Contents

Preface 1. Some preliminaries: the standard discrete system 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The structural element and the structural system 1.3 Assembly and analysis of a structure 1.4 The boundary conditions 1.5 Electrical and fluid networks 1.6 The general pattern 1.7 The standard discrete system 1.8 Transformation of coordinates References 2. A direct approach to problems in elasticity 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Direct formulation of finite element characteristics 2.3 Generalization to the whole region Displacement approach as a minimization of total potential energy 2.4 2.5 Convergence criteria 2.6 Discretization error and convergence rate 2.7 Displacement functions with discontinuity between elements 2.8 Bound on strain energy in a displacement formulation 2.9 Direct minimization 2.10 An example 2.1 1 Concluding remarks References 3. Generalization of the finite element concepts. Galerkin-weighted residual and variational approaches 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Integral or weak statements equivalent to the differential equations 3.3 Approximation to integral formulations 3.4 Virtual work as the weak form of equilibrium equations for analysis of solids or fluids

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1 1 4 8 9 10 12 14 15 16
18 18 19 26 29 31 32 33 34 35 35 37 37 39 39 42 46 53

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3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 4. Partial discretization Convergence What are variational principles? Natural variational principles and their relation to governing differential equations Establishment of natural variational principles for linear, self-adjoint differential equations Maximum, minimum, or a saddle point? Constrained variational principles. Lagrange multipliers and adjoint functions Constrained variational principles. Penalty functions and the least square method Concluding remarks References 55 58 60 62 66 69

70
76 82 84 87 87 87 97
100 110

Plane stress and plane strain 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Element characteristics 4.3 Examples - an assessment of performance 4.4 Some practical applications 4.5 Special treatment of plane strain with an incompressible material 4.6 Concluding remark References

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111

5. Axisymmetric stress analysis 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Element characteristics 5.3 Some illustrative examples 5.4 Early practical applications 5.5 Non-symmetrical loading 5.6 Axisymmetry - plane strain and plane stress References
6. Three-dimensional stress analysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Tetrahedral element characteristics 6.3 Composite elements with eight nodes 6.4 Examples and concluding remarks References
7.

112 112 112 121 123 124 124 126

127 127 128 134 135 139 140 140 141 143 144 146 149

Steady-state field problems - heat conduction, electric and magnetic potential, fluid flow, etc. 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The general quasi-harmonic equation 7.3 Finite element discretization 7.4 Some economic specializations 7.5 Examples - an assessment of accuracy 7.6 Some practical applications

Contents ix
7.7 Concluding remarks References 161 161

8. Standard and hierarchical element shape functions: some general families of C, continuity Introduction 8.1 8.2 Standard and hierarchical concepts 8.3 Rectangular elements - some preliminary considerations 8.4 Completeness of polynomials 8.5 Rectangular elements - Lagrange family 8.6 Rectangular elements - serendipity family 8.7 Elimination of internal variables before assembly - substructures 8.8 Triangular element family 8.9 Line elements 8.10 Rectangular prisms - Lagrange family 8.1 1 Rectangular prisms - serendipity family 8.12 Tetrahedral elements 8.13 Other simple three-dimensional elements 8.14 Hierarchic polynomials in one dimension 8.15 Two- and three-dimensional, hierarchic, elements of the rectangle or brick type 8.16 Triangle and tetrahedron family 8.17 Global and local finite element approximation 8.18 Improvement of conditioning with hierarchic forms 8.19 Concluding remarks References 9. Mapped elements and numerical integration - infinite and singularity elements 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Use of shape functions in the establishment of coordinate transformations 9.3 Geometrical conformability of elements 9.4 Variation of the unknown function within distorted, curvilinear elements. Continuity requirements 9.5 Evaluation of element matrices (transformation in E, r], C coordinates) 9.6 Element matrices. Area and volume coordinates 9.7 Convergence of elements in curvilinear coordinates 9.8 Numerical integration - one-dimensional 9.9 Numerical integration - rectangular (2D) or right prism (3D) regions 9.10 Numerical integration - triangular or tetrahedral regions 9.11 Required order of numerical integration 9.12 Generation of finite element meshes by mapping. Blending functions 9.13 Infinite domains and infinite elements 9.14 Singular elements by mapping for fracture mechanics, etc.

164 164 165 168 171 172 174 177 179 183 184 185 186 190 190 193 193 196 197 198 198

200 200 203 206 206 208 21 1 213 217 219 22 1 223 226 229 234

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9.15 A computational advantage of numerically integrated finite elements 9.16 Some practical examples of two-dimensional stress analysis 9.17 Three-dimensional stress analysis 9.18 Symmetry and repeatability References 10. The patch test, reduced integration, and non-conforming elements 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Convergence requirements 10.3 The simple patch test (tests A and B) - a necessary condition for convergence 10.4 Generalized patch test (test C) and the single-element test 10.5 The generality of a numerical patch test 10.6 Higher order patch tests 10.7 Application of the patch test to plane elasticity elements with standard and reduced quadrature 10.8 Application of the patch test to an incompatible element 10.9 Generation of incompatible shape functions which satisfy the patch test 10.10 The weak patch test - example 10.11 Higher order patch test - assessment of robustness 10.12 Conclusion References 11. Mixed formulation and constraints- complete field methods 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Discretization of mixed forms - some general remarks 11.3 Stability of mixed approximation. The patch test 11.4 Two-field mixed formulation in elasticity 11.5 Three-field mixed formulations in elasticity 11.6 An iterative method solution of mixed approximations 11.7 Complementary forms with direct constraint 11.8 Concluding remarks - mixed formulation or a test of element robustness References 12. Incompressible materials, mixed methods and other procedures of solution 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Deviatoric stress and strain, pressure and volume change 12.3 Two-field incompressible elasticity (u-p form) 12.4 Three-field nearly incompressible elasticity ( u - p - ~ ,form) 12.5 Reduced and selective integration and its equivalence to penalized mixed problems 12.6 A simple iterative solution process for mixed problems: Uzawa method

236 237 238 244 246 250 250 25 1 253 255 257 257 258 264 268 270 27 1 273 274 276 276 278 280 284 29 1 298 301 304 304 307 307 307 308 3 14 318 323

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12.7 Stabilized methods for some mixed elements failing the incompressibility patch test 12.8 Concluding remarks References 13. Mixed formulation and constraints - incomplete (hybrid) field methods, boundary/Trefftz methods 13.1 General 13.2 Interface traction link of two (or more) irreducible form subdomains 13.3 Interface traction link of two or more mixed form subdomains 13.4 Interface displacement frame 13.5 Linking of boundary (or Trefftz)-type solution by the frame of specified displacements 13.6 Subdomains with standard elements and global functions 13.7 Lagrange variables or discontinuous Galerkin methods? 13.8 Concluding remarks References 14. Errors, recovery processes and error estimates 14.1 Definition of errors 14.2 Superconvergence and optimal sampling points 14.3 Recovery of gradients and stresses 14.4 Superconvergent patch recovery - SPR 14.5 Recovery by equilibration of patches - REP 14.6 Error estimates by recovery 14.7 Other error estimators - residual based methods 14.8 Asymptotic behaviour and robustness of error estimators - the BabuSka patch test 14.9 Which errors should concern us? References 15. Adaptive finite element refinement 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Some examples of adaptive h-refinement 15.3 p-refinement and hp-refinement 15.4 Concluding remarks References 16. Point-based approximations; element-free Galerkin - and other meshless methods 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Function approximation 16.3 Moving least square approximations - restoration of continuity of approximation 16.4 Hierarchical enhancement of moving least square expansions 16.5 Point coliocation - finite point methods

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346 346 346 349 350 355 360 36 1 36 1 362 365 365 370 375 377 383 385 387 392 398 398 40 1 40 1 404 415 426 426

429 429 43 1 438 443 446

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Contents
6.6 Galerkin weighting and finite volume methods 6.7 Use of hierarchic and special functions based on standard finite elements satisfying the partition of unity 'requirement 6.8 Closure References
17. The time dimension - semi-discretization of field and dynamic problems and analytical solution procedures 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Direct formulation of time-dependent problems with spatial finite element subdivision 17.3 General classification 17.4 Free response - eigenvalues for second-order problems and dynamic vibration 17.5 Free response - eigenvalues for first-order problems and heat conduction, etc. 17.6 Free response - damped dynamic eigenvalues 17.7 Forced periodic response 17.8 Transient response by analytical procedures 17.9 Symmetry and repeatability References 18. The time dimension - discrete approximation in time 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Simple time-step algorithms for the first-order equation 18.3 General single-step algorithms for first- and second-order equations 18.4 Multistep recurrence algorithms 18.5 Some remarks on general performance of numerical algorithms 18.6 Time discontinuous Galerkin approximation 18.7 Concluding remarks References 19. Coupled systems 19.1 Coupled problems - definition and classification 19.2 Fluid-structure interaction (Class I problem) 19.3 Soil-pore fluid interaction (Class I1 problems) 19.4 Partitioned single-phase systems - implicit-explicit partitions (Class I problems) 19.5 Staggered solution processes References 20. Computer procedures for finite element analysis 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Data input module 20.3 Memory management for array storage 20.4 Solution module - the command programming language 20.5 Computation of finite element solution modules 45 1 457 464 464

468 468 468 476 477 484 484 485 486 490 49 1 493 493 495 508 522 530 536 538 538 542 542 545 558 565 567 572 576 576 578 588 590 597

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20.6 Solution of simultaneous linear algebraic equations 20.7 Extension and modification of computer program FEAPpv References Appendix A: Matrix algebra Appendix B: Tensor-indicia1notation in the approximation of elasticity problems Appendix C: Basic equations of displacement analysis Appendix D: Some integration formulae for a triangle Appendix E: Some integration formulae for a tetrahedron Appendix F: Some vector algebra Appendix G: Integration by parts in two and three dimensions (Greens theorem) Appendix H: Solutions exact at nodes Appendix I: Matrix diagonalization or lumping Author index Subject index

609 618 618 620 626 635 636 637 638 643 645 648 655 663

Volume 2: Solid and structural mechanics

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. General problems in solid mechanics and non-linearity Solution of non-linear algebraic equations Inelastic materials Plate bending approximation: thin (KirchhofQ plates and C1 continuity requirements Thick Reissner-Mindlin plates - irreducible and mixed formulations Shells as an assembly of flat elements Axisymmetric shells Shells as a special case of three-dimensional analysis - Reissner-Mindlin assumptions Semi-analytical finite element processes - use of orthogonal functions and finite strip methods Geometrically non-linear problems - finite deformation Non-linear structural problems - large displacement and instability Pseudo-rigid and rigid-flexible bodies Computer procedures for finite element analysis Appendix A: Invariants of second-order tensors

9.
10. 11. 12. 13.

Volume 3: Fluid dynamics

1. Introduction and the equations of fluid dynamics 2. Convection dominated problems - finite element approximations 3. A general algorithm for compressible and incompressible flows - the characteristic based split (CBS) algorithm 4. Incompressible laminar flow - newtonian and non-newtonian fluids 5. Free surfaces, buoyancy and turbulent incompressible flows 6 . Compressible high speed gas flow 7. Shallow-water problems 8. Waves 9. Computer implementation of the CBS algorithm Appendix A. Non-conservative form of Navier-Stokes equations Appendix B. Discontinuous Galerkin methods in the solution of the convectiondiffusion equation Appendix C. Edge-based finite element formulation Appendix D. Multi grid methods Appendix E. Boundary layer - inviscid flow coupling