheinterruptserviceroutine
Step3.Enablingtheinterrupt
InterruptsEnabling

INT0,INT1,INT2aresetforenablingthecorrespondinginterrupts
InterruptLevels

91|P a g e

InterruptFlag
This register contains the interrupt flags for the interrupts 0, 1, 2You can poll this to check for an
interrupt.Writinga1tobitpositionacknowledgetheinterrupt

An interrupt is a signal that stops the current program forcing it to execute another program
immediately. The interrupt does this without waiting for the current program to finish. It is
unconditionalandimmediatewhichiswhyitiscalledaninterrupt.

The concept of an interrupt in reference to microcontrollers is similar to our daily life concept of
interrupts:supposeyouarereadingthistutorialandsuddenlyyourmobileringswhatyoudoisyou
stopreadingforawhileandattendthephonecall,andthenresumereadingfromwhereyouleftit.

Thewholepointofaninterruptisthatthemainprogramcanperformataskwithoutworryingabout
anexternalevent.

Example

Forexampleifyouwanttoreadapushbuttonconnectedto
onepinofaninputportyoucouldreaditinoneoftwoways
eitherbypollingitorbyusinginterrupts.

14.1 Polling

Polling is simply reading the button input regularly. Usually

youneedtodosomeothertasksaswelle.g.readanRS232
inputsotherewillbeadelaybetweenreadsofthebutton.
Aslongasthedelaysaresmallcomparedtothespeedofthe
inputchangethennobuttonpresseswillbemissed.

Ifhoweveryouhad to dosomelong calculationthena keyboard press couldbemissedwhile the

processorisbusy.Withpollingyouhavetobemoreawareoftheprocessoractivitysothatyouallow
enoughtimeforeachessentialactivity.

14.2 Hardwareinterrupt

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By using a hardware interrupt driven button reader the calculation could proceed with all button
presses captured. With the interrupt running in the background you would not have to alter the
calculationfunctiontogiveupprocessingtimeforbuttonreading.

Theinterruptroutineobviouslytakesprocessortimebutyoudonothavetoworryaboutitwhile
constructingthecalculationfunction.

You do have to keep the interrupt routine small compared to the processing time of the other
functions its no good putting tons of operations into the ISR. Interrupt routines should be kept
shortandsweetsothatthemainpartoftheprogramexecutescorrectlye.g.forlotsofinterrupts
youneedtheroutinetofinishquicklyreadyforthenextone.

14.3 HardwareInterruptorpolling?

The benefit of the hardware interrupt is that processor time is used efficiently and not wasted
pollinginputports.Thebenefitofpollingisthatitiseasytodo.

Another benefit of using interrupts is that in some processors you can use a wakefromsleep
interrupt.Thisletstheprocessorgointoalowpowermode,whereonlytheinterrupthardwareis
active,whichisusefulifthesystemisrunningonbatteries.
HardwareinterruptCommonterms

Terms you might hear associated with hardware interrupts are ISR, interrupt mask, non maskable
interrupt,anasynchronousevent,andinterruptvectorandcontextswitching.

14.4 SettingupHardwareInterruptinMicrocontroller

Thereare3externalinterruptsinAtmega16.Theyare

INT0:PD2,Pin16
INT1:PD3,Pin17
INT2:PB2,Pin3

Thereare3modesofexternalInterrupts,

1. Low Level: In this mode interrupt occurs whenever it

detectsa0logicatINTpin.Tousethis,youshouldput
an external pull up resistance to avoid interrupt every
time.

2. FallingEdge:Inthismodeinterruptoccurswheneveritdetectsafallingedgethatis1to0logic
changeatINTpin.

3. RisingEdge:Inthismodeinterruptoccurswheneveritdetectsafallingedgethatis0to1logic
changeatINTpin.

14.5 FunctionsofInterruptServiceRoutine

Aftergeneratingthecode,youcanseethefollowingfunction,

93|P a g e

//ExternalInterrupt0serviceroutine
interrupt[EXT_INT0]voidext_int0_isr(void)
{
//Placeyourcodehere

Youcanplaceyourcodeinthefunction,andthecodewillbeexecutedwheneverinterruptoccurs.

14.6 TimerInterrupt
Prior to learning about timers you need to know the concept of interrupt because timers mainly
interactwithCPUthroughinterrupts.Theconceptofaninterruptinreferencetomicrocontrollersis
similartoourdailylifeconceptofinterrupts:supposeyouarereadingthistutorialandsuddenlyyour
mobile rings what you do is you stop reading for a while and attend the phone call, and then
resumereadingfromwhereyouleftit.ThisisexactlywhataninterruptdoesinMCU.WhiletheMCU
is executing a program, if there is something that needs immediate attention, an interrupt is
generatedbythattaskandtheexecutionofthecurrentprogramisleftatthattimeandinterruptis
handled. After that, the execution of program continues as usual from the point where it was
stopped.The timers runparallel and independent of the CPU at a specificfrequency,and interact
withtheCPUbyissuinginterrupts.
Therearetwotypesofinterrupts:

Overflowinterrupt
ComparematchInterrupt

14.7 OverflowInterrupt
Overflow interrupt is triggered whenever the timer register overflows, i.e. reaches its maximum
value(inthiscase,255,or,inhexadecimal,FFh).

In order to use overflow interrupt, you should first decide what your clock frequency will be (To
learn how to do that, see How to define clock frequency for a timer? below). Then check the
checkboxwrittenoverflowinterruptthatappearsintheTimerstabintheCodeWizardAVR(Note:
TheTimervaluefieldcanbeusedtosettheinitialvalueofthetimer.Bydefault,itissetto0).Now

whenyougenerateyourfile,youwillfindthatafunctionappearsinthecode:
.
.
.
.
#include<mega16.h>
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//Timer0overflowinterruptserviceroutine
interrupt[TIM0_OVF]voidtimer0_ovf_isr(void)
{
//Placeyourcodehere
}
//Declareyourglobalvariableshere
.
.
.
.
Nowyoucanplaceacodeherethatisexecutedeverytimeanoverflowinterruptisgenerated.
Thisinterruptcanbeusedtomeasuretimeintervalslargerthan1cycle.Forexample,letussuppose
that an LED is connected to say pin 0 of Port A and you want to blink it at 0.5 Hz using overflow
interrupts. Since the system frequency is 8 Mhz, you can set an appropriate clock speed say,
FCPU/1024(seePrescalarbelow)andthendoitasfollows:

intcount=0;
interrupt[TIM0_OVF]voidtimer0_ovf_isr(void)
{
//Incrementourvariable
count++;
if(count==61)
{
PORTA.0=~PORTA.0;//InverttheValueofPORTA
count=0;
}
}
This function will increment the count variable every time the overflow interrupt is called and
whentheappropriatetimehaspassed,willtogglethevalueofPORTA.0.

14.8 CompareMatchInterrupt
ACompareMatchInterruptisissuedbyatimerwheneverthevalueofthetimerbecomesequaltoa
certainpredefinedvalue.ThispredefinedvalueisstoredinaregisterknownastheOutputCompare
Register.
ComparematchInterruptsarerequiredbytheCTC,FastPWM,andPhasecorrectPWMmodesofa
timer(seebelow).

95|P a g e


In order to use compare match interrupt, check the checkbox written compare match interrupt
thatappearsintheTimerstabintheCodeVisionWizard.SetthevalueoftheOCRintheCompare
value in hexadecimal numbers. Now when you generate your file, you will find that a function
appearsinthecode:
.
.
.
.
#include<mega16.h>
//Timer0outputcompareinterruptserviceroutine
interrupt[TIM0_COMP]voidtimer0_comp_isr(void)
{
//Placeyourcodehere
}
//Declareyourglobalvariableshere
.
.
.
.

Nowyoucanplaceacodethatisexecutedeverytimeacomparematchinterruptisgenerated,as
shown:
interrupt[TIM0_COMP]voidtimer0_comp_isr(void)
{
//Enteryourhandlercodehere
}

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Chapter15 EEPROM

UnderstandinginternalEEPROM:
WhyEEPROM?
Providesnonvolatilememorystoragespace
AVRhasinternalEEPROMof512bytes
Enduranceofatleast100,000write/erasecycles
Organizedasaseparatedataspaceinwhichsinglebytescanbeerased/written
FusebitconfigurationchangesforEEPROM:
HFUSE(previousvalue=0xC9)
RevisedHFUSEvalue=0xC1
SettingEESAVEto0(programmed)willreservetheEEPROMcontentsthroughthe
chiperase
1

EESAVE

UnderstandinginternalEEPROM(contd...):

ConfiguringinternalEEPROM:
EEPROMAddressRegister:EEAR

ThisEEPROMlocationstobeaddressesstartingfrom0x0000to0x0511
EEPROMDataRegister:EEDR

EEPROMControlRegister:EECR

Bits
97|P a g e

Description

EERIE
EEMWE
EEWE
EERE

EEPROMReadyInterruptEnable
EEPROMMasterWriteEnable
EEPROMWriteEnable
EEPROMReadEnable

NOTE:EEWEshouldbesettologicalonewithinfourclockcyclesaftersetting
EEMWEtologicalone(securityfeature).

voidEEPROM_write(unsignedintuiAddress,unsignedcharucData)
{
/*Waitforcompletionofpreviouswrite*/
while(EECR&(1<<EEWE));
/*Setupaddressanddataregisters*/
EEAR=uiAddress;
EEDR=ucData;
/*WritelogicalonetoEEMWE*/
EECR|=(1<<EEMWE);
/*StarteepromwritebysettingEEWE*/

EECR|=(1<<EEWE);
}
unsignedcharEEPROM_read(unsignedintuiAddress)
{
/*Waitforcompletionofpreviouswrite*/
while(EECR&(1<<EEWE));
/*Setupaddressregister*/
EEAR=uiAddress;
/*StarteepromreadbywritingEERE*/
EECR|=(1<<EERE);
/*Returndatafromdataregister*/
returnEEDR;
}

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SectionC

Robotics

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Chapter16 IntroductiontoRobots

Robotics is the science of designingand building robots suitable for reallife applications in
automated manufacturing and other nonmanufacturing environments. Robots are the means of
performing multifarious activities for mans welfare in most planned and integrated manner,
maintaining their own flexibility to do any work, effecting enhanced productivity, guaranteeing
quality, assuring reliability and assuring safety to workers. The word robot came from the
CzechoslovakinwordRobotawhichmeansaworkeroraslavedoingheavywork.
Over the course of human history the emergence of certain new technologies have globally
transformedlifeasweknowit.Disruptivetechnologieslikefire,theprintingpress,oilandtelevision
have dramatically changed both the planet we live on and mankind itself, most often in
extraordinary and unpredictable ways. In prehistory these disruptions took place in less than a
generation.
Wearecurrentlyattheedgeofonesuchevent.Intenyearsroboticsystemswillflyourplanes,grow
ourfood,explorespace,discoverlifesavingdrugs,fightourwars,sweepourhomesanddeliverour
babies.
In the process, this robotics driven disruptive event will create a new 200 billion dollar global
industryandchangelifeasyounowknowit,forever.Justasthepresentgenerationcannotimagine
worldwithoutelectricity,thefuturegenerationwillneverknowaworldwithoutrobots.
TheThreeLawsofRoboticsare:
Arobotmaynotinjureahumanbeing,or,throughinaction,allowahumanbeingtoharm
them.
Arobotmustobey the ordersgivenit byhumanbeings except wheresuch orderswould
conflictwiththeFirstLaw.
Arobotmustprotectitsownexistenceaslongassuchprotectiondoesnotconflictwiththe
FirstorSecondLaw.

DEFINITIONOFROBOTICS

AmericanHeritageDictionary:robot(rbt,bt)n.
Amechanicaldevicethatsometimesresemblesahumanbeingandiscapableofperforming
avarietyofoftencomplexhumantasksoncommandorbybeingprogrammedinadvance.
Amachineordevicethatoperatesautomaticallyorbyremotecontrol.
A person who works mechanically without original thought, especially one who responds
automaticallytothecommandsofothers.

Webster

100|P a g e

 a:amachinethatlookslikeahumanbeingandperformsvariouscomplexacts(aswalking
or talking) of a human being; a similar but fictional machine whose lack of capacity for
human emotions is often emphasized b : an efficient insensitive person who functions
automatically.
Adevicethatautomaticallyperformscomplicatedoftenrepetitivetasks.
Amechanismguidedbyautomaticcontrols.

History
One of the first robots was the clepsydra or water clock, which was made in 250 B.C. It was
createdbyCtesibiusofAlexandria,aGreekphysicistandinventor.Theearliestremotecontrol
vehicles were built by Nikola Tesla in the 1890's. Tesla is best known as the inventor of AC
electric power, radio (before Marconi), induction motors, Tesla coils, and other electrical
devices. Other early robots (1940's 50's) were Grey Walter's "Elsie the tortoise"
("Machinaspeculatrix") and the Johns Hopkins "beast." "Shakey" was a small unstable box on
wheels that used memory and logical reasoning to solve problems and navigate in its
environment.ItwasdevelopedbytheStanfordResearchInstitute(SRI)inPaloAlto,Californiain
the1960s.TheGeneralElectricWalkingTruckwasalarge(3,000pounds)fourleggedrobotthat
could walk up to four miles an hour. The walking truck was the first legged vehicle with a
computerbrain, developed by Ralph Moser at General Electric Corp. in the 1960s. The first
modern industrial robots were probably the "Unimates", created by George Devol and Joe
Engleberger in the 1950's and 60's. Engleberger started the first robotics company, called
"Unimation",andhasbeencalledthe"fatherofrobotics."

IsaacAsimovandJoeEngleberger(imagefromRoboticsSocietyofAmericawebsite)

101|P a g e

Left: Grey
G
Walter'ss tortoise, resstored recenttly by Owen Holland and fully operational (from Arkin,
A
1998).Center:Shakkeytherobot.Shakeywaasthefirstmobilerobotthatcouldthiinkindependently
andinteractwithittssurroundings(fromWickelgren,1996
6).Right:GeeneralElectriccWalkingTru
uck.A
human
n controlled the steppingg of this rob
bot by pushin
ng pedals wiith his feet. The compliccated
coordinationofmo
ovementswitthinalegand
dbetweendiffferentlegsd
duringsteppingwascontrrolled
byaco
omputer(from
mWickelgren
n,1996).

16.1 WhatIsA
ARobot?

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A
rep
programmablee,
multifu
unctional
manipulatorr
designed
d
to
m
move
material, parts, too
ols, or sp
pecialized devices
d
thro
ough variou
us program
mmed
motionsforrtheperform
manceofavarrietyoftasks.
ThewordROBOTisdeerivedfromth
hewordROBOTAwhichm
means'compu
ulsorylabor'.
A Robot is an electronic device whiich can be co
ontrolled digitally and maanually,basicaally it
reducestheehumanefffo
ortineveryaspect.
Itisafieldo
ofEngineerin
ngthatcoverssthemimickin
ngofhumanbehavior.
Roboticsin
ncludestheknowledgeof Mechanical, Electronics, Electrical&C
ComputerSciience
Engineeringg.

Arobotmusthavethefollowingessentialcharacteristics:
Mobility:Itpossessessomeformofmobility.
Programmability:implying computational or symbol manipulative capabilities that a
designer can combine as desired (a robot is a computer). It can be programmed to
accomplishalargevarietyoftasks.Afterbeingprogrammed,itoperatesautomatically.
Sensors:on or around the device that are able to sense the environment and give useful
feedbacktothedevice
Mechanicalcapability:enablingittoactonitsenvironmentratherthanmerelyfunctionasa
dataprocessingorcomputationaldevice(arobotisamachine);
Flexibility: it can operate using a range of programs and manipulates and transport
materialsinavarietyofways.

IsaacAsimov'sThreeLawsofRobotics:
Thetermroboticswascoinedinthe1940sbysciencefictionwriterIsaacAsimov.
LawZeroArobotmaynotinjurehumanity,or,throughinaction,allowhumanitytocometo
harm.
FirstLawArobotmaynotinjureahumanbeing,or,throughinaction,allowahumanbeing
tocometoharm.
SecondLawArobotmustobeyordersgivenitbyhumanbeings,exceptwheresuchorders
wouldconflictwiththeFirstLaw.
Third Law A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflictwiththeFirstorSecondLaw.

IntroductiontoAutonomousRobots:
AnyAutonomousRobotconsistsoffollowingessentialparts.

1. RobotChassisandactuators

Includeswheeledoranytypeofchassiswithallthenecessaryactuatorsfittedonthechassisto
achievedesiredgoal.WemostlyuseDCgearedmotorsasactuators.

2. Electronics

ElectronicsincludesSensors,motioncontrolcircuits,powermanagementsystemetc.

3. PowerSource

Usually battery pack consisting of Lead acid, Nickel cadmium, Nickel metal hydride or Lithium
batteriesisused.

4. Intelligence

Thisisthemostimportantpartoftheautonomousrobots.Usuallyintelligenceisachievedbyusing
Microcontroller.

Firststepinmakinganautonomousrobotistochalkoutwhattasksweareexpectingtherobotto
perform.Aftergaugingthesewegetavagueideaaboutthedesignandappearanceoftherobot.

16.2 RobotChassisDesigning

SelectingtheDriveMechanismforthewheeledmotion:

103|P a g e

16.2.1 Robotwithsteeringwheel:

Powerformotionisprovidedbybackwheelsandturningisachievedusingfrontwheels.
Thisschemeissimilartothatofcars.

Advantages:

1. Whenpathtobefollowedisstraightinnaturewithcurvedturnsthisconfigurationgivesfastest
speedandgracefulpathfollowing.

2. Dontneedtomodifyleftorrightwheelsvelocitytofollowthepath.Thisisveryadvantageous
whenwewantprecisionvelocitycontrol.Inthiscasebackwheelstakecareofvelocitycontrol
andfrontwheelstakecareofdirectioncontrol.

Disadvantages:

1. Itwillnotabletotakeverysharpturns.Henceitisdifficulttomoverobotonthegridoflines.

2. Somewhatdifficultandexpensivetomake.

3. Frontwheelswillneedpositionfeedbacktocontrolturningcontrol.

16.2.2 Robotwithdifferentialdrive:

Amethodofcontrollingarobotwheretheleftandrightwheelsarepoweredindependently.
TheThreeWheelDifferentialdriveusestwomotorsandacasteroranomnidirectionalwheel
easiesttodesignandprogram.

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Figure21:Ballbearingcaster,wheelbasedswivelcasterandomnidirectionalwheel

The radius and centre of rotation can be varied by the varying the relative speed of rotation
betweenthetwomotors.

Rotatingthewheelsindifferentdirectionsprovidesasharpturn.

Forasmoothturn,rotatethewheelsinthesamedirectionbutwithdifferentspeeds. Greater
thedifferenceinspeeds,smallertheradiusofrotation.

Advantages:

1. Zeroturningradiusachievable.

2. Easytomovewhenpathtobefollowediscontouredandzigzaginnature.E.g.,navigatingalong
themazeoflines.

Disadvantages:

1. If we want to move along curved path we have to control left and right motors velocity
independently.Henceprecisionvelocitycontrolbecomesdifficultasactualvelocityoftherobot
willbeaverageofthebothwheels.

Chapter17 MotorsandMotorDrivers

17.1 IntroductiontoMotors
Deviceusedtoconvertelectricalenergyintomechanicalenergyiscalledamotor.Amotorisvery
usefulinroboticsandembeddedsystemstogivemovementanddesigningcontrolsystems.
SomeMotorsusedinembeddedsystemsandroboticsaredescribedasbelow:

i. Steppermotors
ii. Servomotors
iii. GearedDCMotors
105|P a g e


Steppermotors
Amotorwhichdividesitsfullrotationintoalargenumberofstepsiscalledasteppermotor.These
steps help in precise, step by stepmovement of the rotor giving
precisecontrolovermovement.
Theshaftofsteppermotorhaspermanentmagnetsattachedtoit.
The rotor is surrounded by series of coils which can be turned on
andoffandthemagneticfieldchangecausestherotortomove.As
themovementiscontrolledbyturningcoilsonoroff,itiseasierto
programthemovementsofsteppermotorusingmicrocontrollers.
Thesemotorsarealsocalledopenloopsystemsanddonothaveany
feedbackmechanism.Thesehaveverysimpledesignandareoften
lessreliable.Suchmotorsareusedinvarietyofdeviceslikelinearactuators,printersetc.

Servomotors

A servo motor is defined as the motor that allows more precise control of position, velocity, or
torqueusingfeedbackloops.Thesefeedbackloopshelpinstabilityanalysisandgivebettercontrol
overmovement.Thesearealsocalledclosedloopsystems.
Thesemotorscannotrotatecontinuallyandhencecannotbeused
for driving wheels. These motors usually have a 90180 degree
movement.Servomotorsarenormallyusedinmachinetoolsand
automationrobots.
Programming these motors is more complex. Also the design is
morecomplex.ThesearemorereliablethanSteppermotors.

GearedDCmotors
Gearmotorsaremotorswithanintegratedgearbox.Thefunctionofgearboxistoincreasetorque
generating capacity of the motor reducing its output speed. Hence, the
needforspeedreducingarrangementiseliminated.
Geared motors have a variety of applications. Some of its uses are as in
wheelchairs,stairwheelsetc.

17.2 HBridge:

It is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either

direction.

ItallowsacircuitfullcontroloverastandardelectricDCmotor.Thatis,withanHbridge,a
microcontroller,logicchip,orremote controlcanelectronicallycommand themotortogo
forward,reverse,brake,andcoast.

Hbridgesareavailableasintegratedcircuits,orcanbebuiltfromdiscretecomponents.

106|P a g e

A"doublep
poledoublethrow"relayccangenerallyachievethessameelectriccalfunctionalityas
anHbridgee,butan Hb
bridgewould bepreferable whereasm
mallerphysiccal sizeisneeeded,
highspeedswitching,lo
owdrivingvo
oltage,orwherethewearringoutofm
mechanicalpaartsis
undesirablee.

The term "Hbridge"

"
is derived from
m the typical graphical representation of such a circuit,
which is built with fou
ur switches, either solidsstate (eg, L293/ L298) orr mechanicall (eg,
relays).

S1
1
1

S2
0

S3
0
0

S4
1

1
1

0
0

0
1

1
0

0
0
1

1
0

Result
R
M
Motor
rotatees in one
d
direction
M
Motor
rotaates in
o
oppositedirec
ction
M
Motor
freee runs
(coasts)
M
Motorbrakes
s
M
Motorbrakes
s

StructureoffanHbridgee(highlighted
dinred)

Topowerrthemotor,yyouturnontw
woswitchestthatarediago
onallyoppose
ed.

Thetwob
basicstateso
ofanHbridgee.

17.3 MotorDriiverICs:L293/L293
3DandL29
98

107|P a g e

The current provided by the MCU iss of the ordeer of 5mA an

nd that required by a mottor is
~500mA. Hence,
H
motorr cant be co
ontrolled dirrectly by MC
CU and we need
n
an interface
betweenth
heMCUandtthemotor.

AMotorDrriverIClikeL2
293DorL298isusedforth
hispurposew
whichhastwo
oHbridgedriivers.
Hence,eachICcandriveetwomotors.

mplifythecurrrent;itonlyactsasaswittch(AnHbrid
dgeis
Notethataamotordriverdoesnotam
nothingbutt4switches)..
Figgure23:L293D

Figurre22:L298

Driversareenabledinp
pairs,withdrivers1and2
2beingenableedbytheEnaablepin.Wheenan
enableinpu
utishigh(loggic1or+5V),theassociateeddriversareeenabledand
dtheiroutputtsare
activeandiinphasewith
htheirinputs..

Whentheeenablepinis low,theouttputisneitheerhighnorlo
ow(disconneccted),irrespeective
oftheinputt.

Directionofthemotoriscontrolledb
byassertingo
oneoftheinputstomoto
ortobehigh((logic
1)andtheo
othertobelow(logic0).

Tomoveth
hemotorinoppositedirecctionjustinteerchangethelogicappliedtothetwoin
nputs
ofthemoto
ors.

Assertingbothinputsto
ologichighorrlogiclowwilllstopthemo
otor.

ors is about 26 ohms i.ee. its short ccircuit current will be aro
ound.
Resistance of our moto
0.46Ampw
whichisbelowthemaximum
mcurrentlim
mit.

It is alwayss better to use high capacitance (~100

00F) in the output line of a motor driver
d
whichactsasasmallbatteryattimessofcurrentsurgesandhenceimprovessbatterylife.

93andL293D
D:Outputcurrrentperchannel=1AforrL293and60
00mA
Difference betweenL29
forL293D.

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17.3.1 DifferencebetweenL293andL298:

L293 is quadruple halfH driver while L298 is dual fullH driver, i.e, in L293 all four input
outputlinesareindependentwhileinL298,ahalfHdrivercannotbeusedindependently,
onlyfullHdriverhastobeused.

Outputcurrentperchannel=1AforL293and2AforL298.Hence,heatsinkisprovidedin
L298.

ProtectiveDiodesagainstbackEMFareprovidedinternallyinL293Dbutmustbeprovided
externallyinL298.

17.3.2 SpeedControl:

Tocontrolmotorspeedwecanusepulsewidthmodulation(PWM),appliedtotheenable
pinsofL293driver.

PWM is the scheme in which the duty cycle of a square wave output from the
microcontrollerisvariedtoprovideavaryingaverageDCoutput.

WhatactuallyhappensbyapplyingaPWMpulseisthatthemotorisswitchedONandOFFat
agivenfrequency.Inthisway,themotorreactstothetimeaverageofthepowersupply.

Figure24:VelocitycontrolofmotorusingPWM

Chapter18 Sensors
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be
readbyanobserverorbyaninstrument.
Temperaturesensor:
Commonly availabletemperaturesensorsareLM35,DS1621,thermistor.Thermistorgives resistance
proportionaltothetemperature.Butaccuracyisnotgoodinthermistor.DS1621givesdigitaloutput
in I2C format, so you require a microcontroller to interface to see the temperature. Thermistor
requireaccurateresistanceinseriestogetgoodreadingwithaccuracyTheresistanceofthermistors
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are100ohm,1Kohm(theoneihaveheard).Butthermistorcreatessomeheadachesalthoughitcosts
Rs.5.LM35have3terminalVcc,ground,Vout.SoitiseasyandgivesanalogoutputanditcostsRs.50

LM35:

The most commonly available LM35 is LM35DZ measures temperaturefrom 0 to 100 degree.
Normallysensorsbecomeinaccuratewithage.ButLM35willnothavethisproblem.WegetLM35in
TO92 package, just likesmall transistors like BC547. The main problem you will be creating
isinterchanging leads. Vs range from 4V to 30V. Output is 10mV* degree inCelsius. That is if the
temperatureis29degreethenVout=.29V.Let'stryforacircuitwhichwillglowanLEDiftheoutput
voltageisgreaterthansomevoltage.UsecomparatorwithareferencevoltageatoneendandLM35
output at other end, so that comparator become high when thetemperature is above reference.
MoreLinks:

http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Sensors/TempLM35.html

http://www.cjseymour.plus.com/elec/tempsens/tempsens.htm

http://www.national.com/pf/LM/LM35.html

LIGHTSENSORS
Light sensors are used to measure the intensity of light. Mostly availablesensors are Cadmium
SulphideLDRsensor,IRsenorlikephotodiode,phototransistor,TSOP1738.ForbeginnersLDRiseasy
to handle. Soas a beginner better start with LED+LDR combination or IR LED+photodiode . LDR is
economicalthanothersensorsandeasytohandle.
LIGHTDEPENDENTRESISTOR(LDR):
LDR is basically a resistor whose resistance varies withintensity of light. More intensity less its
resistance (i.e, in black it offershigh resistance and in white it offers less resistance). This is the
basicsensorwhichbeginnersshouldstartwith,whichishavingcostlessthanRs.6.Figurebelowshow
someofthepicturesofLDRwhichiobtainedfromsomesite.

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Fig.1showsLDR'swithgreatersurface area;Fig.2showstheLDR'swhichare availableabout Rs.5,
which is commonly used. Greater surface area,better the sensing will be. The sensing material is
madeofCadmiumSulphide.
Resistance:400ohmto400Kohm
Normal resistance variation: 1Kohm to 10Kohm (in the robots which I used for line following for
identifyingblackandwhitestrips)
Sensitivity: about 3msec(Sensitivity is defined as the time taken for output to change when input
changes,igotthisreadingbyverifyingwithADCinterfacedwithparallelport,sensitivityofLDR'sisin
millseconds.Thisisthebestsensitivityobtainedtome).
Voltageratings:Iusediton3V,5Vand12V
PracticalapplicationinLinefollowerRobots:LED'sareusedwithLDRwhichwillactasasourceof
lightforLDRbecauseweareplacingtheLDRbelowtherobotwherelightisnotpresent.Ifwewant
toidentifyBlackandWhitestripsweaddalightsourcewithLDRandthewhitestripreflectslight
whileblackwon'treflectlight.

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Above figure shows how LED is placed with LDR. Here LDR is covered because we want light
reflections from ground only,not from sides of LED.Also cover the LED so that the light will move
pointed,sothatreflectionwilldirectlygotoLDR.WhenyouattachLEDandLDRtothebodyofthe
robot,usetapetopastethesensors.Rememberifyourobotbodyisofaluminum,thensomeshort
circuitorcurrentflowcanoccursthroughthebody.Soapplytapeperfectlysothatnoshortcircuit
problemsoccur.RememberthatLDRisaresistorandhavenopolaritywhileallothersensorshave.
PROBLEMS:LDRismainlyusedwithvisiblelight.SotheproblemofexternallightwillaffecttheLDR.
TheaffectofvisiblelightismoreinLDRthencomesPhotodiode,thenTSOP1738.
http://www.technologystudent.com/elec1/ldr1.htm
http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/other.htm
http://www.mstracey.btinternet.co.uk/technical/Theory/theorysensors.htm
http://www.tpub.com/neets/book7/26g.htm

PHOTODIODE
Hereissomelinkforphotodiode:
http://www.radioelectronics.
com/info/data/semicond/photo_diode/photo_diode.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode
http://www.lasermate.com/PR.htm
http://electron9.phys.utk.edu/optics421/modules/m4/photodiode.htm

Photo diode works in reverse biase region. A photo diode leads can be identified by seeing the
length of the leads. Short lead is the cathodeconnected to greater voltage. The current flowing
throughthephotodiodechangeswithintensityofthelight.Youcanuseitforedgedetection.Itried
todoedgedetectionofatable,igotrangeabout7cm.IRLEDisusedforproducinglight.Whenyou
are using IR LED be sure that it is working properly by measuring the voltage across the IR LED,
shouldbegreater than2V.WhenconnectingIRLEDthevoltageofthecircuit drops,sobecareful
thatvoltagetoothercircuitswon'tfallbelowthelevel.

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PhotodiodeandIRledlookssame.TheonlydifferenceisinitscolorIRLEDissomedarkincolor.If
youstillcan'tidentify.Seethispost
http://nod.phpwebhosting.com/~robotics/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=435

PHOTOTRANSISTOR
I haven't used photo transistor. But a photo transistor is one in which base is like the receiver of
light.Whenlightfallstherewillbeashortcircuitbetweencollectorandemitter.Thiscanbeusedin
opticalcommunications.Iheardthatyoucanmakeaphototransistorbycuttingtheupperportion
oftransistorBC107andleavingthebase.YoucanuseeitherIRorlaser(cheaponeavailable).Butin
caseoftransmissionwerequirelineofsightpropagation.HereisacircuitfordetectionofIRusing
phototransistor.
http://www.kmitl.ac.th/~kswichit/LFrobot/LFrobot.htm

Herewhenlightisnottherethentheresistanceoftransistorwillbehigh,sotheV(pin2)>V+(pin3)
makingoutputofcomparatorLOW.Thatiswhennoreflectionfromgroundoranyobstacleonthe
IR.WhenlightistherethentheresistancewillbeverylessandV+>V.Sooutputofcomparatoris
HIGH. Suppose if you are using it for line detection, then there is reflection of IR from the white
surface,butIRradiationsareabsorbedbyblacksurface,sonoorlessreflectionfromthesurfacein
blackstrip.RemembertocheckthevoltageacrossIRtoseewhetherIRLEDisworkingornotandit
shouldbegreaterthan2V.Whenblackstripcomes,outputofcomparatorbecome0VandtheLED
glows(visiblelightLED).

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TSOP1738

SupplyVoltage(Pin2)VS0.3...6.0V
SupplyCurrent(Pin2)IS5mA
OutputVoltage(Pin3)VO0.3...6.0V
OutputCurrent(Pin3)IO5mA
Continuousdatatransmissionpossible
(upto2400bps)
Suitableburstlength.10cycles/burst
costRs.15

DISTANCEMEASUREMENTS

Forasmalldistancemeasurementwecanuseaphotodiodeorphototransistor,butonlydistance
upto57cm.YoujustconnecttheoutputtoADCoranycomparatortomeasurement.Supposeifwe
useoneLM324fordistancemeasurement,youcanmeasure1cm,2cm,3cm,4cm.Youjustconnecta
330ohminserieswithIRLED.Attheotherenduseaphotodiodeinreverseregion.
http://www.multyremotes.com/IRSw.htm
http://www.roboticsindia.net/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtopic&t=410
http://www.windowschallenge.com/Final%20Reports%5CFINAL%20RE
PORTFINAL.doc
http://www.robotroom.com/Infrared555.html
http://www.students.uwosh.edu/~piehld88/laser.htm
http://www.wanyrobotics.com/distance.html#
Ifyouwantagooddistancethenyoushoulduse38KhzmodulatedIRwithTSOP1738detector.Use
IC555togenerate38Khzsquarewave.Bettertutorialsavailableinroboticsindia,see
http://www.roboticsindia.net/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=32&mode=&order=0&th
old=0
http://www.roboticsindia.net/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=35&mode=&order=0&th
old=0
Youcangetrangeabout1Meter.IfyouwanttomeasurevariousdistancethenyoushouldvaryRa
oftheIC555.Supposeifyouwanttomeasuredistancefromafixedpoint,thenyouhavetovarythe
frequencyofIC555.YoucandoitfixingRb>Raand varyRasothatfrequencywillvaryslightlyfrom
some36Khzto40Khzandfindcorrespondingreading.Youcandoitbyusingthefollowingtechnique

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Supposeifyouwanttomeasuredistancefromafixedpoint.Thisisdonebyvaryingthefrequency.
When S1=1 thenRaeq=R1//Ra1= R1Ra1/(Ra1+R1). So this will produce a differentfrequency some
between36 to 40Khz. When S2=1 Raeq=R1//Ra2. Andwhen S1=S2=1 then Raeq=R1//Ra1//Ra2. By
varying S1,S2 you canmeasure the distance from it. But this mostly require the need of
somecircuitary. Better go for a microcontroller. Adjust Ra1,Ra2 so that desiredfrequencies are
obtained.
AbouttherangeofIRsensor
http://www.triindia.co.in/forums/viewtopic.php?t=12
http://www.triindia.co.in/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4
http://users.triera.net/zupanbra/senzor.html
COLORSENSING:
Ihaven'theardofavailabilityofcolorsensors.Butwecanmakeitfromscratch.Supposeifyouwant
tosensethecolorofball.Firstthingyouhavetobringrobotneartheball.Thedistanceoftheball
fromtherobotshouldbefixed.Secondthingtheeffectsofexternallight.Firstmaketherobotafixed
distancefromtheball.ThisismadebyusingaIRLED+photodiodecombination.Bringrobotcloseso
thatyouwillgetagoodresponse.ForsensingcoloryouuseLED+LDRcombination.Buttheproblem
withexternallightwillbehigherinthiscase.Soyoushouldprovidesomemechanicalmechanismto
hide external light. Photo diode or modulated38Khz+TSOP is used for distance measurement. But
photo diode is enoughto get distance about 5cm or near. Use comparator output to the output
ofphoto diode for distance measurement. Use LDR to sense the color. But theaccuracy is a real
problem.
RANGEFINDING:
http://www.roboticsindia.net/modules.php?name=Forums&file=viewtop
ic&t=148
SONAR
http://www.leang.com/robotics/info/articles/minison/minison.html

ANGLEMEASUREMENT
Supposeifyourrobotisgoingoveraninclinedplaneandwewanttomeasuretheinclinationofthe
plane then we should go for anglemeasurement. This is done simply using the principle of a
pendulum.Ifyougoesupaninclinedplaneapendulumkeptperpendiculartothegravitywillchange
its angle with normal. Attach a somewhat heavy ball tothe shaft of the variable resistor
(potentiometer). When robot goes up theplane, the inclination of the pendulum changes and the
shaftofthevariableresistorwillvary.YouconnecttheoutputofthevariableresistortoADCtoget
reading.Insteadofpendulumandvariableresistorkeepasourceoflightperpendiculartotheground
115|P a g e

and keeep some LD

DR's in thero
obot so thatt the light so
ource movess and the reeading of a LLDR's
willchaange.Keepso
ome5LDR's forgoodaccuracy.Thero
obotwillgou
upanddown aninclinedp
plane.
Sogreaterthenum
mberofLDR's greaterwillb
beaccuracy.SSupposeifyo
ouuseoneLD
DRandconneecting
LDRou
utputtoADC andmeasurin
ngangleisno
otgoodbecau
useitwon'tb
beabletodetectwhetherrrobot
isgoin
ngupordown
ninaninclinedplane(theereadingswillremainsam
meforbothside.Suppose ifwe
take+20degreeth
hentheLDRre
eadingwillbeesamefor2
20degree).So
oitisbetterttousesomeLLDR's
orpoteentiometersh
haftattachedwithaheavyyballandoutputofpotentiometertoADC.
Noww
wewilldiscusssaboutIRsen
nsors.

18.1 AnalogSe
ensor

orconsistsof:
TheIRanalogsenso

Transm
mitter:AnInffraRedemittiingdiode

Receivver:APhototrransistor(also
oreferredasphotodiode)

ItisbeettertokeepR2asavariacctovarythessensitivity.

The ou
utput varies from 0V to 5V
5 depending upon the amount
a
of IR
R it receives, hence the name
n
analogg.

116|P a g e

Theou
utputcanbe takentoam
microcontrolleereithertoitsADC(AnalogtoDigital Converter)o
orLM
339caanbeusedasacomparato
or.

18.2 DigitalIRSensorT
TSOPSenssor

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TSOP1738Sensorisad
digitalIRSensor;Itislogic1(+5V)when
nIRbelowatthresholdisfaalling
onitandlo
ogic0(0V)wh
henitreceivessIRabovethreshold.
It does nott respond to any stray IR
R, it only resp
ponds to IR falling
f
on it at
a a pulse rate of
38KHz.Hen
ncewehaveaamajoradvan
ntageofhighimmunityaggainstambien
ntlight.
Nocomparratorisrequirredandtheraangeofthese
ensorcanbevariedbyvarryingtheinteensity
oftheIRem
mittingdiode(thevariacin
nfigure).

Chap
pter19 PrrojectWork

19.1 Linefollow
wingRobo
ot

ALLinefollowinggrobotisam
machinewhichcanfollowagivenpath.APathcanb
beintheform
mofa
black line
l
on a white surface or
o reverse of it. The Path can also be in the form of magnetic lines
which isoutofsco
opeofthisco
ourse.Suchro
obot
c
loop system havving a feedb
back
is a closed
mechaanism to co
orrect wron
ng moves. Line
following robots can
c
be drive
en using analog
compaarator based
d circuit likee opamp orr by
microccontroller both
b
using feedback ffrom
analoggordigitalsen
nsors.
Deetectionoflin
neisusuallyd
donebyemittting
lighto
onthesurfacee.Iflightgettsreflected back,
b
thenittiswhitesurrfaceelsetheesurfaceisbllack.
Emissionoflightis usuallydoneewiththehellpof
IRLEDs(LightEmitttingDiodes). Anarrayofssuch
LEDsiss used.Theeemitted light isthenreceived
using phototransisstors, LDR (LLight Depend
dent
Registeer),TSOP.Baasedonthevvalueoflight received,theereceiveden
nergyisconveertedtoelecctrical
energyy.
Ifttherobotgettsoffthetracck,thespeedofwheelmottorsisproporrtionallyvarie
edtomakeitback
ontheetrack.

Lin
ne following property of a robot is veery useful in designing au
utomated carrs. Also, indu
ustrial
robotssmayusesucchmechanism
minordertob
beonproperpath.

Blo
ockDiagramforLineFollowingRobot

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Chapter20DefinitionsofEmbeddedsystem

1: AnEmbedded system isa specialpurpose computersystem designed to perform one or a

fewdedicatedfunctions,oftenwithrealtimecomputingconstraints.
or
AnEmbeddedsystemisaSoftwareprogramonaH/Wchipdesignedforaspecificpurposeand
canalsocontainsomemechanicalmovingparts.
or
AnEmbeddedsystemisaspecialpurposecomputersystemdesignedtoperformoneorafew
dedicatedfunctions,oftenwithrealtimecomputing.
or
AnEmbeddedsystemissomecombinationofcomputerhardwareandsoftware,eitherfixedin
capabilityorprogrammable,thatisspecificallydesignedforaparticularkindofapplicationdevice.
or
A specialized computer system that is part of a larger system or machine. Typically, an
EmbeddedsystemishousedonasinglemicroprocessorboardwiththeprogramsstoredinROM.

2:TypesofEmbeddedSys:
RealtimeEmbeddedSystems
NonRealtimeEmbeddedSystems

3:Nonrealtimeembeddedsystemisoneinwhichthereisnodeadline,eveniffastresponseor
highperformanceisdesiredorpreferred.

4:RealtimeEmbeddedSys
RealtimeEmbeddedSystemsareagainsubclassifiedas
Softrealtimeembeddedsystems
Hardrealtimeembeddedsystemsbasedontheconsequenceofmissingthedeadlinetime.
Hard realtimeembedded system, are one in which the completion of an operation after its
deadline is considered useless ultimately, this may lead to a critical failure of the complete
system(Missiledefencesystem,Anticollisionsystem).
Soft realtime system on the other hand will tolerate such lateness, and may respond with
decreased service quality (e.g., dropping frames while displaying a video) otherwise called as
gracefuldegradation.

5: CPU specific buzz words:A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a
centralprocessingunit(CPU)onasingleintegratedcircuit(IC).

6:WhatsMicrocontroller?:Amicrocontroller(alsoMCUorC)isasmallcomputeronasingle
integrated circuit consisting of a relatively simple CPU combined with support functions such as a
crystaloscillator,timers,watchdog,serialandanalogI/Oetc.

7:WhatsARM?:TheARMarchitecture(previously,theAdvancedRISCMachine,andpriorto
thatAcornRISCMachine)isthemostwidelyused32bitprocessorarchitectureintheworld.

8:PIC?:ItisafamilyofHarvardarchitecturemicrocontrollersmadebyMicrochipTechnology,
derived from the PIC1640 originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics Division.
ThenamePICinitiallyreferredto"PeripheralInterfaceController".

9:WhatsAVR?:TheAVR(Advancedvirtualrisc)isaModifiedHarvardarchitecture8bitRISC
singlechipmicrocontroller(C)whichwasdevelopedbyAtmelin1996.TheAVRwasoneofthefirst
microcontrollerfamiliestouseonchipflashmemoryforprogramstorage.

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10: THUMB : To improve compiled codedensity, processors from the ARM7TDMI on have
featuredtheThumbmode.Wheninthismode,theprocessorexecutes16bitinstructions.Mostof
these16bitwideThumbinstructionsaredirectlymappedtonormalARMinstructions.

11:WhatsanInterrupt?:Itisanasynchronoussignalfromhardwareindicatingtheneedfor
attention or a synchronous event in software indicating the need for a change in execution. A
hardware interrupt causes the processor to save its state of execution via a context switch, and
beginexecutionofaninterrupthandler.

12:WhatsaCrossCompiler?:Acrosscompilerisacompilercapableofcreatingexecutable
code for a platform other than the one on which the compiler is run. Cross compiler tools are
generallyfoundinusetogenerateexecutablesforembeddedsystemormultipleplatforms.
or
Itisatoolthatonemustuseforaplatformwhereitisinconvenientorimpossibletocompileon
that platform, like microcontrollers that run with a minimal amount of memory for their own
purpose.

14:WhatsaLinker?:Alinkerisaprogramthattakesoneormoreobjectsfilesgeneratedbya
compilerandcombinesthemintoasingleexecutableprogram.

15: Whats a Loader ?: It is the part of an operating system that is responsible for loading
programs from executables (i.e., executable files) into memory, preparing them for execution and
thenexecutingthem.

16:Systemsoftware:Systemsoftwareiscloselyrelatedto,butdistinctfromOperatingSystem
software. It is any computer software that provides the infrastructure over which programs can
operate,i.eitmanagesandcontrolscomputerhardwaresothatapplicationsoftwarecanperform.
Examples:OtherthanOS,Antivirussoftware,Communicationsoftwareandprinterdrivers.

17:Simulators:Aapplicationthatcreatesanenvironmentthatisascloseaspossibletoreality.
Inflightsimulators,engineerscreateacockpitenvironmentidenticaltotheoneinarealairplane.In
aflightsimulatorapilotwillsee,hearandfeellikeheorsheisinarealaircraft.

18: Emulator: It is a program/environment which duplicates (provides an emulation of) the

functions of one system using a different system, so that the second system behaves like (and
appearstobe)thefirstsystem.Thisfocusonexactreproductionofexternalbehaviorisincontrast
to someother formsof computer simulation,whichcanconcernan abstractmodel ofthe system
beingsimulated.

19:WhatsBottleneck?:Alimitofthroughputbetweencomputerprocessorandmemory.

20: Throughput: The maximum number of instructions a processor executes per unit time is
called its throughput. The same is the case for microcontrollers also. The higher the throughput(
whichagaindependsonvariousfactors)thebetteristheprocessor/microcontroller.

21:Instructionsetcapability:Thisreferstothecapabilitytheinstructionsetofthatparticular
microprocessor/ microcontrollers have such as with code density and DSP related instructions or
someinstructionswhicharecomplexlyimplemented.

22:Firmware:Itisatermsometimesusedtodenotethefixed,usuallyrathersmall,programs
thatinternallycontrolvariouselectronicdevices.

23: Device driver: It is a computer program allowing higherlevel computer programs to

interactwithahardwaredevice.Adevicedriversimplifiesprogrammingbyactingasanabstraction
layerbetweenahardwaredeviceandtheapplicationsoroperatingsystemsthatuseit.
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24:BoardSupportpackage:BSPisimplementationspecificsupportcodeforagivenboardthat
conforms to a given operating system. It is commonly built with a bootloader that contains the
minimaldevicesupporttoloadtheOSanddevicedriversforallthedevicesontheboard.

25: Boot Sequence : A boot sequence is the initial set of operations that the computer
performswhenitisswitchedon.Thebootloadertypicallyloadsthemainoperatingsystemforthe
computer

26: Watchdog Timer : A watchdog timer (or computer operating properly timer) is a computer
hardware timing device that triggers a system reset if the main program, due to some fault
condition, such as a hang.A special timer that is used specifically for the purpose of resetting the
system if it overflows. A piece of program resets the watchdog timer every so often before the
watchdogtimerexpires.However,iftheprogramfailstoresetthetimer,indicatingthattheprogram
has crashed or entered into some infinite loop(indicating unwanted and unexpected program or
systembehavior),thewatchdogtimeroverflowsandthisgeneratesaprocessorresetsignal.

27:Preemption:Preemption:Itistheactoftemporarilyinterruptingataskbeingcarriedout
by a computer system, without requiring its cooperation, and with the intention of resuming the
taskatalatertime.Suchachangeisknownasacontextswitch.

28:Multitasking:Multitaskingisamethodbywhichmultipletasks,alsoknownasprocesses,
sharecommonprocessingresourcessuchasaCPU.

29: MultiProcessing : Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units
(CPUs)withinasinglecomputersystem.Thetermalsoreferstotheabilityofasystemtosupport
morethanoneprocessorand/ortheabilitytoallocatetasksbetweenthem.

30:Multithreading:Theabilityofanoperatingsystemtoexecutedifferentpartsofaprogram,
called threads, simultaneously. The programmer must carefully design the program in such a way
thatallthethreadscanrunatthesametimewithoutinterferingwitheachother.

31:POSIX :PortableOperatingSystemInterface,isthecollectivenameofafamilyofrelated
standards specified by the IEEE to define the application programming interface (API), along with
shellandutilitiesinterfacesforsoftwarecompatiblewithvariantsoftheUnixoperatingsystem.

32:MISRA:MotorIndustrySoftwareReliabilityAssociation.Thisassociationsetsstandardsand
guidelines for usage of C/C++ coding in safety critical systems such as automotive domain in
particular.127rulesincodingChastobefollowedwhichmakesCcodesocalledSafecode.

33: Fuzzy Logic : Fuzzy logic is a form of multivalued logic to deal with reasoning that is
approximateratherthanprecise.

Chapter21GLOSSARY

ADC:Acronymforanalogtodigitalconverter.Anelectronicdeviceorsystemthatencodes
analogvoltage/currenttoamultileveldigitalnumber.
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ADDRESSBUS:Agroupofsignalsinamicroprocessorsystemthatindicatestheaddressof
thememorylocationfromwherethedataistobereadorwrittento.

ASCII: American standards committee for information interchange.A 7bit coding scheme
foralphabets,numerals,punctuation,aswellascontrolcharacters.

ASIC:AcronymforApplicationSpecificIntegratedCircuit.

ASSEMBLER:Asoftwareprogramthattakesatextfilecalledthesourcefile,andconvertsit
intoanotherfilewiththemachineopcodes(simplycalledthemachinecodeorobjectcode).

BCD:AcronymforBinaryCodedDecimal.

BOD:BrownoutDetector.Anelectronicdevicethatdetectsadropinsupplyvoltagebelowa
thresholdandgeneratesasignaltoresettheprocessortillthesupplyvoltageisrestoredto
acceptablelevel.

BIT:Binarydigit.

Bps:AcronymforBitspersecond.

Byte:Anumberwithamaximumofeightbits.Thusthebytewidenumberisbetween0and
255(decimal).

CISC:Acronymforcomplexinstructionsetcomputer.Thisatypeofprocessorarchitecture
thatischaracterizedbyavariableinstructionlength,usuallysmallnumbersofregisterand
multipleaddressmodes.

COMPILER: A software program that converts a highlevel language source code into the
machinelanguagethattheprocessorcanexecute.

COUNTER:Aregisterthatisincrementedforeachoccurrenceofaneventonaninputpinof
thecounter.Theeventisindicatedbyapulse.Foreachpulse,thecounterisincremented

CRITICAL SECTION: A chunk of code that must be executed without any interruption for
properoperation.

CPLD:Acronymforcomplexprogrammablelogicdevice.Aprogrammablelogicdevicerich
ingatesandinterconnectioncircuitry.

CPU:Acronymforcentralprocessingunit.TheCPUisthecomputationalandcontrolunitof
acomputer.

DAC:AcronymforDigitaltoAnalogconverter.Adeviceoraprocessthatconvertsadigital
numbertoacorrespondinganalogvoltageorcurrent.

DataBus:Asetofsignalsthatcarriesthedatainformationbetweentheprocessorandthe
memoryand/orI/Odevices.

DEBUG:Tocorrectmistakesinaprogram.

DEBUGGER: A software program that assists in debugging a piece of code.vided the

softwarewit

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 Development Host: A computer system that hosts development software like an

assembler,compiler,programmer,debugger,etc.

Dongle: A mechanism to ensure only authorized users can use a particular software with
the help of an electronic lock provided with the software to deter software piracy.The
dongleneedstobeconnectedtothePCparallelport,serialport,ortheUSBtobeabletouse
thesoftware.

DUPLEX:Termusedincommunicationsystemthatmeansthatboththetransmitterandthe
receivercansendandreceivesignalsatthesametime.

Embedded controller: A piece of hardware including some processor and software that
controlsadevice.

Emulator: Adevicethatmimicsthebehaviorandfunctionsofanotherdevice.Aprocessor
emulator.

EMI: Acronymforelectromagneticinterference.Thisisaphenomenonbywhichadevice
orasystemcangenerateanelectromagneticfieldintheradiofrequencyspectrumwiththe
potentialtodisruptoperationofotherelectroniccomponentsorsysteminthevicinity.

EEPROM:AcronymforElectricallyErasableandProgrammableReadOnlyMemory.

EPROM:AcronymforElectricallyProgrammableReadOnlyMemory.

FINITESTATEMACHINE:Adevicethatstoresthestatusofsomethingatagiventime,with
someinputsthatcanchangethestateandand/oroutputs.

FLAG:Abitusedbyaprogramtoremembersomethingortoconveybinaryinformationto
anotherpieceofprogram.

FLASHMEMORY:Anonvolatilememorythatcanbeerasedandreprogrammedinunitsof
memorycalledblocks.Thenameflashmemorymeansthememorycellscanbeerasedinan
electrontunnelingprocessinaflashbyremovinganelectronicchargefromafloatinggate
associatedwitheachmemorycell.

FPGA:AcronymforFieldProgrammableGateArray.Alargeanddenseprogrammablelogic
device.

FSM:Acronymforfinitestatemachine.

FullDuplex:SameasDuplex.

Glitch:Anunwantedtransientsignaltransitionfromthecurrentleveltotheotherleveland
backtotheoriginallevel.

HALFDuplex:Termusedincommunicationsystemsthatmeansthateitherthetransmitter
cansendorthereceivercanreceivesignalsatagiventime.

Handshake signal: control and feedback signals used between two(or more) devices to
facilitateexchangeofdata.

Hexadecimal:Abase16numbersystem.Thenumbersgofrom0to9,A,B,C,D,EandF.

123|P a g e

 Host: A computer system acting as a master that provides services to other connected
devicesorsystems.

IC:Acronymforintegratedcircuit.Asemiconductorchipwithmanytransistorandresistors
connectedtomakeanelectroniccircuit.

ICE: Acronym for Incircuit emulator. A development tool for developing microprocessor
basedsystemanddevices.TheICEmimicstheoperationofthetargetprocessorduringthe
developmentprocess.

IIC or I2C: Acronym for InterIC communication. A communication bus with only two
signals.

Infrared:Partofthelightspectrumthatisjustabovethatofvisiblelightintheredendof
thespectrum.

IRDA:AcronymforInfraredDataassociation.IrDAisanindustrysponsoredorganizationto
designstandardsforthehardwareandsoftwareusedininfraredcommunicationlinks.

Instruction:Lowestlevelcommandgiventotheprocessorbyaprogram.
Interrupt:Anasynchronoussignalgeneratedbyaperipheraldevicetotheprocessorthat,
when asserted, indicates to the processor to take notice and execute a special piece of
programcalledanISR.

I/O: Input Output .peripheral devices of a processor to interact with the physical
environmentaroundit.

I/O map: A table containing the addresses,withinthe I/Ospace, ofthe inputand output
devicesofacomputersystem.

I/Ospace:AtypeofaddressingregionthatallowsaprocessortoconnectI/Odevices.

Instruction pointer: A special register in a processor that points to an address in the

programmemoryfromwherethecurrentinstructionisbeingexecutedbytheprocessor.

ISA: Acronym for industry standard architecture .ISA is a bus architecture used in IBM
personalcomputers.Itallowsconnectivitybetweenprocessorandtheassociatedperipheral
circuitsanddevices.

ISR:Acronymforinterruptsubroutine.Aprogramthatisexecutedbytheprocessorwhen
aninterruptoccursinacomputersystem.

Interruptvector:AddressofanISR.

Latency:Usuallyassociatedwiththeinterruptsinacomputersystemandreferstothetime
ittakestotakestorespondtoaninterruptsignal.

LED: Acronym for light emitting Diode. A semiconductor device that emits light when a
voltageofappropriatepolarityandvalueisappliedtoit.

Loadstore architecture: A processor architecture in which the memory is accessed using

only the load and store commands. No other operations are allowed on the memory
contentsdirectly.

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 Logic analyzer: an instrument to observe digital signals as a function of time. The logic
analyzerhasaflurescentorLCDdisplaythatsignals.

Logicgate:Adigitalcircuitthathasoneormoreinputsandanoutput.Itperformsalogical
operation(suchasAND,OR,XOR,XNOR,NAND,NOR,NOT)ontheinputsandproducesaresult
onthe
Output.

Microcomputer: A microprocessor and associated support circuitry, peripheral I/O

components,andmemory(programaswellasdata)puttogethertoformasmallcomputer
specificallyfordataacquisitionandcontrolapplications.

Microcontroller:Amicrocomputeronasinglechip.

Microprocessor:AcentralProcessorunit(CPU)onasinglechip.

MNEMONIC:Anabbreviation,anaidforrememberingthecodeofaprocessor.

NVRAM: AcronymforNonvolatileRandomaccessmemory.RAMwithbatterybackupfor
retainingthecontentsoftheRAMwhenthemainpowerisputoff.

Oscilloscope: An instrument to observe electrical signals as a function of time.It has a

fluorescentorLCDdisplayforobservingthesignals.

Objectcode:Aprogramthataprocessorcanexecutedirectly.

Pipeline:Referstoanintrernalimplementationofaprocessorinwhichtheinstructionsare
continuouslybeingfetchedbyasectionoftheprocessorandplacedinaqueueforexecution
sectionsectionoftheprocessor,whichinturnplacestheresultsinanoutputqueuetobe
stored back to the designated destination. A nonpipelined processor, on the other hand,
fetches an instruction, executes it, and stores the results before fetching the next
instruction. Pipelining improves overall execution speed because of overlapping of the
variousstagesofprogramexecution.

PLD:AcronymforProgrammableLogicDevice.Adigitalcircuitwhosefunctionalitycanbe
changed as per the logic required. The PLD has a combination of AND,OR and NOT gates
connectedthroughanetwork.Bychoosingtherightgatesandtherightinterconnects,the
PLDcanbemadetoimplementanylogicfunction.

ProgramCounter:SameasInstructionPointer.

PWM:AcronymforPulseWidthModulation.InPWM,thepulsewidthofthefrequencyis
changedwhilekeepingthefrequencyconstant.ThischangestheDCvalueofthesignal.For
lowwidthpulse,theDCValueissmallerthanapulseofhigherwidth.

RAM: Acronym for Random Access Memory. A memory device any part of which can be
accessed directly. In the early days of computing, this was contrasted with tape memory,
which was sequential access memory. Now RAM usually means some sort of volatile,
read/writememory.

RISC:AcronymforReducedInstructionSetComputer.Atypeofcomputerarchitecturewith
a small number of minimum instructions, characterized by a very regular instruction
structure of fixed length, a loadstore approach to memory access, and a large number of
register.ContrastitwithCISC.

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 RESET: To restart. A signal in a processor that initializes the internal register and control
circuittoadefaultvalueandstartsexecutingtheprogramfromthefirstmemorylocation.
RESETVECTOR:Addressofresetcode.
RESETADDRESS:Theaddressthattheprocessorfirstaccessesforthefirstinstruction,after
theresetsignalisapplied.
RESETPOINTER:Addressoftheresetcode.
RESETCODE:Theprogramthattheuserwritesaspartofthesysteminitialization.

Rs232:Aprotocolforserialasynchronoustransferofdata.

Simplex: Used in communication. Simplex refers to communication in only one direction

andnotinthereversedirection.

Simulator:Asoftwareformonitoringtheexecutionofaprogram.Simulatorallowstheuser
toexecutetheprograminstructionandinspectregister,memoryandI/Oportcontents.The
simulatorallowssectionofprogramtorunatfullspeedbyplacingbreakpoints.

SPI: Acronym for serial peripheral Interconnect. A fourwire serial synchronous serial
communicationprotocolbetweentwodevicesorICs.

STACK:aread/writestoragespaceusedforstoringthereturnaddressofacallingprogram.
Thestackhasalastinfirstoutstructure.Thevaluewrittenlastisreadfirst.

StackPointer:Anaddressregisterthatpointstothecurrenttoplocationinthestack.

Startup code: Asectionofaprogramthatisexecutedforsysteminitializationatthevery

beginning.

Timer:Acounterthatisincrementedbyaclocksignal.

Targetdevice:Referstotheprocessorinthetargetsystemthatisunderdevelopment.

UART: Acronym for universal asynchronous Receiver Transmitter.A serial communication

device or IC that converts a byte of data into serial bits and transmits it out at a certain
rate.Similarly,Itrecevicesincomingserialbitsandassemblesthesebitsintoabyteforthe
host.

Chapter22References

[1]Atmega16Datasheet
[2]www.wikipedia.org
[3]http://www.cmosexod.com/micro_uart.htm
[4]http://www.bestmicrocontrollerprojects.com/hardwareinterrupt.html
[5]http://www.avrtutor.com/tutorial/interrupt/interrupts.php

126|P a g e

Experiment Book

TableofContents

OverviewofBreadBoard...............................................................................................................6
Experiment1:MonostableandAstableMultivibratorusingthe555IC.........................................10
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................10
CircuitDiagram.................................................................................................................................10
Calculation........................................................................................................................................10
Experiment2:CounteronSevenSegmentDisplay........................................................................11
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................11
PartA:...............................................................................................................................................11
PartB:................................................................................................................................................12
Experiment3:IntroductiontoLDRandOperationalAmplifier.......................................................13
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................13
Experiment4:LDRbasedcounter.................................................................................................14
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................14

OverviewofAVRbasedTrainerBoard..........................................................................................15
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................15
FEATURES..........................................................................................................................................16
HOWTOUSETHEMANUAL..............................................................................................................17
MODULELIST&DISCRIPTION...........................................................................................................18
1A.MicrocontrollerModule:Primary...............................................................................................18
1B.MicrocontrollerModule:Secondary...........................................................................................18
2.SerialProgrammerModule...........................................................................................................19
3.SerialInterfaceModule.................................................................................................................18
4A.SensorModule:Analog...............................................................................................................19
4B.SensorModule:Digital................................................................................................................22
5.LCDinterfaceModule...................................................................................................................23
6.LEDarraymodules........................................................................................................................24
7.SwitchpadModule........................................................................................................................24
8.VariacModule...............................................................................................................................25
9.MotorDriverModules..................................................................................................................24
10A.ExternalConnectionmodulefordigitalIRsensors...................................................................25
10B.ExternalConnectionmoduleforBuzzers,relaysetc................................................................27
11.Powersupplymodule.................................................................................................................28

EXPERIMENTSINEMBEDDEDSYSTEMS.........................................................................................29
Experiment1:DigitalInput/OutputinaMicrocontroller..............................................................28
FamiliarizingwithAtmega16............................................................................................................28
PartA:ToglowavisiblelightLEDusingAtmega16.........................................................................29
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................32
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................32
PartB:UsingaresetswitchtooperateanLED.................................................................................33
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................34
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................34
PartC:MakingdifferentLEDglowpatterns.....................................................................................35
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................35
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................35
PartD:...............................................................................................................................................35
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................35
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................35
Experiment2:Tointerfacea16x2LCDwithAtmegaandimplementtheLCDfunctions................36
LCDconnections................................................................................................................................36
PartA:ToprintaconstantstringonLCD..........................................................................................37
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................37
SomeoftheusefulLCDfunctions:....................................................................................................37
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................37
PartB:ToprintstringsinlooponLCD..............................................................................................38
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................38
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................38
PartC:DisplayofintegerdataonLCD.............................................................................................39
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................39
PrintinganintegeronLCD................................................................................................................39
PartD:DisplayoffloatingpointdataonLCD...................................................................................40
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................41
PrintingafloatingpointnumberonLCD..........................................................................................41
Experiment3:Interfacinga16keykeypad....................................................................................42
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................42
DesigningofKeypad..........................................................................................................................42
Logicbehindthecodeusedtointerface...........................................................................................43
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................43

Experiment4:WorkingwithTimersCTCmode............................................................................44
TimerinCTCmode............................................................................................................................44
PartA.................................................................................................................................................44

ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................44
PartB.................................................................................................................................................45
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................45
Connectingaspeaker........................................................................................................................46
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................46
Experiment5:WorkingwithTimersFastPWMmode.................................................................46
TimerinFastPWMmode.................................................................................................................46
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................46
Experiment6:WorkingwithADC(AnalogtoDigitalConvertor)....................................................47
AnalogtoDigitalConvertor..............................................................................................................47
InitializingADC..................................................................................................................................47
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................47
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................47
Experiment7:DatacommunicationbyUART................................................................................48
PartA:...............................................................................................................................................48
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................48
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................48
PartB:................................................................................................................................................48
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................48
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................48
PartC:................................................................................................................................................48
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................48
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................48
PartD:...............................................................................................................................................48
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................48
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................48
Experiment8:DatatransferbySPIprotocol..................................................................................49
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................49
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................49
Experiment9:UsingExternalInterrupts........................................................................................50
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................50
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................50

EXPERIMENTSINROBOTICS/AUTOMATION..................................................................................51
Experiment1:AnalogIRSensor....................................................................................................51
PartA:InterfacingAnalogIRSensorwithmicrocontrollerandtodisplayvariationinoutputon
LCD....................................................................................................................................................51

ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................51
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................51
PartB:AnalogIRSensorusedasacolorsensor..............................................................................51
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................52
PartC:AnalogIRSensorusedfordistancemeasuring....................................................................52
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................52
Experiment2:DigitalIR(TSOP)sensor.........................................................................................53
PartA:InterfacingDigitalTSOPIRSensorwithmicrocontrollerandtodisplayvariationinoutput
onLCD/LED......................................................................................................................................53
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................53
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................53
PartB:DigitalTSOPIRSensorusedascontrastvariationdetectionsensor....................................54
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................54
PartC:DigitalTSOPIRSensorusedasobjectdetectingsensor......................................................54
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................54
Experiment3:MotorControlusingdriverL293.............................................................................55
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................55
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................55
Experiment4:SpeedcontrolofDCMotor....................................................................................55
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................55
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................55
Experiment4:Automation...........................................................................................................56
PartA:ControllingMotorthroughsensors......................................................................................56
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................56
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................56
PartB:SwitchingRelay/Transistorthroughsensors.........................................................................57
ProblemStatement...........................................................................................................................57
CircuitOverview................................................................................................................................57
LINEFOLLOWERROBOT................................................................................................................57

OverviewofBreadBoard

BREADBOARD
Breadboard is used to make circuits. But mostly after testing your circuits on
breadboard you will be making PCB. But I never made PCB for any of my circuits.
Normally everyone says that if you connect on breadboard then wires may get loose
and circuit will get disturbed due to shock.But no such problem occurred to me, all
you have to do is to do a good wiring.Then you can gain time for making PCB's.

Above diagram shows how breadboard connections should be made.So all

you require is to do a good wiring. First I will tell about which breadboard should you
use. The breadboard is different mainly according to the size of their holes. The
breadboard in Figure.1 has the smallest hole size.

This breadboard has a medium sized holes.I mostly prefer this one. But I have not
seen this breadboard nowadays. The one which is available nowadays is given below.
Breadboards costs from Rs.80-120(depends on place where you are in India).
The main problem with small holes is that, it will be tough to insert IC's like 7805
,power transistors so on.Even there is problem with size of wires also.

WIRING
Following figures show good wiring practices you should follow so that your circuit
won't be disturbed by any shocks.

In this you can see that the length of the wires used are of exact length between two
points. If you do this type of wirings then no problems occur. But in this you can see
that resistor is not properly inserted, for this you should cut the leads of the resistor
so that its body is just touching(or touching the breadboard).

Above figures shows how to make good connections. In last one you can see how they
made connections so that no problems will occur. Below you can see what
connections you should not have to do.

PROBLEMS OCCURING WITH BREADBOARD

1. As I said above some breadboards will be difficult to insert IC's like 7805,LM317
etc.. due to the small sized holes.
2. I bought a new breadboard for Rs.80 in which some parts of the breadboard is
not working. So you should be careful about it.
3. Some part of the breadboard may suddenly create problem. This problem will
mostly eat your time. I have connected full circuit for my project and it was working
properly two months ago. The ckt consist of a 7805 which convert adapter DC to 5V.
Now when i switch ON power supply, the circuit is not working. On examination i
found that the output voltage of 7805 is 1.1V even though input voltage to 7805 is
>7.5. I was surprised to see this because i had done same ckt a month ago and no
changes made in ckt. Then i used another breadboard specially for 7805 to make
connections, surprisingly it is working fine giving 4.8-5V.Then i connected the output
from that breadboard to my original board where ckt was connected. It is working
fine. Then I again tried in same position it is not working giving output of adapter 34V and output of 7805 1.1V. I doubted if the voltage regulator input is low to regulate,
so I increased the adapter to 9V from 7.5(my adapter has varying voltage starting
from 1.5V,3V..). Then the light of the adapter went off. Then I again increased voltage
to 12V. Then also light is off. Now I decided for a new position of breadboard, where
it worked properly. Then I increased voltage up to 13.5V.For all these input voltages
to 7805 the input of 7805 still remained 3.5-3.7V and output .7-.8V. Finally I got a
position of the breadboard where it worked fine. The problem was of the position in
the breadboard which i used.
4. One similar problem occurred when I connected LM324 with its input avariable
resistor. I rotated the knob of the potentiometer( it has one end on Vcc=10v, other
end on ground and middle end is connected to the LM324), the voltage output of the
potentiometer is suddenly increasing from .5 to 8.8V suddenly with a small rotation
of the knob. I tried to rotate shaft by connecting the middle end to another portion of
the breadboard, there it worked fine. I used the same portion of the breadboard
where i connected first and tried the same after removing LM324, then also it is
working fine. Then i again connected LM324 in same position, still the old problem
came. Then I changed the full circuit to another position of the breadboard, it worked
fine.

EXPERIMENTSINBASICELECTRONICS
Experiment1:MonostableandAstableMultivibratorusingthe555IC

ProblemStatement
Using555ICdesignanastablemultivibratorwithTimeperiod=1secanddutycycle=0.75.

CircuitDiagram

Calculation
TakeC=100uF
Calculate
Hint:

and

forT=1secanddutycycle=0.75.
2

2and

10

Experiment2:CounteronSevenSegmentDisplay

ProblemStatement
PartA:MakeaCounterusingIC4029whichcountsfrom09andchecktheresultusingLEDs.

Note:LogicHigh+5V LogicLow0V
Stepstobeperformed:
1. Setpinnumber1,5,8and9tologiclow.
2. Setpinnumber10and16tologichigh.
3. TheoutputinastablemultivibratorfromIC555servesastheclockforthecountercircuit.
ConnecttheoutputoftheIC555topin15of4029.
4. Connectpins2,6,11and14tothegroundthrougha220ohmresistorandanLED.These
serveasoutputpinsofthecounter.ThesequencefromMostSignificantBit(MSB)toLeast
SignificantBit(LSB)ispin2,14,11,6i.e.Q4,Q3,Q2,Q1.

11

PartB:Toviewtheoutputofthe4029counteronaSevenSegmentDisplayusingtheIC7447.

Stepstobeperformed:

1. ThepinconfigurationofthesevensegmentdisplayandIC7447isshowninthefigure.
Connectthepins9through15ofIC7447tothecorrespondingletterpinsoftheseven
segmentdisplay.
2. Connecttheoutputofthe4029totheinputpins1,2,6and7ofthe7447ICwithAbeingthe
LSBandDbeingtheMSB.SotheinputtotheICisDCBA.
3. Makethepins3,4and5oftheIC7447logichigh.
4. Connect+5Vtopin16andground(0V)topin8oftheIC7447.
5. AlsogroundboththeCOMpinsofthesevensegmentdisplay.

12

Experiment3:IntroductiontoLDRandOperationalAmplifier

ProblemStatement
CheckthechangeinpotentialacrossanLDRusingamultimeterwhenlightfallsonit.Digitalizethe
analogoutputusinganOpampinComparatormode.

AssembletheabovecircuitandmeasurethevoltageacrosstheLDRwithadigitalmultimeter
withandwithoutanylightincidentonit.

AssembletheaboveshownOpampcomparatorcircuitandsetVinasthevoltageacrossthe
LDRinthepreviouscircuit.
SetVrefasthevoltageatwhichthecomparatoroutputishighwiththelightincidentonLDR
andlowwithnolightincidentonit.

13

Experiment4:LDRbasedcounter

ProblemStatement
DesignaLDRbasedcountercircuittoincrementbyonewheneverlightfallsontheLDR.IC555is
usedinmonostablemodesothatcounteritistriggeredonlywhenthereisafallingedgeatits
Triggerpin.

Assembletheabovecircuit,takeR=9.1kandC=100uF.(T=RCln3)
GivetheoutputoftheOpampinExperiment3topin2(Trigger)ofLM555.Thisservesasa
methodtotriggermonostablemultivibratorwheneverabarrierisplacedinfrontoftheLDR.
Assemblethecounterandthesevensegmentdisplaycircuitasinexperiment2andconnect
theoutputpin3ofthemultivibratorcircuittopin15(Clock)ofIC4029.
Theresultingsystemshouldbehaveasacounterwhichcountsthenumberoftimeslighthas
beenblockedinfrontoftheLDR.

14

OverviewofAVRbasedTrainerBoard
INTRODUCTION
TheEmbeddedDevelopmentBoardprovidedtoyouhasbeendesignedkeepinginmindtheneedsof
engineeringstudentsandenthusiastssothattheycanmatchuptothepresentindustrystandards
onlatestdevelopmentsintherisingfieldofEmbeddedSystemsDesign/Developmentandisbetter
thananyexistingboardsavailableinthemarket.
TheboardhasbeenintensivelydesignedtocoverallexistingfeaturesofAVRmicrocontrollersandis
readytousewithitssupportingequipmentmountedintheperiphery.

FEATURES
ATmega16&8microcontrollerswithfacilityof

Onboardserialprogrammer.
OptionforInSystemProgramming(ISP)basedonexternallyprovidedSTK500platform.
OnboardDigitalandAnalogIRsensors.
RS232serialinterfaceforestablishingconnectionsbetweenthemcuandcomputersystem.
OnboardLEDarrays,keypadandexternalconnectionsforinterfacinganumberofdevices.
Onboardmotordrivercircuitsetc.

15

HOWTOUSETHEMANUAL
Theboardhasbeendividedinmodulesandeachmodulehasbeenthusdescribedwithproperpart
details,circuitdiagramandDIYconnectiondiagram.

MODULELIST&DISCRIPTION

1A.MicrocontrollerModule:Primary

FeaturesanATmega16microcontrollerwith

ConnectorsforPortsA,B,C&D
Aref(referencevoltage)
SPI
16MHzexternalcrystaloscillatorUARTSlaveselect
Resetswitch
Ext.GND

16

1B.MicrocontrollerModule:Secondary
FeaturesanAtmega8microcontrollerwith

ConnectorsforPortsB,C&D
SPI(pin6,7,8,9,10,11)
16MHzexternalcrystaloscillator
UART
Slaveselect
Resetswitch
Ext.GND

17

2.SerialProgrammerModule

RS232SerialPort
ConnectorforSPI

3.SerialInterfaceModule

RS232Serialport

18

ConnectorforUART
MAX232IC&circuitry

4A.SensorModule:Analog

TxRx
Associatedcircuitry
ConnectorforOutput

19

4B.SensorModule:Digital

IRTxLED
TSOP1738IRRx
Associatedcircuitry
Connectorforoutput

20

5.LCDinterfaceModule

16pinLCDconnector
PORTconnector
Contrastcontrol

21

6.LEDarraymodules

Features8LEDarray
PORTconnector
Associatedcircuitry

7.SwitchpadModule

8Switchpad
PORTconnector
ExternalVCC/GND

22

8.VariacModule

4VariacsforADCandmisc.applications
OutputPinsforinterfacing

23

9.MotorDriverModules

ICl293D
Outputpinsformotors

Connectorsforspeed&directioncontrol

24

10A.ExternalConnectionmodulefordigitalIRsensors

Supportsasmanyas8TSOPbasedIRsensors
PORTconnectorsforinterfacingwithatmega

25

10B.ExternalConnectionmoduleforBuzzers,relaysetc

Supportsvarietyofdevicesforinterfacingpurposes.
Forexamplevarietyofrelays,buzzers.
NPNtransistorsareusedassimpleswitches.

26

11.Powersupplymodule

IC7805
Associatedcircuitry
Outputfor5Vsupplyout

27

EXPERIMENTSINEMBEDDEDSYSTEMS
Experiment1:DigitalInput/OutputinaMicrocontroller
FamiliarizingwithAtmega16

28

AboveshownisthepinconfigurationofAtmega16IC.
Itisa40pinICwithpinnumbersstartingfromtheleftsideoftheUshapednotch.
Pinnumbers11and31shouldbeconnectedtoground.
Pinnumber10isconnectedto+5volts.
Pinnumbers32(AREF)and30(AVCC)areshortedandconnectedto+5volts.
Pinnumber9(RESET)shouldbeconnectedto+5voltsthroughapullupresistorasshown
below.

RESETpin

PartA:ToglowavisiblelightLEDusingAtmega16

ProblemStatement

1. ConnectaLEDtopinnumber40i.e.PA0ofAtmega.

29

2. Connectthepositiveend(longerleg)oftheLEDtothepinandthenegativeend(shorter
leg)togroundviaa220Ohmresistor(asshown).

3. ProgramtheICtoswitchonandofftheLEDaftercertaintimeintervals.
4. Considermodule1A/1Bformcuandmodule6forLEDarrayconnections.

CircuitOverview

LED

Atmega16

PartB:UsingaresetswitchtooperateanLED

ProblemStatement

1. MaketheLEDconnectionsasinpreviousexperiment.
2. Connectaresetswitchtopinnumber1i.e.PB0ofAtmega.
3. Connectonelegoftheswitchtogroundandtheotherlegtothepinpulledupbya10KOhm
resistor(asshown).

30

PORTB.0

4. MakePB0asinputpinandprogramtheICtocontroltheLEDwiththeswitch.
5. Considermodule1Aformcu,module6forLEDarrayandmodule7forswitchpad
connections.
6. NowintegrateasmanyswitchesandLEDsasyouwantandglowthemusingswitchesby
makingchangesintheprogramcode.

CircuitOverview

LED

Atmega16

SWITCH

PartC:MakingdifferentLEDglowpatterns
ProblemStatement

1.
2.
3.
4.

Connect8LEDstotheentirePORTCofAtmegai.e.pinnumber33to40.
EachLEDistobeconnectedinthemannershownbefore.
ProgramtheICtodisplaydifferentLEDpatternsusingthePORTCI/Opins.
Someofthepatternsforpracticeare:
LEDsglowinalinewithcertaindelayinbetween.
AlternativeglowingLEDs.
Convergingpattern.
Divergingpattern.

31

5.Considermodule1Aformcu,module6forLEDarrayconnections.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

Setof8LEDs

PartD:TochangepatternofglowingLEDsusingswitch
ProblemStatement
1.
2.
3.
4.

MaketheLEDconnectionsasbefore.
MaketheswitchconnectionstoPB0asbefore.
ProgramtheICtodisplaydifferentLEDpatternsonthepressandreleaseoftheswitch.
Considermodule1A/1Bformcu,module6forLEDarrayandmodule7forswitchpad
connections.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

Setof8LEDs

SWITCH

Experiment2:Tointerfacea16x2LCDwithAtmegaandimplement
theLCDfunctions

32

LCDcon
nnections

Conneecta16x2LCD
DwithPORTC
CofAtmegaaasperthecon
nnectionssho
owninmodule
5.
2LCDalreadyydoneonBoaard
Actualconnecttionsfor16x2
Note:PortX==C

PartA:Toprinta
aconstanttstringonLCD

Problem
mStateme
ent

1. InitializetheLCDatPORTCintheCVAVRgraphicalinterface.
2. ProgramtheAtmegatodothefollowing:

STATICPRINTINGPrintyournameatdifferentlocationsoftheLCD.

SomeoftheusefulLCDfunctions:

lcd_clear()ClearstheLCD.
lcd_gotoxy(x,y)Takesthecursortothecoordinate(x,y).
lcd_putchar(c)PrintsthecharactercontheLCD.
lcd_puts(str)PrintsthestringstrontheLCD.
lcd_putsf(ABC)PrintsABContheLCD.FunctionusedtoprintconstantstringsonLCD.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

LCD

PartB:ToprintstringsinlooponLCD

ProblemStatement

1. InitializetheLCDatPORTCintheCVAVRgraphicalinterface.
2. ProgramtheAtmegatodothefollowing:

34

DYNAMICPRINTINGPrintyournameandmakeitmove(left/right)onLCD.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

LCD

PartC:DisplayofintegerdataonLCD

ProblemStatement

1. MaketheLCDconnectionsasinpreviousexperiment.
2. ProgramtheICtoprintthefollowingontheLCD:
Yourdateofbirth

PrintinganintegeronLCD

Create acharacterbufferwithsizeatleast1morethanthenumberofdigitsinthe
integer.
itoa(int,char[n])Thisfunctionconvertstheintegertoastring.
Uselcd_puts()toprintthestringontheLCD.

ExampleToprint99ontheLCD

inta=99;
charbuff[3];
itoa(a,buff);
lcd_gotoxy(0,0);
lcd_puts(buff);//prints99atlocation(0,0)

PartD:DisplayoffloatingpointdataonLCD

ProblemStatement

1. MaketheLCDconnectionsasinpreviousexperiment.
2. ProgramtheICtoprintthefollowingontheLCD:
YourclassXIIboardpercentage

35

PrintingafloatingpointnumberonLCD

Create acharacterbufferwithsizeatleast1morethanthenumberofdigitsinthe
floatnumber.(decimalpointcountedasadigit)
ftoa(float,int,char[n])Thisfunctionconvertstheintegertoastring.
Thesecondargument(int)ofthefunctiondecidesthenumberofplacesafter
decimalinthestringcreated.
Uselcd_puts()toprintthestringontheLCD.

ExampleToprint99.99ontheLCD

floata=99;
charbuff[6];
ftoa(a,2,buff);
lcd_gotoxy(0,0);
lcd_puts(buff);//prints99.99atlocation(0,0)

Experiment3:Interfacinga16keykeypad

ProblemStatement

1. Interfacethegiven16keykeypadtothe8pinsofPORTAofAtmega.
2. MakeconnectiontoLCDwithPORTCasdonebefore.
3. PressthekeysofkeypadonebyoneandobtaincorrespondingdisplayonLCD.
4. Considermodule1A/1Bformcuand16matrixkeypadconnections.

36

DesigniingofKeypad

Sch
hematic

The16resetswitchesare
econnectedinasquarematrixfashionwith8outputwires
onnectedto
oan8pinFRCfemaleconnector.
co

Logicbehindthecodeused
dtointerfa
ace

Fiirstlythefirsstfourpinso
oftheport(verticalliness)aremadeasoutputpinswith0
outputandth
heremaininggfour(horizzontallines)aremadein
nputpinswitthaninternaal
pullup.
Iffanyswitchispressedth
hena0appeearsononeofthehorizo
ontallinewhenitisread
d.
In
nthesecond
dpartthefirrstfourpinsaremadein
nputpinswitthinternalpullupand
reemainingfou
uraremadeeoutputpinsswith0outp
put.
Iffanyswitchispressedth
hena0appeearsononeoftheverticcallinewhen
nitisread.
Thiswaytheexactswitch
hpressedisdetermined.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

LCD

16keyKeypad

Experiment4:WorkingwithTimersCTCmode

TimerinCTCmode

InCTCmodedutycycleisfixedto50%,butfrequencyofpulsecanbeselected.
InthegraphicalinterfaceofCVAVRuseTimer0andTimer2forCTCmode.
Dofollowingsettings:
ClocksourceSystemclock
ClockvalueSelectanyfromthelistasperfrequencyrequired.Callitft
ModeCTCtop=OCRx(x=0or2)
OutputToggleoncomparematch
IntheprogramwritethevalueofOCRxregister.Thisdeterminestheoutputfrequency
accordingtotheformula:

38

f=ft/(2x(OCRx+1))

TheoutputpulseisobtainedatPB3(forTimer0)andPD7(forTimer2).
Considermodule1Aformcupinconnections.

PartA

ProblemStatement

1. ProgramtheAtmegatogenerateaclockofthefollowingtwofrequenciesusingCTCmode:
38kHz
120kHz
2. Measurethefrequencyandthevoltageusingadigitalmultimeterandcomparewith
theoreticalpredictions

Theoreticalvalue
Frequency

Experimentalvalue
Frequency

Theoreticalvalue
Voltage

Experimentalvalue
Voltage

39

38kHz
120kHz

2.5V

2.5V

PartB

ProblemStatement

Generateaclockpulseoffrequencyintheaudiblerange(20Hzto20kHz)andapplyitona
speakertomakeabuzzer.

Connectingaspeaker

Connectonewireofthespeakertogroundandtheotherwiretotheoutputpinofthe
timer.
Considermodule1Aformcu,module10BforExternalBuzzersconnections.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

Speaker

Timer

40

Experiment5:WorkingwithTimersFastPWMmode

TimerinFastPWMmode

InFastPWMmodefrequencyisfixed,butdutycycleofpulsecanbeselected.
InthegraphicalinterfaceofCVAVRuseTimer0,Timer1andTimer2forFastPWMmode.
Dofollowingsettings:
ClocksourceSystemclock
ClockvalueSelectanyfromthelistasperfrequencyrequired.Callitft
Thefrequencyofthepulsewouldthenbefixedtoft/256.
ModeFastPWMtop=FFh
OutputNonInvertedPWM(InvertedPWMisjustthenegationofthis).
IntheprogramwritethevalueofOCRxregister.Thisdeterminestheoutputdutycycle
accordingtotheformula:

DutyCycle=(OCRx/256)x100%

Theoutputvoltagemeasuredbymultimeterisgivenby:

Voltage=(OCRx/256)xVcc

TheoutputpulseisobtainedatPB3(forTimer0),PD4(forTimer1B),PD5(forTimer1A)and
PD7(forTimer2).
Considermodule1Aformcuconnections.

41

ProblemStatement

1. TogeneratepulseswithdutycyclebyusingtimerinPWMmode:
25%
50%
75%

2. MeasurethefrequencyandtheaverageDCvoltageusingadigitalmultimeterandcompare
withtheoreticalpredictions.

DutyCycle

Theoreticalvalue
Frequency

25%

50%

75%

Experimentalvalue
Frequency

Theoreticalvalue
Voltage

Experimentalvalue
Voltage

42

Experiment6:WorkingwithADC(AnalogtoDigitalConvertor)

AnalogtoDigitalConvertor

AtmegaoffersinbuiltADCfacilityatPORTAi.e.pinnumber33to40.
VoltageappliedtotheADCpincanvaryfrom0voltstothevoltageappliedatAREFpini.e.
pin32ofAtmega.
Thedigitalconversioncanbe8bitor10bitatthediscretionoftheuser.

FunctionusedtoreadtheADCvalueisread_adc(x)(xisthepinnumberrangingfrom0

to7).Itreturnsanintegercorrespondingtothevoltageatthepin.
Considermodule1AformcuADCconnections.

InitializingADC

IntheCVAVRgraphicalinterface,clickonADCandenablethefacility.
Bydefault10bitconversionisdone.SelectUse8bitsoptionfor8bitconversion.
VoltagereferencecanbemadeAREForAVCCsincebothpinsareshorted.
ClockrepresentstheADCsamplingfrequency.Selectitas125,000kHz.

ProblemStatement

43

Makeavoltagedividercircuitusinga1kOhmresistoranda1kOhmpotentiometer
(asshown).

ConnectittooneoftheADCpinsofAtmega16andreadtheADCvalue.
Connecta16x2LCDatPORTCofAtmegaanddisplaythefollowingonLCD:
Correspondingdigitalvoltage8bit/10bit(dobothcases)
Correspondingvoltagevalues(inVolts)

Considermodule1AformcuADC,module8forVARIACandmodule5forLCDconnections.

CircuitOverview

ADCof
Atmega16

LCD

Potentiometer
Circuit

Experiment7:DatacommunicationbyUART

44

PartA:Tosendcharactersfrommicrocontrolleranddisplayingoncomputerscreen.

ProblemStatement

1. InitializeUARTofAtmega16withfollowingparameters:

CommunicationParameters:8Data,1Stop,NoParity
USARTReceiver:On
USARTTransmitter:On
USARTMode:Asynchronous
USARTBaudrate:9600

2. WriteaprogramtocontinuouslysendacharactertthoughUART.

3. ConfirmthetransferofdataoncomputerusingsoftwareDocklight.Keepthesame
communicationparameters.

4. Considermodule1AformcuUARTconnections,module3forSerialInterfaceModule
connections.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

SerialPort

MAX232

Docklight

Computer

PartB:TosendADCvaluesfromuCtocomputer.

ProblemStatement

1. Designavoltagedividercircuitusingpotentiometertogenerateanalogvoltages.
2. ConnecttheanalogoutputtoPA0

45

3. InitializetheUARTinpreviouspartsmode.
4. Writeaprogramtoconverttheanalogvoltageto8bitdigitalwordandtransfer
continuouslytocomputerusingUART.Giveadelayof>20msbetweentwo
readingstoavoidcrashingofcomputer.
5. MonitorthevaluesinintegermodeoncomputerusingsoftwareDocklight.
6. Varythepotentiometerandanalyzethereadings.

CircuitOverview

Atmega16

MAX232

SerialPort

Potentiometer

Docklight

Computer

PartC:TosendcharactersfromcomputerkeyboardtouCandprintonLCD.

ProblemStatement

1. InitializetheUARTasbefore.
2. UsingDocklightsenddatafromthecomputertotheuCviaUARTprotocol.
3. MakeLCDconnectionstoPORTCofAtmega.

46

4. WriteaprogramtodisplaythereceiveddataontheLCD.
5. Considermodule1AformcuUARTconnections,module3forSerialInterfaceModule
connectionsandmodule5forLCDconnections.

CircuitOverview

Docklight

Computer

SerialPort

LCD

Atmega16

MAX232

PartD:TosendcharactersfromoneuCtoanotheranddisplayingitonLCD.

ProblemStatement

1. InitializeUARTonbothmicrocontrollersasbefore.

47

2. Makeoneofthemasthereceiverandtheotherasthetransmitterwithsameparity
3.
4.
5.

andbaudratesettingsinboth.
ConnecttheRxpinofuC1toTxpinofuC2andTxpinofuC1toRxpinofuC2.
Makesurethatthegroundconnectionsofboththemicrocontrollersaresamefor
propercommunication.
WriteaprogramtosendcharactersfromoneuC.
ReceivethemontheotheruCanddisplaythemona16x2LCDconnectedtoPORTC.

6.
7. Considermodule1A/1BformcuUARTconnections.

CircuitOverview

Atmega1

Through
UART

Atmega2

LCD

Experiment8:DatatransferbySPIprotocol

ProblemStatement

1. InthegraphicalinterfaceofCVAVR,enableSPIanddothefollowingsettings:

SPIclockrate2000kHz
SPItypeMakeonemicrocontrollerthemasterandtheotherslave
ClockphaseCyclehalf

48

Clockp
polarityLow
Datao
orderMSBfirrst
2. Co
onnectthefo
ollowingpinn
numbersofon
neuCtotheccorrespondin
ngpinsoftheotheruC
(A
Asshown):
Pinnu
umber5(SSb
bar)
Pinnu
umber6(MOSSI)
Pinnu
umber7(MISO)
Pinnu
umber8(SCK))

3. Makesureth
M
hatthegroundconnectiionsofboththemicroco
ontrollersarresamefor

propercomm
munication.
4. Writeaprogr
W
ramtosendcharactersffromthemaaster.
5. Receivethem
montheslavveanddisplaaythereceivveddataonaa16x2LCD.
6. Co
onsidermodu
ule1A/1BforrmcuSPIconnections,mo
odule5forLCDconnection
ns.
7. Nowmakeano
othercodeto
osendADCvaaluesfromuC
C1touC2anddisplayingitonLCD.

CircuitOverview
w

Atmega1

Through
SPI

Atmegaa2

LCD

Experiment9:UsingExternalInterrupts

ProblemStatement

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

InitializeINT0inFallingEdgemode.
WriteanLEDblinkingprogramintheInterruptServiceRoutine.
PutapullupresistanceandaswitchconnectingtoGndtoprovideinterrupt.
PresstheswitchtoblinktheLED.
Considermodule1Aformcuinterruptpinconnections,module6forLEDarrayconnections
andmodule7forswitchpad.

CircuitOverview

Atmega

LED

Interrupt

Switch

50

EX
XPERIMEN
NTSINRO
OBOTICS/
/AUTOMA
ATION
Experiment1:A
AnalogIRSensor

PartA:Interfacin
ngAnalogIRSensorrwithmicrocontrolllerandtodisplay
variatio
oninoutp
putonLCD
D.

P
ProblemSt
tatement

1. Makethecircuitassho
owninthefigure.
otransistorD
D1andIRLED
Dmustbead
djacenttoeacchother(buttnot
2. Thephoto
touching)andperpend
diculartotheebreadboard
d.
kingtheconn
nections,meaasurethevoltageVOutputb
byamultimetter.
3. Aftermak
1andIRLED
Dandnotethe
4. Nowbringgaplanerefllectingsurfacce(whitepaper)overD1
gradualch
hangeinthevoltage.
ndnotethechangeinran
ngeofsensorr.
5. Varytherresistanceusingvariacan
bleADCofAttmega16and
dcheckUse8bits.
6. Nowenab
f theinputpin
nsforADC(ee.g.,PINA.0)
7. Bringtheoutputoftheeanalogsenssoratoneof
LCD.
andwriteacodetoreaaditsdigitalvalueanddiisplayitonL
8.. Considerm
module4AforAnalogSenssorModuleco
onnections.

CircuitOverview
w

IRAnaalogSensor

Atmega16

LC
CD

PartB:AnalogIRSensorusedasacolorsensor.

ProblemStatement

1.Usethecircuitconnectionsfromthepreviouspartwithoutanychanges.
2.NowchangetheprogramcodeofthemcutoreadADCvaluesfordifferentcolorsviztake
threefourcolorsforinstancelikeRED,GREEN,BLACK,BLUE.
3.TakeapenandpaperandnotedowntherangeofvariationsinADCvalueswhenthe
sensorisexposedtothesecolorsonebyone.
4.NowaltertheprogramcodetochecktherangeofADCvaluesanddisplaycorresponding
colornameonLCD.
5.Findouthowmanycolorsthemcucandifferentiate.

PartC:AnalogIRSensorusedfordistancemeasuring.

ProblemStatement

1.Usethecircuitconnectionsfromthepreviouspartwithoutanychanges.
2.NowchangetheprogramcodeofthemcutoreadADCvaluesfordistancesoftheorderof
centimeters
3.TakeapenandpaperandnotedowntherangeofvariationsinADCvaluescmbycm.
4.NowaltertheprogramcodetochecktherangeofADCvaluesanddisplaythedistanceon
LCD.
5.FindouttheminimumdistancemcucanresolveusingIRsonsor.

52

Experiment2:D
DigitalIR
R(TSOP)ssensor

PartA:IntterfacingD
P
DigitalTSO
OPIRSenssorwithm
microcontrrollerand
to
odisplayv
variationi
inoutputo
onLCD/L
LED.
P
ProblemSt
tatement

1. Makethecircuitassho
owninthefigure.
ouching)and
d
2. TheTSOPsensorandIIRLEDmusttbeadjacentttoeachotheer(butnotto
breadboard.
perpendicculartotheb
0ofAtmega16withfollo
owing
3. Togeneraateapulseoff38kHz,initializeTimer0
parameterrs:
ClockSource:SysttemClock
ClockValue:1000.000kHz
Mode::CTCtop=OCR0
Outpu
ut:ToggleonCompareMaatch
SetCo
ompareValueeascalculateedforapulseeof38kHz(inhexadecim
mals).
heoutputpin
nofTimer0withthepossitiveterminalofIRLEDsoastogivee
4. Connectth
itapulseo
of38kHz.
V(whennoIRfallsonit)
5. CheckthatthedefaultoutputvoltaageofTSOPssensoris+5V
nbringingap
planereflectiingsurface(w
whitepaper))overthesen
nsorandthee
and0Von
IRLED.
necttheoutputpinofTSO
OPsensortoanI/OpinofAtmega16(e.g.,PIND.0
0)
6. Nowconn
andconneectthepositiiveterminalofanLEDtoanotherI/OpinoftheuC
C(e.g.,
PIND.1).C
ConnectnegaativeterminaaloftheLEDtogndthrou
ugha220ohm
mresistance.
OPsensoran
ndglowstheLEDwhen
7. NowwriteeacodethatttakesinputfromtheTSO
thesensorrreceivesIR
R.
ndnotethechangeinran
ngeofsensorr.
8. Varytherresistanceusingvariacan
module4BforrDigitalSensorModuleco
onnections.
9.. Considerm

CircuitOverview
w

TSO
OPSensor

Attmega16

LED

PartB:DigitalTSOPIRSensorusedascontrastvariationdetection
sensor.
ProblemStatement
1.Usethesamecircuitconnections.
2.Writeaprogramcodefordetectingcontrastvariations,viz.blackandwhite.
3.Contrastvariationcomeshandyindesigninglinefollowingrobots.

PartC:DigitalTSOPIRSensorusedasobjectdetectingsensor.
ProblemStatement
1.Usethesamecircuitconnections.
2.Writeaprogramcodefordetectingobstaclesinfrontofdigitalsensor.
3.Obstacledetectioncomeshandyinobstacledetectionrobots.

54

Experiment3:M
MotorCon
ntrolusin
ngdriverL
L293

Problem
mStateme
ent

onnectanytw
woI/Opinso
ofAtmega16((pinno.39&40)withtheinputpinsofmotordriverr
1. Co
L2
293Di.e.,Direection1Aan
ndDirection2
2A.
2. Co
onnecttheen
nablepin(PW
WMA)andVC
CC1(pinno.1
16)withconsttant5Vandggroundas
sh
hown.
3. Co
onnecttheoutputpinsofL293Dwithttheterminalsofthemotorr.
4. Give12VasVCC2toL293D
D.
5. Writeacodet
W
osoastomaakepin39ofuChighandp
pin40aslowandnotetheedirectionof
ro
otationofthe
emotor.
6. Nowinterchan
ngetheoutpu
utsthesepinssofuCandno
otethechanggeindirection
nofrotation.
7. Nowmakebotththepinsasshigh(orlow)andobserveethelockingeffectinthemotor.
8. Co
onsidermodu
ule1Aformccuconnection
ns,module9fforMotorDriiverModulecconnections.

CircuitOverview
w

A
Atmega16

L2
293D

Experiment4:S
Speedcon
ntrolofDCMotor

DCM
Motor

Problem
mStateme
ent

1.. InitializeTimer0ofAtm
mega16withfollowingparameters:
ClockSSource:SysteemClock
ClockV
Value:1000.0
000kHz
Mode::FastPWMto
op=FFh
Output:NonInverttedPWM
SetCo
ompareValueto80(decim
mal128=hex8
80)
2. NowConn
necttheTimer0outputpin
n,i.e.,PINB.3(OCR0)toth
heenablepinofL293D,
markedassPWMA.
3. Allotherconnectionsaresameasin
nExp.14.
4. Notethereductioninspeedofmoto
orascompareedtothatinExp.14.
emotoratfullspeedagain
n,changeOCR
R0valueto25
55.
5. Torunthe
6.. Considerm
module9forMotordriverconnections..

CircuitOverview
w

A
Atmega16

Experiment4:A
Automation

L2
293D

DCM
Motor

PartA:ControllingMotorthroughsensors.
ProblemStatement

1.InterfaceDigitalSensorandMotordrivermodulewithmcu.
2.Writeaprogramcodeforthefollowing:

Motor1changesdirectionwhenobstaclecomesinfrontofsensor.
Motor2changesdirectionwhenobstaclecomesinfrontofsensor.

Trytointerfacetwosensorsandfourmotorstogether.Easy..isntit?

CircuitOverview

TSOP

ATMEGA

MOTOR

PartB:SwitchingRelay/Transistorthroughsensors.
ProblemStatement

1.InterfaceDigitalSensorandTransistormodulewiththemcu.
2.Writeaprogramcodeforthefollowing:

Relaysswitchwhenobstaclecomesinfrontofsensor.

CircuitOverview

TSOP

ATMEGA

RELAY

TRANS.SWITCH

LINEFOLLOWERROBOT

Task:
Todesignanautonomousrobottofollowaline.

57

Therecanbetwocases:
A:Brightstripoverdarkbackground(WhiteoverBlack)
B:Darkstripoverbrightbackground(BlackoverWhite)

Howtodifferentiatewhiteandblack?
DigitalIRSensor(TSOP)usedforcontrastdetectionasdiscussed.

Howtofollowaline?
Wehavesensorstodifferentiatebetweenwhiteandblacksurfaces.Hencewecanusethemina
patterntodetectlineandmoverobotaccordingly.

Arrangementof3sensors:

LEFTCENTRERIGHT

EachpurplecirclerepresentsaTxRxpair.
Sensoroverwhitesurface:outputlow(logiclevel0)
Sensoroverblacksurface:outputhigh(logiclevel1)

Design:

SENSOR

MICROCONTROLLER

MOTOR

MOTORDRIVER

58

Howtocontrolrobot:
a
PositionofLine
Sensor(on)
Movement
vv

ExtremeLeft

Left

Turnsharpleft

Left

CentreandRight

Turnleft

Centre

Centre

Moveforward

Right

CentreandRight

Turnright

ExtremeRight

Right

Turnsharpright

SimplifyingLineFollowerRobot:
Usetwosensorsinstead,oneforleftandotherforright.

LEFT

RIGHT

Howtocontrolrobot:

PositionoflineSensor(on)Movement

LeftLeftTurnright
CentreNoneMoveForward
RightRightTurnleft

59