The Z-Transform and Discrete-Time Lti Systems

SIGNALS, SPECTRA, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING
THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Objectives:
1. 2. 3.
4.
To define the z-transform To determine the properties of the z-transform To describe the methods for inverting the ztransform of a signal so as to obtain the timedomain representation of the signal To demonstrate the importance of the z-transform in the analysis and characterization of linear timeinvariant systems

Introduction
The z-transform is used to represent digital-time signals or sequences in the z-domain (z is a complex variable). The z-transform converts differential equations into algebraic equations, thereby simplifying the analysis of discrete-time systems.

The z-transform
The z-transform of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as the power series
For convenience, the z-transform is denoted by whereas the relationship between x(n) and X(z) is indicated by

The region of convergence (ROC) of X(z) is the set of all values of z for which X(z) attains a finite value. Three properties of the ROC: 1. A finite-length sequence has a z-transform with a region of convergence that includes the entire z-plane except, possibly, z = 0 and z = . The point z = will be included if x(n) = 0 for n < 0, and the point z = 0 will be included if x(n) = 0 for n > 0.

2.
A right-sided sequence has a z-transform with a region of convergence that is the exterior of a circle:
3.
A left-sided sequence has a z-transform with a region of convergence that is the interior of a circle:

The variable z is generally complex-valued and is expressed in polar form as
Then X(z) can be expressed as

Example 1
Determine the z-transforms of the following finiteduration signals.

Solution:

Example 2
Determine the z-transform of the signal Solution:
The z-transform of x(n) is the infinite power series

This is an infinite geometric series. Recall that
Consequently, for |(1/2)z-1| < 1, or equivalently, for |z| > , X(z) converges to

Example 3
Determine the z-transform of the signal

Solution:
If |z-1| < 1 or equivalently |z| > ||, this power series converges to 1/(1 - z-1). Thus we have the z-transform pair
The exponential signal x(n) = nu(n)
The ROC of the z-transform of x(n) = nu(n)

Properties of the z-Transform
1.
Linearity If
then
where a1 and a2 are arbitrary constants.

Example 4
Determine the z-transform and the ROC of the signal
Solution:
If we define the signals and then

Recall that
By setting = 2 and = 3, we obtain
Therefore,

2.
Time shifting
If Then Special cases:

Example 5
Determine the transform of the signal
Solution:
Since x(n) has finite duration, its ROC is the entire z-plane, except z = 0.

3.
Scaling in the z-domain

If Then
For any constant a, real or complex.

Example 6
Determine the z-transform of the signal
Solution:
From Table 3.3

4.
Time-reversal
If
then

5.
Multiplication by n (Differentiation in z)
If
then

Example 7
Determine the signal x(n) whose z-transform is given by
Solution:
By taking the first derivative of X(z), we obtain

Thus
The inverse z-transform of the term in the brackets is (-a)n. The multiplication by z-1 implies a time delay by one sample, which results in (-a)n-1u(n-1). Finally, from the differentiation property we have

6.
Accumulation
If then

7.
Convolution of two sequences

If
then

Computation of the convolution of two signals, using the z-transform, requires the following steps: Compute the z-transforms of the signals to be convolved.
1.

2.
Multiply the two z-transforms.
3.
Find the inverse z-transforms of X(z).

Example 8
Compute the convolution x(n) of the signals

Solution 1:
Multiply X1(z) and X2(z). Thus
or

Solution 2:
Multiply the two signals
or

Rational z-transform
Many of the signals of interest in digital signal processing have z-transforms that are rational functions of z:

If a0 0 and b0 0, we can avoid the negative powers of z by factoring out the terms b0z-M and a0z-N as follows:

Since N(z) and D(z) are polynomials in z, they can be expressed in factored form as
Where z1, z2, , zM values are zeros of a z-transform for which x(z) = 0 and p1, p2, , pN are poles of a ztransform for which x(z) = .

The Inverse z-Transform
To begin,
Suppose we multiply both sides by zn-1 and integrate both sides over a closed contour within the ROC of X(z). Thus,
Where C denotes the closed contour in the ROC of X(z)

Cauchy integral theorem states that
By applying the theorem to the right hand side of the equation above reduces to 2jx(n) and hence the desired inversion formula

Three possible approaches of the inverse ztransform: 1. Contour Integration
2.
Power Series Expansion Partial Fraction Expansion
3.

Contour Integration
This procedure relies on Cauchy's integral theorem, which states that if C is a closed contour that encircles the origin in a counterclockwise direction,
With

Cauchy's integral theorem may be used to show that the coefficients x(n) may be found from X(z) as follows:
where C is a closed contour within the region of convergence of X(z) that encircles the origin in a counterclockwise direction.

Contour integrals of this form may often by evaluated with the help of Cauchy's residue theorem,
If X(z) is a rational function of z with a first-order pole at z = k,
Contour integration is particularly useful if only a few values of x(n) are needed.

Power Series Expansion
Given a z-transform X(z) with its corresponding ROC, we expand the X(z) into a power series of the form
which converges in the given ROC

Example 9
Determine the inverse z-transform of
when (a) ROC: |z| > 1 (b) ROC: |z| < 0.5

IN this case the ROC is the exterior of a circle and the x(n) is a causal signal.
Thus

In this case the ROC is the interior of a circle and the signal x(n) is anticausal.

Thus
Therefore

Partial Fraction Expansion
Recall:
If we assume a0 = 1, then
Note that x(z) is called proper if M < N and aN 0 and x(z) is called improper if M N which can be written as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.

Example 10
Express the improper rational function
In terms of a polynomial and a proper function.

Solution:
First, we should carry out the long division with these two polynomials in reverse order. We stop the division when the order of the remainder becomes z-1. Then we obtain.

Let X(z) be a proper rational function, that is,
where By multiplying zN both to the numerator and denominator,
which contains only positive powers of z

Since N > M
In performing a partial fraction expansion, we first factor the denominator polynomial into factors that contain the poles p1, p2, , pN of X(z).

Case 1: Distinct poles
Where: p1, p2, , pN are the poles and A1, A2, , AN are the coefficient that need to be determined.

Example 11
Determine the partial fraction expansion of the proper function
Solution:
First, multiply z2 to both numerator and denominator. Thus
To solve for A1 and A2, multiply the equation by the denominator term (z 1)(z 0.5). Thus Let z = p1 = 1 Let z = p2 = 0.5
Therefore

Case 2: Multiple-order poles
Example 12:
Determine the partial fraction expansion of

Solution:
First we express the z-transform in terms of positive powers of z
X(z) has a simple pole p1 = -1 and a double pole p2 = p3 = 1.

To determine A1, we multiply both sides of the equation by (z + 1) and evaluate the result at z = -1. Thus

To determine A3, we multiply both sides of the equation by (z - 1)2 and evaluate the result at z = 1. Thus

To determine A2, we differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to z and evaluate the result at z = 1. Thus

The One-Sided z-Transform
The one-sided, or unilateral, z-transform is defined by
The primary use of the one-sided z-transform is to solve linear constant coefficient difference equations that have initial conditions.

Most of the properties of the one-sided z-transform are the same as those for the two-sided z-transform. One that is different, however, is the shift property. Specifically, if x(n) has a one-sided z-transform X1(z), the one-sided z-transform of x(n - 1) is
It is this property that makes the one-sided ztransform useful for solving difference equations with initial conditions.

Example 13
Consider the linear constant coefficient difference equation
Let us find the solution to this equation assuming that x(n) = (n - 1) with y(-1) = y(-2) = 1.

We begin by noting that if the one-sided ztransform of y(n) is Y1(z), the one-sided ztransform of y(n -2) is
Therefore, taking the z-transform of both sides of the difference equation, we have

where X1(z) = z-1. Substituting for y(-1) and y(-2), and solving for Y1(z), we have
Therefore

The System Function of Discrete-Time LTI
A.
The System Function The output y[n] of a discrete-time LTI system equals the convolution of the input x[n] with the impulse response h[n] is Applying the convolution property of the ztransform, we obtain

The equation can be expressed as
The z-transform H(z) of h[n] is referred to as the system function (or the transfer function) of the system.

B.
Characterization of Discrete-Time LTI Systems 1. Causality For a causal discrete-time LTI system, we have since h[n] is a right-sided signal, the corresponding requirement on H(z) is that the ROC of H(z) must be of the form the ROC is the exterior of a circle containing all of the poles of H(z) in the z-plane.

if the system is anticausal, that is, then h[n] is left-sided and the ROC of H(z) must be of the form the ROC is the interior of a circle containing no poles of H(z) in the z-plane.

2.
Stability A discrete-time LTI system is BIB0 stable if and only if
The corresponding requirement on H(z) is that the ROC of H(z) contains the unit circle (that is, lzl = 1).

3.
Causal and Stable Systems If the system is both causal and stable, then all of the poles of H(z) must lie inside the unit circle of the z-plane because the ROC is of the form lzl > rmax, and since the unit circle is included in the ROC, we must have rmax < 1.

C.
System Function for LTI Systems Described by Linear Constant-Coefficient Difference Equations The general linear constant-coefficient difference equation
Applying the z-transform and using the timeshift property and the linearity property of the z-transform, we obtain

or
Thus,
Hence, H(z) is always rational.

D.
Systems Interconnection For two LTI systems (with h1[n] and h2[n], respectively) in cascade, the overall impulse response h[n] is given by
Thus, the corresponding system functions are related by the product

Similarly, the impulse response of a parallel combination of two LTI systems is given by
and
QUESTIONS

The Z-Transform and Discrete-Time Lti Systems

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SIGNALS, SPECTRA, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Then X(z) can be expressed as

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

The z-transform of x(n) is the infinite power series

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

The exponential signal x(n) = nu(n)

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

The ROC of the z-transform of x(n) = nu(n)

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

where a1 and a2 are arbitrary constants.

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

By setting = 2 and = 3, we obtain

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Scaling in the z-domain

For any constant a, real or complex.

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Convolution of two sequences

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Multiply the two z-transforms.

Find the inverse z-transforms of X(z).

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Multiply X1(z) and X2(z). Thus

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Multiply the two signals

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Where C denotes the closed contour in the ROC of X(z)

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Power Series Expansion Partial Fraction Expansion

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

If X(z) is a rational function of z with a first-order pole at z = k,

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS