Zinc

Zinc is essential for the normal healthy growth and reproduction of plants, animals and humans and when the supply of plant-available zinc is inadequate, crop yields are reduced and the quality of crop products is frequently impaired. In plants, zinc plays a key role as a structural constituent or regulatory co-factor of a wide range of different enzymes and proteins in many important biochemical pathways. When the supply of zinc to the plant is inadequate, one or more of the many important physiological functions of zinc are unable to operate normally and plant growth is adversely affected. In cases of marginal deficiency, plant yields can often be reduced by 20% or more without obvious visible symptoms. This is called hidden, latent or subclinical deficiency. Zinc-deficient soils causing hidden deficiency may remain undetected for many years unless soil or plant diagnostic tests are carried out. Zinc is one of the eight trace elements which are essential for the normal healthy growth and reproduction of crop plants.

Physiological Functions of Zinc

1. Membrane Integrity:
In animals and plants, zinc is considered to play a critical physiological role in the structure and function of biomembranes. Zinc is also known to be required for the maintenance of membranes through the interaction with phospholipids and sulphydryl groups of membrane proteins. Similar to that of calcium, zinc also plays a key role in controlling the generation and detoxification of free oxygen radicals (O2 ), which can damage membrane lipids and sulphydryl groups. The integrity of membranes inhibits the unnecessary leakage of phosphorous, potassium and other nutrients from the roots.

2.Reproduction
Adequate amount of zinc in plants ensures proper flowering and seed production. Zn-proteins are involved in gene expression.

3.Resistance
Zinc develops resistance in the plant against lower air temperatures. Zinc is a part of several enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, which prevents oxidative stress in plant cells.

4.Plant Development
Zinc also plays a part in the proper development of root.

Metabolic roles of zinc

Zinc plays an important role in many biochemical reactions within the plants. Plants such as maize and sorghum and sugarcane shows reduced photosynthetic carbon metabolism due to zinc deficiency. Zinc modifies and/or regulates the activity of carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that regulates the conversion of carbon dioxide to reactive bicarbonate species for fixation to carbohydrates in these plants. Following are the various other roles of zinc in plants;

1. Carbohydrate

Metabolism:

Zinc exerts an effect on carbohydrate metabolism through its effects on photosynthesis and sugar transformations. In general, zinc does not affect respiration in plants.

a) Photosynthesis
Zinc is a constituent of some enzymes involved in photosynthesis, including ribulose 1,5biphosphate carboxylase (RuBPC) which has been found to catalyse the initial step of carbon dioxide fixation in photosynthesis and has been found in navy beans, barley, rice and pearl millet. The reduction of photosynthesis observed in zinc deficient plants can also be due, in part, to a major decrease in chlorophyll content and the abnormal structure of chloroplasts.

b) Sucrose and Starch Formation

Enzymes involved in the formation of sucrose, such as aldolase, are adversely affected by zinc deficiency. Zinc deficiency impairs the translocation of sucrose from the source leaves to the roots.
2. Protein

Metabolism

Zinc is necessary for the activity of the enzyme RNA polymerase and it protects the ribosomal RNA from attack by the enzyme ribonuclease. The importance of zinc in protein synthesis suggests that relatively high zinc concentrations are required by meristematic tissue where cell division as well as synthesis of nucleic acid and protein is actively taking place. The most fundamental effect of zinc on protein metabolism is through its involvement in the stability and function of genetic material.

3.Synthesis of Auxins:
Zinc plays a key role in the production of auxins, (a growth regulating compound-indole acetic acid, IAA).

4.Pigments formation
Zinc helps in the biosynthesis of cytochrome and chlorophyll.

While zinc is essential for every plant, these crops have been found to be especially responsive: corn, rice, wheat, sweet corn, cotton, citrus, most orchard crops and sorghum.

Mechanisms of Zinc Uptake by Plants

Zinc appears to be absorbed by roots primarily as Zn2+ from the soil solution. The negative electrical potential of the plasma membrane is the driving force of zinc uptake. In the Poacae, nonprotein amino acids form a complex with zinc and transport it to the outer face of the root-cell plasma membrane. Transporter proteins are responsible for zinc translocation within plants. These proteins are known as ZIPs (Zinc-regulated, Iron regulated Protein).

Movement of Zinc in Plant

90.5% of the total zinc required by plants moves towards the roots by diffusion. Lateral movement is highly dependent upon the soil moisture. Zinc moves through both the transport tissues i.e. xylem and phloem. Substantial translocation of zinc takes place from the older leaves to the younger ones during grain development phase.

The Role Of Zinc On Crop Yield

Increasing seed concentration of Zn by soil and/or foliar applications of zinc also brings several agronomic benefits for crop production. Applying zinc to plants grown under potentially zincdeficient soils is effective in reducing uptake and accumulation of phosphorus (and thus phytate) in plants. This agronomic side effect of zinc fertilization may result in better bioavailability of zinc in the human digestive system. In addition, seedlings from seeds containing high zinc have better ability to withstand adverse environmental conditions. Foliar application of iron and zinc increased wheat seed yield and its quality. Zinc concentration in roots and shoots of maize plants were increased by zinc application both in soil and foliar. Seed protein content was increased by zinc application. Zinc plays key role in stabilizing RNA and DNA structure.

Factors Affecting the Availability of Zinc in Soils to Plants

The zinc which is available to plants is that present in the soil solution, or is adsorbed in a labile (easily desorbed) form. The soil factors affecting the availability of zinc to plants are those which control the amount of zinc in the soil solution and its absorption-desorption from/into the soil solution. Some of these factors are:

 Availability of zinc decreases with increasing soil pH. When rapidly decomposable organic matter, such as manure, is added to soils, zinc may

become more available due to the formation of soluble organic zinc complexes which are mobile and also probably capable of absorption into plant roots. High levels of phosphorus may decrease the availability of zinc. Higher concentrations of copper in the soil solution, relative to zinc, can reduce the availability of zinc to a plant (and vice versa) due to competition for the same sites for absorption into the plant root. This could occur after the application of a copper fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilizers can have a combined beneficial effect by causing an increase in zinc availability through the acidification of the through improved root growth. As a result of leveling fields for irrigation, crops grown on the subsoil can be highly prone to zinc deficiency, especially in calcareous soils.

Soil Types Associated with Widespread Zinc Deficiency in Crops

Types of soil which are more frequently associated with zinc deficiency than any other are: Calcareous soils, Sandy soils, Strongly weathered deep tropical soils Saline and Sodic (salt-affected) soils.

Zinc Deficiency
Effect on Photosynthesis: A deficiency of zinc can cause a reduction in net photosynthesis by 50%-70% depending on the plant species and the severity of deficiency. This reduced efficiency of photosynthesis could be due, at least in part, to a reduction in the activity of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Zinc deficiency is widespread among crops grown in calcareous soils and highly weathered acid soils. Symptoms of this disorder had been called 'Hadda' disease. 70% of agricultural areas in Pakistan affected Flowering and seed production are severely depressed in case of Zinc deficiency. With extreme zinc deficiency, carbonic anhydrase activity is absent. Following diagram gives an overview of the causes of zinc deficiency in crops

Deficiency Symptoms
The main types of visible deficiency symptoms are:
a) Chlorosis - which is the change of leaf colour from the normal green chlorophyll colour to pale

green and yellow, or even white, due to the reduced amount, or absence, of chlorophyll. In many cases in zinc-deficient plants, the chlorosis appears between the ribs in monocotyledons (grains and grasses) and between the veins of dicotyledon (broad leaf) plants and this is referred to as interveinal chlorosis.
b) Necrotic Spots on Leaves - these can occur in areas of chlorosis due to the death of the leaf

tissue in small concentrated areas but the necrotic spots can grow in size as the plant ages if the deficiency is not treated.
c) Bronzing of Leaves - this symptom is also related to chlorosis and the yellow areas tend to turn

bronze coloured.

d) Rosetting of Leaves - occurs when the internodes on the stems of dicotyledon crops fail to

elongate normally and so the leaves form close together in a cluster instead of being spread out

between nodes in a healthy plant. This is a very characteristic symptom of zinc deficiency in dicotyledon (broad leaf) crops, including bushes and trees.
e) Stunting of Plants - is a consequence of reduced dry matter production giving a smaller plant

and/or reduced internode elongation of stems of developing crops.

f) Dwarf Leaves (also called little leaf) - are also fairly characteristic of zinc deficiency and these

leaves may also show chlorosis, necrotic spots or bronzing.

g) Malformed Leaves - occur, often either narrower, or with wavy edges, instead of straight edges

and the leaves may also be distinctly smaller (dwarfed). In comparison with other macro and micronutrients, the leaf symptoms of zinc deficiency are found on both old and new leaves, whereas symptoms of copper, iron, manganese and sulphur deficiency are found only on new leaves. In contrast, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and molybdenum deficiency symptoms are found only on old leaves.

Appearance Of Symptoms

In wheat symptoms appear between three to five weeks after emergence In rice about two to four weeks after transplanting. With corn, in the first two or three weeks of the growing season.

Toxicity symptoms
High concentrations of available zinc in soils usually arise from various sources of pollution, including: atmospheric deposition from a nearby industrial source, such as a smelting works, flooding of alluvial soils with zinc-polluted river water and sediments, excessive applications of zinc rich materials, including pig and poultry manures from animals fed additional zinc, and high zinc sewage sludges, or industrial waste waters. However, the accumulation of zinc to potentially toxic levels is unlikely in most agricultural systems. Soil microorganisms are generally most sensitive to toxicity of zinc Most sensitive microorganism is the Rhizobium leguminosarum. toxicity may reduce yield by up to 25%.

If present, zinc

Leaf and root

growth and development are decreased by zinc toxicity. Production of NADPH in plant chloroplasts decreases with increasing zinc concentration.

 In addition, production of free radicals will increase in plants. Activity of RUBP carboxylase enzyme and Photosystem II decreases by zinc toxicity. Zinc toxicity reduces ATP synthesis and chloroplasts activity and photosynthesis will decline as a result. Also, large amounts of zinc reduces uptake of P and Fe. More than 300ppm of zinc in plant caused toxicity.

Zinc Fertilizers in Pakistan

1. Zingro is a zinc fertilizer manufactured by engro industries. It is 99.9 % soluble in water which ensures maximum possible dissolution of zinc into soil and thus high availability to plant roots. Chemically this is a zinc sulphate monohydrate compound having minimum 33 % zinc in it.

2. company UDPL manufactures following types of zinc fertilizers

Brand Name Utah Zinc Technical Name Zinc Chelated Specifications 5% Granules

Another

ZinCash ZinCash Indiplex Zn

Zinc Chelated Zinc Sulphate Zinc

2.5% Granules 12% Liquid 21% Foliar

References
Alloway B.J (2008) Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition. IZA & IFA, France. Mousavi S.R. (2011) Zinc in Crop Production and Interaction with Phosphorus. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5(9): 1503-1509, 2011 ISSN 1991-8178 Spraygro liquid fertilizers. Zinc nutrition and plant growth. Pt Adelaide SA. http://www.udpl.com.pk/micronutrients.html http://engro.pakissan.com/engropk/product.information/zingro.shtml