Capture Fisheries and Post Harvest Technology

1.
INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Capture fisheries is intended for catching fishes and also prawns, lobsters, crabs, sea-cucumbers, shales, pearl oysters, edible bivalve and copious other organisms of other than fishes etc. Premitive human being were acquinted with capture fishery centuries passed for him to observe and understand for the possibilities of culturing fish. Then also he depended mostly on the culture of fishes with parental care. Later, he tried to collect the fingerlings in canals, distribution canals. In the earlier days, the mixture of carnivore fish fingerlings and carp fish fingerlings were stocked together in tanks. Later, they were segregated and stocked selecting the required vaiety. Capture of fishes can be broadly divided in to two types; a) Capture by Human effort b) Capture by observing the behavioural pattern of Fishes. Inland capture fisheries of India has an important place ; it contributes to about 30% of the total fish production. The large network of inland water masses will continue to provide great potential, for economic capture fishery which consequently will compete well with fasj/ growing fish-culture practices. The freshwater inland watef^ bodies fall into five major categories, distinguished as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Indus system of the Northern India, and the East and the West coast river systems of the Southern (peninsular) India (Figure 1.1). These river systems have certain characteristics of their own with respect to their ecology, climatic conditions and fish populations of commercial food fishes. Besides, there are a number of land-locked lakes especially those situated at high altitudes which have started supporting cold water fisheries of both indigenous and exotic species. In addition to the above-mentioned freshwaters, there are also rich fisheries offered by extensive brackishwaters, including important estuaries (Hooghly - Matlah, Mahanadi and Godavari estuaries), lagoons (Chilka lake, Pulicat lake) and backwaters (Vembanad) and paddy fields (Pokkali in Kerala). Chilka lake in the state of Orissa is an open shallow brackishwater lake having an area of 906 sq. km. in summer and 1165
Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology
sq. km. in rainy season. A long canal joins it with sea. Waters from river Daya (Mahanadi) and other smaller streams flow into it. Recent additions to the natural inland water bodies are man-made reservoirs. There are at present some 300 reservoirs which hold very good prospects, after restocking, both for capture as well as for culture fisheries. Some of these reservoirs have responded fairly well to attempts to restock them with indigenous as well as exotic species. Inland capture fisheries is a- continually expanding industry bringing under its fold newer fisheries of a local or regional nature, while improving upon those which are existing already. Introduction of exotic species from abroad and inter-regional transplantation of fish from Northern to Southern waters have been most welcome and rewarding.
Fig. 1.1 Map of India
The inland capture fishery, however, stands at a critical juncture, which draws a special attention at the national level. Rapid industrialization movements in the country have given a serious blow to the growth of the inland fisheries which was struggling to come out of the old-fashioned style to a more rational and scientific style. Construction of dams have been the cause of decline and damage to several regionally important fisheries. Discharge from industrial establishments, multiplying at mushroom growth, into inland water bodies is polluting the water in very serious proportions, and is damaging the fish populations tremendously. Already, old-age practices of indiscriminate fishing of fingerlings and juveniles, supporting local and seasonal fisheries, especially in breeding or nursery gro.unds, have been doing enormous damage, and needed effective controls for conservation. Likewise, time-old practice of sewage disposal into rivers was a menacing practice causing heavy pollution. Great harm is also being done from agricultural wash coming to inland waters, which brings to fish a very toxic principle of the numerous pesticides used in the agricultural practices. INTRODUCTION TO POST-HARVEST FISHERY Food even more than clothing or shelter is the indispensable necessity of mankind. The history of our species is largely an account of the evolution of equipment and methods of hunting, gathering, cultivating, breeding and otherwise controlling food supplies. Although the initial production of food is primary, the methods adopted for its preservation, storage and distribution, are no less important and react on the former. In all periods and at all levels of technological progress, fish has usually played an essential part in mans diet. Although there are occasionally communities that do not eat fish, whether for reasons of geography far more people throughout the world have been and still are dependent almost entirely on fish than is the case with meat. Fresh fish flesh provides an excellent source of protein for human diet. This protein is relatively of high digestibility, biological and growth
promoting value for human consumption. Nutritional studies have proved that fish proteins rank in the same class as chicken protein and are superior to milk, beef protein and egg albumen. Fish proteins comprise all the ten essential amino acids in desirable strength for human consumption. This accounts for the high biological value of fish flesh. Fish flesh therefore becomes a valuable supplement to human diet for people who are habitually taking cereals, starchy roots and sugar as their principal diet. Besides proteins, fish flesh also offers minerals. Iodine, vitamins and fat, over and above all, fish flesh cooks easily, offers a palatable taste and flavour, and is easily digestible. Fish is consumed either as a preparation from freshly caught fish or from those that have been preserved in some farm. Fishes are consumed as food in fresh condition. Some of them are also utilized after the preservation. Fish, however, is more susceptible to spoilage than certain other animal protein foods, such as meat and eggs. As part of the natural process by which organic matter is broken down and returned to the nitrogen cycle, fish flesh is rapidly invaded, digested and spoiled by the micro-organisms which are abundant on the skin and in the intestines. Ferments (enzymes to the scientist) also contribute to the dissolution, and oxidation by atmospheric oxygen is an additional process of deterioration, particularly in the case of natural fats. To prevent spoilage of fish, some form of preservation is necessary. Preservation means keeping the fish, after it has landed, in a condition wholesome and fit for human consumption for a short period of a few days or for longer periods of over a few months. During the period of preservation the fish is kept as fresh as possible, with minimum losses in flavour, taste, odour, form, nutritive value, weight and digestibility of flesh. This preservation should cover the entire period from the time of capture of fish to its sale at the retailers counter. As a result, methods of preservation to counteract these processes must in former days have been essential to the utilization of fish as food. Fish in early times occupied a key position as one of the most easily accessible sources of protein food, and the spread of man himself was probably determined by the success of the techniques of preservation and storage employed.
There are regions in the world where fish preservation is not necessary. In arctic zones, for instance, landed fish is rapidly frozen due to extremely cold climate. No further preservation is called for. In temperate climate also, the need for preservation is not so pressing because fish can remain fresh for a few days without any preservation. The picture is different for tropical areas of the world. Here the hot climate favours rapid spoilage of fish. The principal processes employed to check bacterial and other forms of spoilage have been few in number. Curing by drying, smoking, and salting with common salt, in various combinations, is bacteriostatic or bactericidal in varying degree. Other salts, acids such as vinegar, sugar, and certain spices and herbs, have a similar effect. Even fermentation itself can be a means of preservation if the process of decomposition is properly controlled. Cooling by means of ice slows down the multiplication of micro-organisms and hard-freezing below a certain temperature suspends it altogether. Canning results in their destruction by heat. These processes, which are all in use to-day have their characteristic problems and limitations. Furthermore, a certain level of technique, and of social organization, was required in each case before material circumstances permitted its appearance in history. During preservation and processing, some materials of fish and prawn are discarded as waste. Similarly some trash and distasteful fishes are unsuitable for human consumption. These waste material and above fishes become an important source to produce fish by-products. Which in turn are used to produce different useful fish by-products by different fish by-product industries. The following by-products are described in detail. After fish harvesting the fishes are sold in the market freshly or after the preservation. In earlier days, the term marketing of fish meant buying and selling of fish at the landing centre. After the second world war, the concept and function of fish marketing have taken a new role in business activities. The fisheries have now become highly
industrialized in all advanced fishing nations. The new marketing techniques have been adopted so as to sell more fish. The modern fish marketing system lays emphasis in meeting the existing demands for fish, besides tapping the potential demand in the important markets. In many advanced countries the improved methods of fish marketing are being adopted with the advancement of fisheries development. A progressive fish marketing system will also provide remunerative price to the primary producer though the interest of the consumer is also protected. In many developing countries traditional system and fish marketing is adopted. The methods and practices in trade dealings are based on some customs. These practices have remained unchanged and unimproved over decades. The fish marketing is normally done at the collection centres, which are mainly situated in the area of fish landing. Fish has peculiar feature at its own and gives a big strain and stress on the method of its marketing. The fish marketing should not have the object of only catching and selling of fish but should have the wide scope for exploitation, production, distribution, preservation and transportation of fish in addition to actual sale of fish by reducing middlemen.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF FISHERIES
Aquaculture has been defined in many ways. It has been called as the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi controlled condition - thus it is underwater agriculture. The other definition of aquaculture is the art of cultivating the natural produce of water, the raising or fattening of fish in enclosed ponds. Another one is simply the large-scale husbandry or rearing of aquatic organisms for commercial purposes. Aquaculture can be a potential means of reducing over need to import fishery products, it can mean an increased number of jobs, enhanced sport and commercial fishing and a reliable source of protein for the future. Fish is a rich source of animal protein and its culture is an efficient protein food production system from aquatic environment. The main role of fish culture is its contribution in improving the nutritional standards of the people. Fish culture also helps in utilising water and land resources. It provides inducement to establish other subsidiary industries in the country. Fisheries can be categorised into two types - fin fisheries and non-fin fisheries. The former is fisheries of true fishes, whereas the later is the fisheries of organisms other than true fish like prawn, crab, lobster, mussel, oyster, sea cucumbers, frog, sea weeds, etc. Fin fisheries can be further categorised into two types - capture fisheries and culture fisheries. Capture fisheries is exploitation of aquatic organisms without stocking the seed. Recruitment of the species occur naturally. This is carried out in the sea, rivers, reservoirs, etc. Fish yield decreases gradually in capture fisheries due to indescriminate catching of fish including brooders and juveniles. Overfishing destroys the fish stocks. Pollution and environmental factors influence the fish yield. The catches include both desirable and undesirable varieties. Culture fisheries is the cultivation of selected fishes in confined areas with utmost care to get maximum yield. The seed is stocked, nursed and reared in confined waters, then the crop is harvested. Culture
takes place in ponds, which are fertilized and supplementary feeds are provided to fish to get maximum yield. In order to overcome the problems found in capture fisheries to increase the production, considerable attention is being given to the culture fisheries. Culture fisheries is conducted in freshwater, brackish water and sea waters. With the development and expansion of new culture systems, farming of a wide variety of aquatic organisms like prawns, crabs, molluscs, frogs, sea weeds, etc. have come under culture fisheries. Due to the culture of a variety of aquatic organisms, culture fisheries has been termed as aquaculture. SUMMARY Fish is a rich source of animal protein and its culture is an efficient protein food production system from aquatic environment. The main role of fish culture is its contribution in improving the nutritional standards of the people. Fish culture also helps in utilising water and land resources. It provides inducement to establish other subsidiary industries in the country. Fisheries can be categorised into two types - fin fisheries and non-fin fisheries. The former is fisheries of true fishes, whereas the later is the fisheries of organisms other than true fish like prawn, crab, lobster, mussel, oyster, sea cucumbers, frog, sea weeds, etc. QUESTIONS 1. 2. Give an account on fisheries classification. Write a brief notes on capture fisheries.
3. CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA

India is endowed with vast and varied aquatic resources (marine and Inland) amenable for capture fisheries and aquaculture. While the marine water bodies are used mainly for capture fisheries resources, the inland water bodies are widely used both for culture and capture fisheries. Most of the inland water bodies are captive ecosystems where intensive human intervention in the biological production process can be possible and thereby holding enormous potential for many fold increase in fish output. Inland water bodies include freshwater bodies like rivers, canals, streams, lakes, flood plain wetlands or beels (ox-bow lakes, back swamps, etc.), reservoirs, ponds, tanks and other derelict water bodies, and brackish water areas like estuaries and associated coastal ponds, lagoons (Chilka lake, Pulicat lake) and backwaters (vembanad backwaters), wetlands (bheries), mangrove swamps, etc., The inland watwr resources available in India are given in Table-3.1. Table-3.1. Inland water resources in India Resource a. b. c. d. Extent Type of fisheries capture fisheries capture fisheries capture fisheries capture fisheries capture fisheries capture-based fisheries Culture fisheries culture-based fisheries Nil (not known) Not known capture fisheries capture fisheries
e. f. g. h. i.
Rivers 29,000km Canals & streams 1,42,000km Lakes 0.72m ha Reservoirs 3.152m ha Large 1,140,268 ha Medium 527,541 ha Small 1,485,557 ha Ponds & tanks 2.85 m ha Flood plain wetlands 202,213 ha (Beels / Ox-bow lakes) Swamps and Derelict waters 53,471 ha Upland lakes 720,000 ha Brackish water 2.7 m ha Estuaries 300,000 ha Back waters 48,000 ha
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Lagoons Wetlands (Bheries) Mangroves Coastal lands for aquaculture
140,000 ha 42,600 ha 356,000 ha 1.42, m ha
capture fisheries capture fisheries subsistence capture fisheries
Of these, the rivers, canals, streams, lakes, large and medium reservoirs, estuaries, and associated backwaters and lagoons support the capture fisheries. Whereas freshwater ponds, tanks, swamps and estuarine wetlands (bheries), paddy fields, small shallow coastal lagoons and coastal pond farms support the culture fisheries or aquaculture. In capture fisheries, the wild populations are simply harvested from the natural waters with little human intervention in modifying the ecosystem i.e. hunting. Example: marine fishery. On the other hand, in a culture fishery, the whole operation is based on captive stocks with a high degree of effective human control over the water quality and other habitat variables. Example: Culture of fish and shell-fish in ponds. When the fish harvest in an open water system depends solely or mainly on artificial recruitment (stocking), it is generally referred to as culturebased fisheries. Culture-based fishery is the most common method of enhancing the fish production being followed in some inland water bodies in India. The water bodies which are used for capture fisheries are falls under three categories. They inland capture fisheries resources, Brackish water capture fisheries resources and marine capture fishery resources which were delt elsewhere in subsequent chapters
SUMMARY In capture fisheries, the wild populations are simply harvested from the natural waters with little human intervention in modifying the ecosystem
CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA
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India is endowed with vast and varied aquatic resources (marine and Inland) amenable for capture fisheries and aquaculture. While the marine water bodies are used mainly for capture fisheries resources, the inland water bodies are widely used both for culture and capture fisheries. Most of the inland water bodies are captive ecosystems where intensive human intervention in the biological production process can be possible and thereby holding enormous potential for many fold increase in fish output. QUESTIONS 1. Write a note on capture fisheries resources of India.
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4. RIVERINE FISHERIES
India is blessed with a vast inland water resources in the form of rivers, estuaries, natural and man made lakes. The Inland water bodies have been divided into five riverine systems and their tributaries extending to a length of about 29,000 km in the country Indus, Ganges, Bramhaputra, East flowing riverine system and West riverine system. All these rivers, their tributaries, canals and irrigation channels have and area of roughly 13000km. These water bodies harbor the original germplasm of one of the richest and diversified fish fauna of the world comprising 930 fish species belonging to 326 genera. The major river systems of India on the basis of drainage can be divided broadly into two major rivers systems. They are (i) Himalayan rivers system (Ganga, Indus and Bramhaputra) and (ii) Peninsular river system (East cost and West coast river system).
Major River systems of India
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4.1
Ganges River System:
It is the largest river systems of the world, having a combined length (including tributaries) of 12,500 km. It originates from Gangotri in the Himalayas at a height of about 3129 km above the sea level. After origin it drains the southern slopes of the central Himalayas. Ganga passes through UP, Bihar, some parts of Rajasthan, M.P. and west Bengal and finally joins to the Bay of Bengal. It has a large number of tributaries and Yamuna river is one of the major tributaries of this system, which is about 1000 km long. The other tributaries are Ram Ganga. Gomti, Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Betwa and Ken. Further more; it has numerous lakes, ponds and Jheels, both perennial and seasonal areas. It has a total catchment area of 9.71 lakh sq. km and receives an annual rainfall of 25-77 inches. 4.1.1 Physico-Chemical Characteristics: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) Temperature range PH Turbidity Do 2 Co 2 Chloride Phosphate Nitrates Silicates Carbonates 16.7 0C in January 31.5 0C in June to sept. 7.4 during June to August and Maximum 8.3 during January to May. 100 ppm in January; 1100-2170 ppm during July to September. 5.0 to 10.5 ppm during January to February while in monsoon 2.00ppm (July-Sept.) 0.6 ppm -10.0ppm 4.0 -35.4 ppm 0.05-021ppm 0.08-0.22ppm 4.0-20.3ppm 1.0 12.0 ppm
4.1.2 Common Phytoplanktons: Phytoplanktons are generally poor during the monsoon and autmn
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months. Common phytoplanktons found in Ganga river system are (i) Members of Bacillariophyceae like Amphora, Asterionella, Cymbella, Navicula and Synedra etc. (ii) members of Chlorophycace like, Chlorella, Closterium, Denticula, Pandorina and Spirogyea etc.(ii) members of Myxophyceae like Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc. 4.1.3 Common zooplanktons: Rattulas, Rotaria, Keratella, Filuia, Notops, Monostyla etc. 4.1.4 Fisheries of Ganga river systems: The Ganga river system supports a large number of commercially important fish species including major carps (Labeo. rohita: L.Calabasu, Catla catla and Cirrhinus mrigala), minor carps ( Labeo fimbriatus; L.bata; Cirrhinus. reba), catfishes (Wallago. attu ; Mystus. aor; M. .tengara, Clarias. batrachus; Heteropneustes fossilis), cluipeiods, murrels (Channa species), feather backs (Notopterus. notopterus; N.chitala), mullets (Mugil corsula), fresh water eel (Anguilla) and prawns (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii; Palaemon. Lamarii). Apart from these fishes, the others like Pangasius; silonia silondia; Gudusia chapra; Bagasius. bagasius; Eutropichthys. vacha are also found in the river system. The commercial fisheries in this zone are non-existing due to spares population, inaccessible terrain and poor communication between fishing grounds and landing centers. The fish yield has been declined over the years due to 1) sandification of the river bed (upto Patna) which reduced the rivers productivity due to blanket effect, (2) marked reduction in the water volume on account of increase sedimentation, (3) increased water abstraction and (4) irrational fishing. In spite of this, the Ganga river system is contributing nearly about 89.5% of the total fish seed correlation of India. 4.1.5 Fishing gears used : The principal gears used in Ganga river system are dragnets, cast nets and bag nets.
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4.2.
Godavari River System:
It originates in Doolai hills near Nasik in North Western Ghats. This river system is a part of East coast of pennensular river system, with a length of 1465 km covering the states like Maharastra, Andhrapradesh and Madhyapradesh. It has the primary tributaries like manjira, Wainganga; Subtributaries like paingunga and wardha and minor tributaries like maner and sabari. It drains into Bay of Bengal. It has a total catchments area of over 315,980 sqkm. 4.2.1 Physico-Chemical characteristics: i) ii) iii) iv) v) Temperature PH Do2 mg/L Co2 Bicarbonates 27.5 to 36.40C 7.2 to 8.3 1.26 -18.2 0.0 6.6 ppm 45.8 -192-2ppm
4.2.2 Fisheries of Godavari River System: The head waters harbour a variety of game fishes but dont support the commercial fisheries. The commercial fisheries consist of carps (major caps, Labeo fimbriatus), large cat fish (Mystus spp., Wallago attu; Bagarius bagarius) and fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Hilsa formed lucrative fisheries and the Indian major carps planted in the river in the beginning in 19th century are thriving well and contributing to the commercial fisheries. 4.2.3 Fishing gears used: The principle gear used in Godavari river system are falls under two categories viz. gill nets, which include setgill nets, drift nets, drag gill nets (Benduvala) and the barrier gillnet (Katu vala). Seines include shore seine (Jaruguvala), Large seine (Allui vala) and dragnet castnets are also employed for fishing.
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4.3
Krishna river system:
The originates in Western Ghats region, south of Poona and finally drains into East coast, with an a length of 1401km covering the state like Maharastra, Karnataka and Andhrapradesh. It has the main tributaries like Bhima (Annual) and Tungabhadra (Perennial). This river system has an total catchments area of 2,33,229 sq km. The physico-chemical characteristics, fish fauna and the fishing gears used similar to the Godavari river system. In general, the physiographic and fish fauna resembles the Godavari river systems. The head waters support rich fishery when compared to mid-stretch, which is rocky and inaccessible. No information is available on its present fishery and catch statistics. 4.4 Cauveri river System:
This river system originates from Brahmagiri hills on western ghat, with an elevation of 1340 m extending to a length of 800 km. this river system covering the states the Karnataka and Tamil Nadu finally drains into Bay of Bengal in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. It has the tributaries like Bhavani, Noyil and Amaravathi. This river system has an total catchment area of 4,70000 sq km. The water resources of the river are extensively exploited as numerous reservoirs, anicuts and barrages have been built on the river. 4.4.1. Physico-Chemical characteristics: i) ii) iii) iv) v) Temperature PH Do2 mg/L Co2 Bicarbonates 26 to 30.90C 7.6 to 8.5 1.26 -18.2 0.0 6.6 ppm 45.8 -192-2ppm
4.4.2 Fisheries of Cauveri river system: The Cauveri river system exhibits substantial variations in its
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fauna - nearly 80 species of fish belong to 23 families have been reported from this river system. Its fish funa differs significantly from Godavari and Krishna river system. The fishes like Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis ; Tor. Putitora; Barbus carnatus; B. dubius; Labeo kontius; L. ariza; Cirrhinus cirhosa; Mystus aor; Mystus seenghala; Pangasius pangasius; Wallago attu; Silonia silonida; Glyptothorax madrapatanus; Gangetic carps such as Catla catla; Labeo rohita; Cirrhinus mrigala and the exotic species Cyprinus carpio and Osphronemus goramy have been transplanted in Cauveri river system. The game fish Tor khudri and T mussullah are found all along the river length except the deltaic stretch. 4.5 West coast river system:
The west coast system comprises the river Narmada and Tapti, both of which flow in westernly direction of the country and drain the narrow belt of peninsular India, west of the western ghats further in the north the system forms basins of Narmada and Tapti and the drainage of Gujarat. 4.5.1. Narmada river system : This river system originates in Amarkantak hills of Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of 1,057 m above the sea level. The length of the river is 1280 km, covering Madhyapradesh and Gujarat states and finally drains into gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. The effective catchments area of this river system is 94235 sq. km and 6330 sq. km of its all tributaries. This river system comprises of total 18 tributaries, of which 16 in Madhya Pradesh and 2 in Gujarat. This river system receives and annual rain fall of 12 115. 4.5.1.1. Fishery of Narmada river system: Narmada river harbors 84 fish species belonging to 23 genera. The contribution of carps in commercial fishery is of the order of 60.4%, followed by catfishes of 34.1 % and miscellaneous fishes of 5.5%. The carp fish groups are Tor tor; Labeo. frimbriatus; L.calabasu; L.bata; L.gonius; Cirrhinus. reba; Puntius. sarana etc, cat fish groups such as
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Mystus seenghala ; M.aor ; M. cavasius; Wallago. Attu ; Clupisoma garua; Ompak bimaculatus and miscellaneous fish groups like Channa spp, Mastacembalus spp; Notopterus notopterus. Cast nets, gill nets and longlines are the fishing gears that are generally used in these waters. 4.5.2. Tapti River System: This river system originates in Mount Vindhya of Satpura range at an elevation of 670 100m above the sea level, with a total length of 720 km. This river system covers the states like Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat and finally drains into Arabian Sea at Dumas near Surat in Gujarat. The total catchments area of this river is 48,000 sq. km and annual rainfall is more or less similar to the Narmada river system. Not much information of fish stock composition and fish yield is available. The main fisheries of this river system are Tor. tor; Mystus. seenghala; M.aor; Wallago attu; Labeo calabasu; L. fimbriatus; Puntius sarana; Cirrhinus mrigala; C. reba, Chupisorna garna; Channa spp; Mastacembalus. armatus. Cast nets, gillnets and long lines and also Mahajal is used as the fishing gear in these waters. 4.6 Factors influencing fish yield from rivers:
The intensity of fishing, nature of exploitation and species orientation are the characteristics of the artisan riverine fisheries and are governed by i) Seasonality of riverine fishing activity ii) Unstable catch composition iii) Conflicting multiple use of river water iv) Cultural stresses leading to nutrient loading and pollution. v) Lack of understanding of the fluvial system and infirm data base.
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vi) vii) viii) ix)
Fragmentary and out molded conservation measures lacking enforcement machinery. Inadequacy infrastructure and supporting services Affordability and playability and Socio- economic and socio-cultural determinant.
An intelligent management strategy has to take cognizance of key parameters such as hydrology, fish stocks and dynamics of their population together with regulatory measures for fishing. Observance of closed seasons and setting up of fish sanctuaries has proved their efficacy in the faster recovery of impaired fisheries. SUMMARY India is blessed with a vast inland water resources in the form of rivers, estuaries, natural and man made lakes. The Inland water bodies have been divided into five major riverine systems and their tributaries extending to a length of about 29,000 km in the country Indus, Ganges, Bramhaputra, East flowing riverine system and West riverine system. All these rivers, their tributaries, canals and irrigation channels have and area of roughly 13000km. These water bodies harbor the original germplasm of one of the richest and diversified fish fauna of the world comprising 930 fish species belonging to 326 genera. The major river systems of India on the basis of drainage can be divided broadly into two major rivers systems. They are (i) Himalayan rivers system (Ganga, Indus and Bramhaputra) and (ii) Peninsular river system (East cost and West coast river system). QUESTIONS 1. Give an account of riverine fishery of India. 2. Give an account on the principle fishes from ganga river system. 3. Write short notes on Godavari and cauveri river system.
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5. COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

5.1 Cold water fisheries: The cold water fishes adopted to live below 10 0C to 20 0C temperature. The upland water at high altitudes of mountains and the spring water at low altitude in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest and the cold water fishes flourish in these region. Such water bodies comprising several hill streams, rapids, pools, lakes and reservoirs are abundantly found in the Himalayan region and in the Deccan plateau region of peninsular India. These are either fed by melting snow and the springs as in north or by the rain water as in Deccan plateau. During recent years, there has been growing realization for development of cold water fisheries in India, since the production from cold water is neglisable in comparison to total inland catch. The trout hatchery established in Kashmir is one of the potential sources from where the brown trout have been transplanted to the upland waters of Jammu, Kashmir, Kullu, Simla, Kangra, Nainital, Shilong and Arunachal. Other hatcheries constructed at Nilgiris and Kerala. 5.1.1 Indigenous cold water fishes: Mahaseer, Snow trout and Indian hill trout are the principle cold water fish species inhabiting the mountain waters of India. Mahaseer fishery of cold water: It is one of the major game fishes of Himalayas. How ever, it has not received attention as exotic fishes in India. It is generally found in large sizes and abundant in quantities from mountain streams and rivers. Some of the important species of mahaseer are: 1) Tor tor (Hamilton): It is characterized by head shorter than the depth of the body. It attains a length of 1.5 m and occurs along the foot hills of Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam and in the river Narmada and Tapti. It is insectivorous in its juvenile stage but becomes herbivorous when adult. It has a prolonged breeding season
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Fig. 5.1 Principal cold water fishes - A. Salmo trutta, B. Tor tor, C. Tor putitora, D. Tinca tinca, E. Salmo gardnerii
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from July to December. The eggs are laid in batches. It constitutes the major fisheries of rivers Narmada and Tapti. 2) Tor putitora (Hamilton): It is commonly called as golden or common Himalayan Mahaseer. It has head longer than the depth of the body. It occurs in Himalayas from Kashmir to Darjeeling hills. This fish breeds thrice in a year, firstly during winter months (January to February), subsequently in summer (May June ) and lastly in August September. 3) Tor mosal (Sykes): Mosal Mahaseer has head more or less equal to the depth of the body. It is found in the Mountain Rivers on foot hills of Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam and Sikkim. 4) Tor mosal mahanadicus: It resembles the mosal mahaseer in all aspects except, it is found in the river Mahanadi and that its head having small eyes is often higher than the depth of the body. 5) Tor khudree (Sykes): It is characterized by its head being as long as the depth of the body. It is found in Orissa and throughout peninsular India. It attains a length of about 1.3 m. 6) Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (Mc Clelland): It is commonly known as copper or chocolate Mahaseer. It has an oblong and compressed body with an obtusely rounded and prominent mouth. The colour of the body is deep bluish grey with darkish fins. These are mainly distributed Upper Ondia,Assam and Cauvery river inTamil Nadu. It attains a length over 60 cm. It differs from Tort or in having hexagonal shape of its scales and the thin lips. 7) Snow trouts: Snow trouts are chiefly represented by two genera, namely Scizothorax and Schizothoraicthys. Schizothoraichthys: It is represented by three species in Himalayas viz. S. richadsonii, S. Plagistomus and S. molesworthi. These are found in snow fed streams of Assam, estern Himalayas, Sikkim, Nepal, Kashmir. The genera is represented by S. esocinus, S. progastus and
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S. kumaonensis, of these, the S. esocinus is found in Kashmir and Ladhak, S. progastus in the hill streams of Ganges at Hardwar and Darjeeling and S. kumaoneus in Nainital. The Indian hill trout: Berilius is known as Indian hill trout. It is represented by four species, namely B. bendelisis, B. bola, B. vagra and B.gatensis. Exotic cold water fishes: The exotic fishes found in the hill streams of India chiefly include the trouts, mirror carps, crucian carps and tenches. 1. Trouts: Exotic trouts in India are represented by three species, two of them belonging to genera Salmo and one to Onchorhynchus. (a). Salmo gairdneri gairdneri It is commonly known as rainbow trout or steel head it is a native of North American Pacific water and was imported to India in1907. Presently, these are one of the most successful trouts of Indian waters for cultural purpose because these adapt easily in comparison to the brown trouts. Moreover, they promptly feed on artificial food and can withstand the high temperature and O2 depleted water as well. Their incubation period is shorter and the rate of development and growth is faster. Upon being well fed, they attain a length of 400-500 mm in three years and weight about 5.5 kg. The body is elongate head short and mouth comparatively small. The color of the body is variable, depending on sex and environment. It is chiefly a river fish but is cultivated in confined water as well .It does not breed in ponds but artificial fertilization is possible. The fry feed mainly on planktons but half grown and adults are carnivorous. It is a game fish too. (b). Salmo trutta fario It is commonly called as brown trout. It is a native of the mountains water of central and Western Europe. This fish was the first one reproduced and reared artificially in India. Although it was introduced to mountain waters of all hills, it could establish itself
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only in the streams and farms at Kashmir and in river beas in Punjab. It feeds upon the crustaceans and large living prey at the bottom. It attains a maximum length about 46.5 cm, depending upon the natural food availability. During breeding seasons, the fish swims up streams to spawn on gravel bedded shallows of fast current water. 5.2 Sport Fisheries Sport fishing is a source of recreation to millions of people from India and abroad and it deserves the status of family recreation. The recreation is an important element of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from the sport fishing. The medical authorities also say it is healthy for people to go fishing. Sport fishing satisfies diverse tastes and pursuits. Most of the well known food fishes are also some of the best known game fishes. The true definition of a game fish or a sport fish is that any fish caught or angled on rod and line putting up some fight and not thrown back in disgust by the angler or sports man. Apart from this, the classifications of fish deal with small and big game fisher generally weighing over 50 Kgs. Trouts, snow trouts and Mahaseers, goonch etc. placed under big game fish category. In addition, there are different kinds of methods within the sport fishing or angling. 5.2.1 Principal Game fishes: The sporting fish includes Mahaseers, trouts and large catfishes etc. The game fish inhabits both fresh and soft waters include small and large species. The brief description of each of the principal game fishes of India exhibits its natural habit at in detailed. Various characters used to distinguish each species from one another include body shape, nature and characteristics of fins, morph metric measurements and natural coloration. Based on their occurrence and ecosystem, the game fishes classified into two groups, such as (a) Fresh water game fishes (b) Estuarine and sea game fishes. The fresh water game fishes listed as follows, Notopterus chitala, Chela argentea, Raimas bola, Tor Chillinoides, Tor putitora, Tor tor, T. khudree,
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Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis, Schizothoraichthys esocinus, Schizothorax planifrons, Catta catla, Labeo calbasu, Labeo rohita, Cirrhinus mrigala, Wallago attu, Clupisoma garua, Silonia silondia, Pangasius pangasius, Eutropiichthys vcha, Mystus (Aoricthys) aor, Mystus seenghala, Bagarius bagarius, Channa striatus, Channa marulius, Anguilla bengalensis and Mastacembelus armatus etc. Eustuarine and Sea game fishes have the following species, Megalops cyprinoides Lates calcarifer, Eleutheronema tetradactylus, Lutjanus argentimaculata, Scomberomorus commersoni, S. guttatus, Sparus berda and Sparus datnia etc. 5.2.2 Fishing equipment: The net and the spear are the earliest fishing methods. These are mainly concerned with the aim of kindling out of water some fish to eat and the equipment developed by them met this requirement very efficiently, devised lure or tackle. Gradually this follows the methods of spoon, plug or artificial fly. The various units of fishing equipment or fishing tackle starting with the lure are in the sequence as follows. Lure, hook, leader, line, reel and rod. In addition to these certain accessories like sinkers and swivels are universally added. The lures are further sub divided in to (a) Spinners and spoons (b) plugs or lures with body and (c) Flies. 5.2.3 Sport Fishing and Tourism: India, one of the many countries of the world, earns considerable foreign exchange through tourism including fishing. Among the carps of the India, several of which give (Mahaseer, trout etc.) good sport. Sport fishing satisfies diverse tastes and persuits. It is a source of recreation of millions of tourists. Angling has already become a source of family recreation of people of all ages, and social economic strata of the society in different countries. Like any other outdoor recreation family-fishing must be geared to provide pleasant experiences to members of both sexes and widely
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varying ages. Besides the other elements of importance in sport fishing is natural environment, water quality, natural beauty, privacy etc. increasing numbers of people to go fishing. Efforts to attract foreign tourists and anglers for Mahaseer fishing from different countries of the world, Air-India got the survey of the Beasriver undertaken by Trek-N-Tour, Himachal, located at Palampur with the aim of developing Mahaseer fishing for tourism. Two English men Martin Clark and Robert Hewitt in 1980, visited Karnataka to fish the cauvery about 100 km from Bangalore. The camped near the river took the permission from the state to the wild-life Association of South India (WASI). Using ragi-pasti, after a few casts the team had their first Mahaseer followed by biggest Mahaseer weighing 92 Lb (41.76 Kgs), 1.7 m in length and 1.0 m in girth. Within 2 months of duration, they caught 40 Mahaseers and later on released in back. Apart from this holding of community activity like seminars, fishing competition and educational camps, encouraging people involved in conservation methods by granting awards for successful performance, and promoting national and international tourism through sport fishing. Besides this issuing of fishing license by the state fisheries department is another task. It should be cleared off immediately whenever the angler need the license for game fishing, so that the department can encourage the participants as well as gain the revenue to the state simultaneously. SUMMARY The cold water fishes adopted to live below 10 0C to 20 0C temperature. The upland water at high altitudes of mountains and the spring water at low altitude in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest and the cold water fishes flourish in these region. Mahaseer, Snow trout and Indian hill trout are the principle cold water fish species inhabiting the mountain waters of India. Sport fishing is a source of recreation to millions of people from India and abroad and it deserves the status of family recreation. The recreation is an important element of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from the
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sport fishing. The medical authorities also say it is healthy for people to go fishing. Sport fishing satisfies diverse tastes and pursuits. QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. Describe the status of coldwater fisheries. Give an account on principal indigenious coldwater fishes. Write a note on sport fishery. Give an account on the importance of sport fisheries in tourism.
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6. RESERVOIR FISHERIES
India has a large spread of fresh water resources in the form of rivers, reservoirs, lakes, ponds. Indian reservoirs, being in the tropics, have high primary productivity and have the capacity to produce more fish than their present low Indian average of 29.7 kg/ha/yr in reservoirs. Reservoir fisheries are essentially a stocking cum capture system. There are 975 reservoirs in the country with a total area of more than 3.15 million hectares. River water is usually running or flowing water. Construction of dam results in the creation of a reservoir or damlake, in which the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic as water approaches the dam. Rise in reservoir depends upon river flow and rain water. A new reservoir passes through three trophic phasesinitial fertility, trophic depression and final fertility. Filling of a reservoir inundates vast area bearing a cover of vegetation. It starts decaying and putrefaction results initial fertilization of the water leading to an intense development of fish food in the form of benthic micro and macro flora and fauna. The initial increase of biota is often spectacular. After the initial high fertility, trophic depression phase sets in. This is cause by gradual diminishing of the rate of nutrient release. This is due to increase in the volume of the impounded water and available nutrients used by the vegetation. After this phase is passed the final fertility level is reached in the reservoir, which is a much lower level than that of initial fertility. 6.1. Reservoir Ecology: Reservoir ecology is changed from the reverine ecology because, in reservoirs, the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic as water approaches the dam. This facilitates entirely different types of fishery called reservoir fishery, to suit the ecology of the reservoir. A reservoir has its own peculiarities in which it differs from natural lakes. The revirine ecology of the water of the upper reaches becomes increasingly changed into lacustrine ecology in the reservoir. The benthic riverine fauna disappears and it is replaced by typical lacustrine benthic
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fauna. With the change in from the lotic to lentic conditions of the water current, riverine plankton are replaced by lacustrine plankton. The turbidity level also reduced as reservoir act as settling basins. Fish fauna is greatly affected. The running water fish species become fewer or completely eliminated. Slow water fish species are predominant. Floating plants may come up, particularly in tropics where they create deoxygenating conditions or cause other serious ecological problems. The dam in some way interferes with the ecology of the upper reaches of the river. Migratory fishes are completely wiped out from the upper reaches. This often leads to disturbances in the ecosystem especially with advantage to the prey. The reservoir it self may affect the ecology of the lower reaches of the river. Periodical discharge of sediments from the reservoirs may cause mud and silting in the lower reaches with serious consequences on the fauna. Reservoir acts as fertility traps, reducing the amount of dissolved plant nutrients which would other wise be freely arriving at the lower reaches. 6.2. Reservoirs in India and AP: Some important reservoirs in India are listed in the table. Name of Dam Rihand Dhandraul Sarda Sagar Dhora Matatila Govid Sagar Beas Hirakud Rana Pratap Sagar Maithon Panchet Ghandi Sagar Mettur State UP UP UP UP UP Punjab & HP Punjab & HP Orissa Rajastan Bihar Bihar MP Tamil Nadu River Rend (Ganga) Bhakar Chuka Sanda (Ganga) Dhora Ganga Sutlej Beas Mahanadi Barakar (Ganga) Damodar (Ganga) Chambal (Ganga) Cauvery
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Bhavani sagar Nagarjuna Sagar Nizam Sagar Tungabhadra Krishnaraj Sagar Neyyar Ukai
Tamil Nadu AP AP Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Gujarat
Bhavani Krishna Mowgina Tungabhadra (Krishna) Cauvery Neyyar -
The following reservoirs are presently suitable for the fish culture in Andhra Pradesh. Nagarjuna Sagar Thandava Tammileru Araniyar and Bahuda Mopad Kanigiri and Duvvuru Somasila Srisailam Moosi and Dindi Manjira and Singoor Wyra, Kinnerasani, Palair Srirama Sagar - Guntur and Nalgonda Districts. - Visakhapatnam - West Godavari - Chitoor - Prakasam - Nellore - Nellore and Cuddapah - Kurnool - Nalgonda - Medak - Khammam - Adilabad and Nizamabad
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Kadam and Sathnala Lower Manair and Upper Manair Nizam Sagar Pakhal 6.3. Classification of reservoirs:
Adilabad Karimnagar Nizamabad Warangal.
The reservoirs are classified by many authors in different ways mainly based on the area of reservoirs. Mohanty (1984) reported three types of reservoirs. Minor reservoirs with water spread area up to 40 ha. Medium reservoirs With water spread area upto 400 ha. Major reservoirs with the water spread area above 400 ha. Pathak (1990) classified the reservoirs into three categories. Large reservoirs covering an area of 5000 and more hectares. Medium reservoirs having impounded water spread area of 1000 5000 hectares. Small reservoirs having water spread area less than 1000 hectares. Agarwal (1990) classified the reservoirs, keeping in view the availabilities and other factors of management into four categories. Large reservoirs the water spread area between 1000 5000 ha. Medium reservoirs the water spread area between 100 1000 ha.
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Minor reservoirs the water spread area between 10 100 ha. Small reservoirs the water spread area below 10 ha. Jhingran and Sugunan (1990) classified the reservoirs into these groups. Large reservoirs the water spread area more than 1000 ha. Medium reservoir the water spread area is in between 500 1000 ha. Small reservoirs the water spread area is less than 500 ha.
6.4. Management of Reservoir fisheries: The fish production from the reservoirs is low, emphasizing the need for attention to shape and develop the reservoir fisheries from the survey and planning stage to achieve high rate of production and better returns for the fishermen, who represent the weaker section of the society. Majority of these water bodies are not scientifically managed. Only a handful has so far been harnessed on scientific lines, while the others are either half-heartedly managed or even not managed at all.
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There are marked variations in the fishery management practices which are followed in various reservoirs within the country. Even though the reservoirs are owned by the Government or Corporate agencies in most of the states, their fishing rights and exploitation systems vary considerably. The fishing systems can be divided into the following broad categories: a). privately owned and managed reservoirs, b). Public water bodies, c). Community water bodies and d). Water bodies managed by the Government. After a scrutiny of the various management practices followed in the country, it is difficult to miss a common underlying spirit of the common property norm. Majority of Indian reservoirs are public properties where a fixed number of licensed fishermen make their living. The exceptions are the small reservoirs in some states like Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh, which are auctioned to private individuals on annual basis. The following steps are to be taken for the development of reservoir fisheries. Some of them are 1. Pre- impoundment survey of the reservoir 2. Removal of obstacles like tree stumps. 3. Fish farm construction at the dam site for stocking of fish seed adequately. 4. Organization of fishermen co-operative society for harvesting the fish in the reservoir and to take up fish marketing. 5. Implementation of conservation methods to prevent over exploitation and to prevent catching of small fish. 6.4.1. Pre impoundment survey: Before formation of reservoir studies and investigations were taken up in the rivers connected to know the possible effects of fisheries. In case of the dams constructed, the dam constructing authorities should facilitate necessary fish ways for fish migration. The authorities also assess the fishermen living in the villages and their craft & tackles that are going under the submergence of the reservoir. The above measures are to be taken up before formation of the reservoir to assess and to plan for future development of fishery in the reservoir.
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6.4.2. Removal of obstacles under submergence: After formation of the reservoir, it should facilitate easy fishing with modern fishing methods. To facilitate the above, the trees, buildings, boulders are to be removed either by mechanical means or manually. 6.4.3. Construction of fish seed farms at dam site: Some of the reservoirs have got river connection as such, they will have natural stocking of fish seed (auto stoking). The reservoirs, which will have a deep column of water, will greatly affect the breeding grounds of the fish. Further more the height of the dam is another major obstruction for the movement of the fish from the lower stretch of the river to upper stretches. All these factors leads to low productivity, which drags the attention of many authorities towards the fish seed stocking every year in the reservoirs. Keeping in view of this, planning has to be done for establishment of a fish seed farm near the dam site. The Department of fisheries, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh made an attempt to promoting the fishery wealth in the reservoirs, by constructing the fish seed farms at Thandva, Wyra, Kinnerasani, Palair, Nagarjuna Sagar, Nizam Sagar, Dindi, Jurala, Kadam, Araniyar, Bahuda, Somasila, Sriram Sagar and Lower Manair dam. 6.4.4. Stocking of the fish seed in reservoirs: An adequate sized fish seed should be stocked in the reservoirs. The tender stages of fish seed like fry (22-25 mm), fingerlings (40-50 mm) are susceptible and are to be eaten by the carnivorous fishes. Hence the reservoirs to be stocked with an advanced fingerlings (100-120 mm). Stocking of reservoirs with fingerlings of economically important fast growing species to colonies all the diverse niches of the biotype is one of the necessary prerequisites in reservoir fishery management. This has proved to be a useful tool for developing fisheries potential of such small aquatic systems. Agarwal (1990) recommended the following stocking rates in reservoirs. 1. 2. Large reservoirs (1000 -5000 ha) 500 fry/ha/yr. Medium reservoirs (100-1000 ha) 1000 fry/ha/yr.
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3. 4.
Minor reservoirs (10-100 ha)- 2000 fry/ha/yr. Small reservoirs (below 10 ha) 10000 fry/ha/yr.
Srivastava (1985) recommended the following stocking rates of fingerlings for reservoirs in India. 1. 2. 3. Large reservoirs (5000 -10000 ha) 200 fry/ha/yr. Medium reservoirs (1000-5000 ha) 400 fry/ha/yr. Minor reservoirs (up to 1000 ha) - 1000 fry/ha/yr.
6.4.5. Implementation of conservancy methods to prevent over exploitation: It has been observed that fishes of mature major carp fishes migrate to the rivers for breeding, where the fishermen lead to catch them and destroy their breeding grounds. The breeding grounds of these fishes are to be identified and necessary protective measures are to be taken up. It is also observed that during rainy season, the big fishes migrate towards the dam site along the canals and congregate at the gates, which has been catch by the fishermen folk. This is to be reduced. The conservancy methods like mesh size regulation, observing the closed season for fishing, strict observation of prohibiting the unethical means of fishing are to be implemented strictly by the Government. 6.4.6 Species enhancement: Decline of indigenous fish stocks due to habitat loss, especially that caused by dam construction, is a universal phenomenon. Planting of economically important, fast growing fish from outside with a view to colonising all the diverse niches of the biotope for harvesting maximum sustainable crop from them is species enhancement. It can be just stocking of a new species of introductions. Here introduction means one time or repeated stocking of a species with the objective of establishing its naturalised populations. This widespread management practice has more relevance to larger water bodies where stocking and recapture on a sustainable basis is not feasible.
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6.4.7 Introduction of exotics : In India, the fish transferred on trans-basin basis within the geographic boundaries of the country is not considered as exotic and there are no restrictions on them. Thus, catla is not regarded as exotic to peninsular rivers. This is despite the fact that the peninsular rivers have habitats distinctly different from those of Ganga and Bhrahmaputra. Catla, rohu. and mrigal have been stocked in the peninsular reservoirs for many decades now. with varying results. In some of the south Indian reservoirs, they have established breeding populations. The hallmark of the Indian policy on introductions is the heavy dependence on Indian major carps. There is evidence that the Gagetic major carps have affected the species diversity of peninsular cyprinids. The Indian policy on stocking reservoirs, though not very explicit, disallows the introduction of exotic species into the reservoirs. However, common carp is very popular in reservoirs of the northeast where it enjoys a favourable microclimate and a good market. Silver carp and grass carp are not normally encouraged to be stocked in Indian reservoirs, though they are stocked regularly in a few small reservoirs. The three exotic species brought in clandestinely by the fish farmers, bighead carp..Aorichthys nobilis, Oreochromis niloticus and African catfish Clarius gariepinus have not gained entry into the reservoir ecosystems. They still remain restricted to the culture systems. 6.4.8 Environment enhancement: The improvement of the nutrient status of water by the selective input of fertilisers is a very common management option adopted in intensive aquaculture. If similar environmental enhancement is adopted in small reservoirs, stocks can be maintained at levels higher than the natural carrying capacity of the environment. However, scientific knowledge to guide the safe application of this type of enhancement and the methods to reverse the environmental degradation, if any. is still inadequate. On account of all these, this is not a very common management tool. China is known to have used this instrument in a big
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way to augment production from small reservoirs. Cuba, taking a clue from China has tried manuring of small reservoirs using both organic and inorganic fertilisers. This is also practised selectively in the community water bodies of Thailand. Fertilisation of reservoirs as a means to increase water productivity through abetting plankton growth has not received much attention in India. Multiple use of the water body and the resultant conflict of interests among the various water users are the main factors that prevent the use of this management option. Surprisingly, fertilisation has not been resorted to even in reservoirs which are not used for drinking water and other purposes. Documentation on fertilisation of reservoirs in India is scarce. Sreenivasan and Pillai (1979) attempted to improve the plankton productivity of Vidur reservoir by the application of super phosphate with highly encouraging results. As soon as the canal sluice was closed, 500 kg super phosphate with P,O5 content of 16 to 20 % was applied in the reservoir when the water spread was 50 ha with a mean depth of 1.67 m. As an immediate result of fertilisation, phosphate content of water increased from nil to 1.8 ppm and that of soil from 0.242 to 0.328 %. Similar improvements in organic carbon nitrogen have been reported from soil and water phases on account of fertilisation. Experiments were also conducted with urea in the same reservoir. Fertilisation can play a key role in many small reservoirs of India which require correction of oligotrophic tendencies. A number of reservoirs in Madhya Pradesh. the Northeast and the Western Ghats receiving drainage from poor catchments show low productivity, necessitating artificial fertilisation. Chinese experience in fertilising the small reservoirs for increasing productivity has been reassuring (Yang etal., 1990). Fertilisers are less effective in soft water with total alkalinity less than 20 ppm. Soft waters have inadequate carbon usually in the form of carbon dioxide and can often be enhanced by applying lime to low alkalinity impounded waters. The application of lime equivalent to 2,000 to 6.000 kg/ha calcium carbonate is generally sufficient to maintain total alkalinity above 20 ppm.
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6.5.
Suggestive model for management of reservoirs:
The concept of fishery- business model was developed by Desai in 1984. The main components of this model are macro-fisheries and micro fishery systems. Macro-fishery system again composed with fish supply system, fish production system and fish marketing system. The micro fishery system contains fishery input sub system, fishery credit subsystem, fishery extension subsystem, fishery education sub system, fishery habitat sub system, fishery research subsystem, fishery regulation subsystem, fishery administration subsystem, fishery exploitation subsystem, fishery processing subsystem and fishery distribution sub system. 6.6. Natural fishery in reservoir:
The following fishery wealth is available in the major reservoirs of Andhara Pradesh. The Fishes like Wallago attu; Mystus species; Heteropneustes fossilis; Clarias sp; Major carps like Catla catla; Labeo rohita; Cirhinus mrigala and other carps like C. reba; Thynicthus sandkhol etc,. The fresh water Eel, fresh water prawns, Murrels are also available in the reservoirs. 6.7 Planning criteria In keeping with the need for rapid assessment of the countrys small reservoir resources, the following planning criteria are suggested for the resource assessment at the State level for the preparation of an inventory of such small reservoir ecosystems along with the estimates of their potential yields under the categories - a. Reservoirs which are best developed as capture fisheries, b. Reservoirs mostly of local interest having significant potential for fish culture; and c.Reservoirs intermediate in size and potential yield. These under-utilised fishery resources offer immense scope and potential for generating additional national income of the order of more than Rs. 100 crores per year and providing additional employment to lakhs of fishermen and others through fishing, handling, transport, marketing and ancillary industries. A systematic and integrated approach
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towards scientific studies and planning criteria for undertaking fish culture in small reservoirs should be so directed as to have an understanding of the following factors. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The reservoir morphometry and water residence time. The physico-chemical characteristics of water and soil. The animal and plant inhabitants. Growth rate of commercially important fish species, and The relation between the inhabitants and the physico-chemical aspects of the environment in terms of population and community dynamics.
It is felt that under the prevailing socio-economic conditions, such short-range studies undertaken for small reservoirs would provide a rapid assessment of their fisheries potential to take up fish culture in them. SUMMARY India has a large spread of fresh water resources in the form of rivers, reservoirs, lakes, ponds. Indian reservoirs, being in the tropics, have high primary productivity and have the capacity to produce more fish than their present low Indian average of 29.7 kg/ha/yr in reservoirs. Reservoir fisheries are essentially a stocking cum capture system. There are 975 reservoirs in the country with a total area of more than 3.15 million hectares. Construction of dam results in the creation of a reservoir or damlake, in which the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic as water approaches the dam. Rise in reservoir depends upon river flow and rain water. A new reservoir passes through three trophic phasesinitial fertility, trophic depression and final fertility. Reservoir ecology is changed from the reverine ecology because, in reservoirs, the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic as water approaches the dam. This facilitates entirely different types of fishery called reservoir fishery, to suit the ecology of the reservoir. A reservoir has its own peculiarities in which it differs from natural lakes.
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The fish production from the reservoirs is low, emphasizing the need for attention to shape and develop the reservoir fisheries from the survey and planning stage to achieve high rate of production and better returns for the fishermen, who represent the weaker section of the society. Majority of these water bodies are not scientifically managed. Only a handful has so far been harnessed on scientific lines, while the others are either half-heartedly managed or even not managed at all. QUESTIONS 1. 2. What is an reservoir ? Give an account on reservoir ecology. Explain various steps taken for development of reservoir fisheries.
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7. OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES

The fish resources are no longer considered to be infinite. But at the same time, the current thinking is that fish is renewable sources. Regulations of proper inputs can make the fishery as a sustainable process, if it is tuned with the ecosystem of which it is an end product. Fish technology is very diverse, embracing aspects as varied as biology and bionomics, fish detection and location of fish stock, fish behavior. During 1950s and 1960s witnessed the explosion of fishing technologies. Use of radars and sonar helped in detection and location of fish schools, boosting up the exploitation of the high seas and oceans. Improvement in fishing vessels, enable to reach close to the fishing grounds and improvement in gears for industrial fishing to deal with capture the bulk amount of catches further added for the exploitation, there by the over fishing eventually becomes a common practice in industrial fishing. Globally about 70% of conventionally preferred food species are subjected to overfishing. Last few decades the world wide fish catches declined, that were at peak in the Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean oceans where as Indian ocean was the last to be subjected to over fishing. The impact of the over fishing was felt in many ways. More over fishing to meet the supplies made the situation worse. Subsidies coming from respective Governments rise to meet out the deficits in the fishing industry and to keep employment. Resort to fishing of species situated lower in the food web and having lesser food value boomeranged in loss of food to large wild fish, causing further declining in their population. The commercial important alternative resources to wild fish [fish culture, shrimp culture or the other aquaculture practices] did not bring much improvement in the situation in the face of ever increasing fish demand resulting from ever increasing growth of human population. There are in fact two cases of overfishing. They are (i). Growth overfishing and (ii). Recruitment overfishing. It is necessary to understand the reasons of the two kinds of overfishing before managerial measures may be correctly applied.
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(i). Growth overfishing: It is a case of overfishing which result from fishing of such a high intensity that all the large-sized individuals of the population are removed. As a consequence, subsequent fishing catches smaller and still smaller individuals of the population. Thus, small-sized individuals are captured before their potential is fully realized. Some corrective measures that have been found use full includes (i). Use of nets of large meshes size so that small sized individuals can escape from the catch in any event; (ii). Reduction of fishing intensity so that smallsized individuals may get time to survive to attain full growth potential. (ii). Recruitment overfishing: It occurs when the intensity of fishing of mature individuals is excessively high. In such a situation, the population is not able to recover the numerical loss, because the rate of reproduction is insufficient to make good the loss. The population eventually declines. The corrective measures includes: (i). Reduction in intensity of fishing to the extent that may ensure a sizeable number of sexually mature individuals that may not be removed by fishing so that enough recruitment to the population is assured. It will be necessary to make correct prediction about what recruitment it is going to be for a given population of sexually mature individuals, such a prediction may not be easy. Economic fall out: When population of edible species decline considerably due to overfishing, sea food prices go up. To keep a check on price rise many countries resorts to shrimp farming which though very expensive has to be undertaken to preserve employment. Enthusiasm of fishing between 1970 and 1990 doubled the fishing ships in the total tonnage and in number, resulting in growth of the fishing fleet twice the rate of the fish catch. But then this became counter productive due to over capitalization. There were more ships than the marine resources could support for the economic catches, necessitating their removal to make a fishery profitable. But removal of boats may not be feasible, as the owners,
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who are unable to sell them until loans are paid up, land in a kind of economic trap. 7.1. Effect of dams and barrages on fisheries:
River systems in the country have been developed by constructing dams and barrages across the rivers for purpose of irrigation, flood control, navigation, power generation, water storage for public supplies, recreation, development of fisheries and sport fishing. Dams usually comprise a massive concrete wall built across a stream or river leading to the formation of vast reservoir upstream of the bunds. It often stretches to hundreds of miles. Dams, weirs, barrages and anicuts raise the water level for facilitating diversion of the flow. Weirs cannot discharge water over its crest or through wide openings. The barrage is weirs provided with sluice openings. Anicuts is a low barrage built for irrigation purposes. Dams holds water for public supply and allow excess of water to pass out over a spill way. Dams, which are more complicated, have built in spill ways through which the volume of the discharge can be regulated by a system of gates to meet the down-stream needs of water. As time advances more and more of the above structures will be coming into existence. The river valley projects interfere with the riverine environment, inevitably affecting the fishery resources of the concerned rivers. The effects of dams and barrages on fish population can be categorized into obstruction and ecological changes. 1. Obstructions Dams and other structures act as physical barriers to migration, tending to prevent access of the fish to their usual breeding, rearing and feeding grounds. The denial of migration may result in permanent and irrevocable reduction of fish stocks. The new environment so created may be occupied by undesirable species. 2. Ecological changes Ecological changes adversely affect both the migratory and non-migratory species of fishes. Due to the dam construction and reservoir formation, substantial morphological changes
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take place in Original River both above and below the dam site. Due to the dams, torrential water converts into a water body or reservoir of slow discharge characteristics and radical changes take place in organisms. Some species shift to new spawning grounds, anadrmous fish tend to settle down, intra- specific biological differentiation of fish occur, egg laying substrate change take place and torrential fish gradually disappear. Other changes like inundation of spawning grounds, fluctuations in water levels, alterations in the physico-chemical conditions of spawning grounds, disappearance of marsh lands, complete change in turbid and silting patterns occur which may result in the failure of spawning of many important fishes. Reduction of flow in the residual rivers tailing below the dam, alters the ecology of the spawning grounds, which even dry up. Reduction of water level result in the formation of shallow areas which obstruct the fish movements. The reduction of water discharge due to the construction of dam in estuarine areas result in the changes in temperature and salinity in brackish waters. The construction of dam across a river results in the creation of a reservoir. These constructions restrict the migration of the fishes and effect the population. Even in certain cases there is a chance of disappearance of the fish races in nature. Based on the migratory habits, fish can be classified in to three types: They are a) b) c) Resident species which prefers to remain confined to the local territories Local migrants which tend to perform seasonal migration within the short distances for breeding, feeding and Long distance migrants which prefers regular annual migrations for feeding or breeding.
Indian shad, Hilsa hilisa migration is restricted to the portion of the rivers below the anicuts and barraiges and the fisheries bearing on these stocks declined considerably. In these streatches of the rivers above the anicuts hilsa fishery has been rendered practically non-existent. Another bad effect has been found in the case of Pangasius pangasius
OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES
45
in Ganga, Brahmputra,Mahanadi and Godavari rivers. Dams located on the lower and middle reaches of these rivers obstruct the migration of this fish and adversly affect its population. Torrential fishes like Glyptothorax, Leptognathus can not survive in reservoirs and there is a chance of disappearance of their races in nature. Hence fish ways and fish lifts are provided at dam sites to help the migratory fish to negotiate the dam height. Fish ways are expensive to build and operative. Summary The fish resources are no longer considered to be infinite. But at the same time, the current thinking is that fish is renewable sources. Regulations of proper inputs can make the fishery as a sustainable process, if it is tuned with the ecosystem of which it is an end product. There are in fact two cases of overfishing. They are (i). Growth overfishing and (ii). Recruitment overfishing. As time advances more and more of the above structures will be coming into existence. The river valley projects interfere with the riverine environment, inevitably affecting the fishery resources of the concerned rivers. The effects of dams and barrages on fish population can be categorized into obstruction and ecological changes. The construction of dam across a river results in the creation of a reservoir. These constructions restrict the migration of the fishes and effect the population. Even in certain cases there is a chance of disappearance of the fish races in nature. QUESTIONS 1. 2. Give a detailed account on dams and barrages on fish migrations. Write a note on over fishing.
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8. FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

India, with its long sea-coast and extensive reverine and estuarine waters, has a big wealth of fish fauna. In fact, the success of fisheries in a country depends on proper catch of its fish fauna, for which the use of modernised crafts and gears. In India, a large variety of crafts (boats) have been designed for marine and Inland fishing. The nets or gears and other devices for catching fishes are also numerous and ingenious. But both crafts and gears were invented centuries ago and probably have remained static and have shown little or no change or improvement in India, unlike in other maritime countries. This has hindered or restricted the exploitation for our seas and Inland waters i.e. river, lakes, etc. It is only in the last decade or two of 20th century that some attempts have been made to use motor boats and modern steam vessels for the purpose. Actually the capture of fishes is as important as pisci-culture methods. 8.1 FISHING CRAFT Fishing crafts are most essential for cathing the fish in large scale in water bodies. Even these crafts are essential when the fishing grounds are far from the coast. Before the advent of mechanisation of fishing crafts, man living on the shores of oceans and banks of estuaries, was nourished by the fish that could be captured by using what even the craft that he would use. In most countries usually indigenous, nonmechanised and locally built fish crafts are in vouge. These crafts have been design to suit the local conditions the population captured. The types of fishing crafts of India falls under two general catagories. These are non machanised and machanised fishing crafts. The catagories of fishing craft types comes under non machanised are catamaran, dugout-canoes, plant built canoes, masula boat, built up boats. The machanised crafts are line boats, trap boats, dolnetter, gillnetter, trawlers. Some of the different kinds of fishing crafts used in are discussed below.
FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR
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Fig. 8.1 Fishing craft a) dug out canoe, b) outrigger canoe, c) masula boat. d) dinghi
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Fig. 8.2 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). gill netter, b) stern trawler
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Fig. 8.3 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). purse seiner
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Fig. 8.4 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). longliner (i) Catamaran: The simplest type of fishing craft may be taken as the one formed by a few curved logs of wood joined together forming a kind of floating raft, such as the ones used along the east coast of India. Four variations may be recognised, namely the Orissa type, Andhra type, Coromandal type and Kanyakumari type. a. Coromandel type - It is probably the original Tamil Nadu type. It is made up of 3-5 logs and the accessory pieces like stem parts and rowing sails are added. Rowing sails regulate the movement of the raft. A variation of coromandel type with 7 logs called Kolamaram which is used in the capture of flying fishes of Nagapatnam.
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b. Orissa and Ganjam type- It is probably made up of 5 longs which are not tied together by rope, but are pegged with wood. The planks are cut in such a way that the catamaran takes the shape of a boat. This type is mainly used in the coastal water of Puri and Ganjam district of Orissa. c. Andhra type or Vishakhapatnam type : It is a variation of Orissa and Ganjam type, but larger (5-7 meters long) and made of heavy wood. The plants used in fitting the sides are strong, median logs. (ii) Dug-out canoes: A simple type of fishing craft for fishing within short distances from the coast is a small-sized canoe made by scooping logs of wood in the form of boat. The Odams, Thonies, Vanchies etc. of the southeast and south-west coasts of INdia are included in this category. In calm weather, oars may be enough for propulsion; but if winds and currents prevail, sails may be used. (iii) Plank-built canoes: This is an enlarged variety of dug-out canoe made of planks on the sides, largely used in localities such as Kerala. (iv) Masula boats: It is made of nonrigid planks sewn together with coir ropes as the ones along Andhra coast. (v) Dhinghi: This is a carvel type of boat designed and constructed for a variety of purposes including fishing. (vi) Outrigger canoes: Some times plank-built canoes may be provided with a single outrigger as in the rampani boats used for capturing mackerel in Karnataka.
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(vii) Built-up boats: In most of the boats made at present, the carvel type of boats are built up of planks. The best type of built-up boats are seen in centres along the north-eat coast of India. Mechanized boats : With the advent of mechanization of the fishign crafts small and medium sized boats, 10 to 15 m long, are constructed with engines operated by oil for venturing to distant coastal areas in search of fishing grounds. (viii) Hand line boat: Hand line boats can be operated both in the shallow and deeper waters. The traditional hand liners use no winch. In India the gear usually consists of a few meters of monofilament of 0.5 mm to 1 mm dia to the end of which is attached a hood and a sinkder, usually a small stone. They are used to catch all kinds of demersal fish from motorised as well as small mechanised vessels. (ix) Pole and line fishing vessel: Pole and line fishing vessels are fitted with a narrow platform protruding all round the vessel at deck level, outside the bulwarks. The platform extends forward from the stern to the fore-end like a bowspirt. The crew stand on the platform with their backs to the reil when fishing with the poles. The most popular craft for pole and line fishing in India is mass odi of Minicoy. It is a wooden craft 12.5m long and 3m wide at the stern, made from venteak, coconut or aini wood. The aft end is provided with a broad raised fishing platform. The propulsion of the craft is by sail or by oars. There is a crew compliment of 20 to 25 men on each craft. (x) Trolling vessel: Trolling line boats tow lines extending on either side to catch pelagic species having high individual value and good quality: examples are tuna and baracuda. A number of lures hanging from outrigger poles through lines are towe from a slowly moving vessel. The fish hooked after snapping at the lure are brought on board as the line is hauled in.
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Table. 8.1. Details of fishing crafts

Sl. No Pa r t icula r s of t he cr a ft Ca t a ma r a n Longt a ile d mot or is e d ca t a ma r a n 5mtrs to 8mtrs 1.2mtrs 1/2 ton F.R .P Te ppa Ka k ina da Na va M e cha nis ed Ka k ina da Na va 7- 9mtrs 1.5- 1.75 mtrs 0.75to0.8mtrs 2.5 to 3.5 ton Teak
1. 2. 3. 4.
Length Beam Depth Tonmage (to carry) Material for construction Propulsion (speed/hr) Horse power of the engine No.of crew Name of the engine Endurance
4mtrs to 7mtrs 0.75 to 1mtr 1/2 ton
8 to 9mtrs 1mtr- 1.3mtr 0.5mtrs 1.0 to 1.5 ton
6- 9mtrs 1.5 to 1.75 mtrs 0.75mtrs 2.5 ton
5.
light anc light and F.R.P cheep wood cheap wood (bombax) rowing & soil 1 knot motor, soil and roving (3knots) 4 H.P 4 lambardine yamaha 10hrs motor, soil and rowing; 4 knots 5 H.P 4 lambardine yamaha 12hrs
Teak soil & rowing 1 knot 5 -
6.
motor & soil 4knots
7. 8. 9.
4 -
15to20 H.P 5 kirlosker ruston more than 12hrs (one day) Harbour Ice boxes 1/2''to6''size 20to30nets mono filament HDP gill net; hook & line fishing
10 .
5- 6hrs
12hrs
11. 12.
Landing
any where any where any where any where on the coast on the coast on the coast on the coast Nil 1/2''to2''size 5- 6N os mono filament HDP Nil 1/2''to2''size 7to12Nos mono filament HDP Nil 1/2''to6''size 20to30nets mono filament HDP
Preservation Nil facilities Mesh size and No.of nets Type of yadn/tuine Fishing methods 1/2''to2''size 5- 6N os mono filament HDP
13.
14.
15.
gill net, long gill net, line and cast cast net and net line fishing
gill net, long gill net, cast net, line hooks & fishing line fishing
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The lures afdter detaching the fish are put again into the water. The vessel lengths vary between 25 - 50. and have normally a forward wheelhouse arrangement. allowing a clear working deck aft. (xi) Dol netter: The dol netters are used for operating the dol nets, which are basically fixed bag nets. The dol netter varies form 8-14mm lenght , 1.5m to 3.6m in breadth and 0.8m to 1.8m in height. The carrying capacity of each of such boats varies from 2-14 tonnes. Each of these boats are fitted with 2-4 cylinder diesel engines. (xii) Gill netter: Vessels of almost any size can undertake gill netting. The number of nets used for fishing are adjusted to suit the size of the operating vessel. The vessels vary in length between 25 and 55. The deck must be so laid out that the gear can be conveniently stowed, with a clear passage from bow to stern so that the gear can be passed after haulijng. An arrangement with wheel house and engine room forward or aft may be used depending on the operating method adopted. In a typical arrangement with the engine and wheel house in the aft configuration, sufficient deck space must be available aft of the house for storing and handling the net. A forward arrangement can also be used for side hauling, in which case the wheel house is sometimes so located to provide a clear working passage aft. (xiii) Stern trawlers: Fishing over the stern can be a very efficient way of trawling. Stern trawling is the most wide-spread method of fishing in India. The vessels range in size from 32 to 55 in length and may be fitted with 60 to 120 horsepower engine and above. Vessels above 45 in length may also be constructed in steel. The most common deck layout is such that the wheel house is just forward of amidships with working deck aft. The winch powered by the engine is located behind the wheel house with the warps leading to the gallows located at the middle or sides of the stern, from which the otterboards hang.
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8.2 FISHING GEAR The word fishing gear is synonymous for fishing net which is used to catch the fish in the water bodies. Generally the fishing gears are categorized as active and passive gears. The passive gear needs knowledge of behavioural biology of the fish to be caught, as the fish has to enter the stationery gear voluntarily. In the case of active gears, they are operated (either towed by boat or moved by hand) in the path of the fish concentration and general energy intensive, more productive than the pissive gear. Fishing gears are also referred as drift nets or set nets depending on whether the nets are moved in water or made to remain stationery in water. Normally selection of a particular fishing gear (whether active or passive gear) is done according to the type of species caught in the fishing grounds. It is well known that the concentrations of fishes in water bodies occur in both horizontal and vertical strata. These fish concentrations commonly referred as fish shoals. These shoals occur for many reasons such as food and feeding habits, spawning and migrations of fish species, which depends on many parameters such as water depth, bottom topography, physio-chemical conditions of water bodies. Occurrence of fish shoals may differ from region to region. Fish shoals are sometimes dense or scattered. For a dense fish shoal, encircling gears like purse seine, gill net are used to catch them since the fishes will not escape the gear easily, whereas in scattered fish shoals, gears like trawl net, longline etc., are used. From the point of ecological sustainance, the fishing gear should be environmental friendly, in that it should not trap, kill or harm the unwanted fish species. 8.2.1. Fishing Gear Material The various materials available for the preparation of fishing gear comes from three sources. They are (A) Natural fibres (from Vegetable sources) (B) Inorganic fibres (from mineral sources) and (C) Synthetic fibres (from chemical sources).
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A. Natural Fibres : They are from vegetable materials which include Fruit ( coir for making ropes).,Seed (cotton for making twine webbing.), leaf ( Manila and Sisal for ropes) and Stalk ( Hemp, linen and Re nie for making twine). Natural fibres obtained from the natural resources and include vegetable fibres and Animal fibres. Out of these, vegetable fibres alone are used for making the fishing gear. B. Inorganic fibres: They are from Mineral Sources like Iron, Zinc, Aluminium, lead, copper, etc, for making hooks, floats, wires, C. Synthetic fibres : They are of Chemical.origin and includes HOPE, Nylon , and Plastics for making twine for webbing, ropes and floats. a. Seed fibres:Seed fibres are found within the seed shell covering the seeds. These fibres are short and single celled. Eg: Cotton (Twine for net webbing) Cotton: The material, obtained from the twisted hairs, that surround the seeds of the cotton plant. These hairs are very fine and are about 5 cms in length with a diameter of 25 micromes. These dimensions are obtained only from the best cotton . he American cotton is considered as the best one which is known as Sea - Island cotton . The American and Egyptian cotton fibbers are long and Indian cotton fibber is rather short. The surface of the cotton fibre is covered with a thin film of cotton wax. This melts at above 60 degrees centigrade and therefore immersion in boiling water for about 30 minutes would make a preservative into the cell structure itself. The cells are not damaged at the temperature of boiling water only. They disintegrated at 160 degrees centigrade. These fibres are having a characteristics of resistance to bent. If the fibre is exposed continuously or for a long time to sun it becomes weak. So, fibres white colour with lustre are the best. The Dark, brown colour fibres, are inferior. It is the best natural fibre is comparatively cheaper than other fibres for net making. Cotton in the form of yarns, twines or ropes is available.
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b. Stalk fibres : It is produced from the inner beak of the stem or the main stalk of the plants. These fibres are long and multi celled. Eg : Hemp, Remie and Jute (Twine for webbing) Hemp and Jute are produced from the plants of (a) Cannabis sativa (True hemp) (b) Crotalaria Juncia (Sur hemp) and (c) Chorchorus capsulasis (Jute). The fibres of the hemp is stronger than that of linin but has less flexibility. The good varieties of these fibres have a length of about 7 feet. It absorbs more water. The large meshed nets are made with hemp twine. The hemp ropes are cheap. Remie: It is also called Chinese grass. The fibres are long and white in colour and have good elasticity, but have little flexibility .They are very strong and good for lines but not good for nets as it breaks on the knots. The fibre is extracted from the bast of BOCHMERIA plant. Linen: It is extracted from the flex plant, which grows to a height of about two feet. The fibres are strong and pliable and easy to card. The strongest threads are made from this material but high cost prevents use in fishing industry ; c. Leaf fibres: Leaf fibres are the fibres extending lengthwise through the pulp tissues of long leaves or leaf stems. These fibres are also: long and multicelled. Eg : Sisal and Manila (for preparation of ropes) SISAL: The fibre is produced from the plant known as Agava rigida sisalana (related to pine apple plant). The fibre is about 4 feet long and it is not stronger than Manila. It absorbs wafer and swells when immersed. It has a less flexibility and it is to be greased during preparation. It is not used for making nets and only ropes are made. Manila : These fibres are derivative from the leaf stalk of Agave Sisalama plant known as Musa textiles. The fibres are strong and elastic but less flexible than hemp. The Manila fibres are not absorber as hemp but have to greased to raise the quality of flexibility. The fibres are from 6 to 8 inches long length easily attain upto 12 feet (long. Manila ropes are the best. d. Fruit fibres : These are produced from the busk of nuts. Coir Eg (for ropes)
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COIR fibre is produced from the fruit of the coconut palm and they are 6 to 12 inches in length. The fibre is not as strong as other fibres mentioned above. It is having a qualities of flexibility and high elasticity. It takes up a little water and float but on continuous immersion it absorbs water and swells. Only ropes are made from coir. Metallic fibres They are made of iron material and used as cables, accessories for trawl net etc., Synthetic fibres The synthetic fibres are made available from cellulose, protein (Natural polymers) and chemical substances (synthetic polymers) having the composition of Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen etc A polymer is produced by a process known as Polymerisation. Synthetic polymers : They are divided into three main compounds based on their formation. They a) Polycondensation compunds b) Polymeric compounds and c) Polyadditive compound. The synthetic polymers, and mixed polymers Polyamide: It is a combination produced when dibasic acid combined with deamine. Eg. Nylon, Kurlon Polymerisation where no elimination of water molecules during the formation of the compound, gives compounds known as Poly vinyl products They include Poly vinyl alcohol., Poly vinyl chloride, Poly, vinyl nitrate and Poly vinyl ethylene. The P.V.C synthetic materials are used for preparation of floats. 8.2.2 Other materials used for gear A. Floats: Floats are lighter than water as they are made up of buoyant materials, which are very essential for nets to keep nets in desired position and shape during fishing operation. Float are of two
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kinds. (1) Low density material like cork, wood, plastic, sponge, etc. (2) High density material, but which contain air, which makes them lighter than air.. The resultant force or lifting capacity of the float is called the extra buoyancy. The quality of a float depends on Buoyancy. Withstanding to the pressure. Resistance to abrasion and Rotting and less Water absorbency B. Sinkers; Sinkers are used to keep a net in vertical position or to make the bottom of net rest on or ride to the sea bed. While selecting the materials for sinkers the specific negative buoyancy of the material is to be considered and not the specific gravity. The materials used are lead, chain, stones, cement concrete sinkers, etc. The lead is the best material for making sinkers. C. Anchors: Anchors are necessary to hold the boats and as well as nets. Common Anchor, has the shank, the arms and the stock set at right angles to one another. Patent Anchor has a stock, but the arms are movable and can Divert on both sides of the shank.Graphels Anchor has four or more arms. 8.2.3 Properties of gear materials 1. 2. Density: It is the quantity of matter contains in unit/volume. Strength: Strength is a term used for defining both tenacity and tensile strength. a) Tenacity: Breaking load per unit resultant. b) Tensile strength: It is the load that can be taken just before breaking. Breaking strength: It is the load which causes the material to break. Dry and wet breaking strengths are to be noted while selecting the material for the fabrication of fishing nets. Knot Strength : It is the breaking force of a libre or Yarn in which a simple knot has been made (over hang knot). Extensibility: It is the change in diameter of the netting materials in the direction of load where a load is applied. The extension at the time of breaking is called thebreaking extension or breaking strength.
3. 4. 5.
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6.
7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
Elasticity: Netting materials are extended when they are under stress and when the stress is removed this extension may decrease totally or in part. The ability to recover the extension is called elasticity. Water absorbency: It is the property of netting materials to absorb water when it,is immersed in water. The material which has less water absorbency may be considered as the best material for fishing nets. The absorbency of water is less in the case of synthetic fibres (e.g. nylon-6%, cotton - 43.9 %). Rot resistance: It is the property of netting material to withstand or resist the attack of bacteria and fungus. Abrasion resistance : It is the ability of netting materials to withstand wear and tear during usage. Chemical resistance: It is the ability of the netting material to withstand the effect of chemicals. Weather resistance: It is the property of netting materials to withstand the atmospheric variations like moisture, temperature, dust, etc., Visibility: It is the property of netting materials to be seen in water during operations. A reduced visibility may effect better catches. Shrinkage: Generally, the length of netting materials changes when they are immersed in water. Usually the length is reduced and this property is called shrinkages.
8.7. Terminology and numbering system of yarns The size of thickness of yarn is expressed by a system known as yarn numbering system a. British system : It is count number based on length/unit mass and is not being used in India. b.Metric system : It is based on length/unit weight. It means when 1000 metres or one kilo metre length of a single yarn weigh one kilogram It is called code No. 1 (n.w.1) and so on
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Denier System: It is used for denoting the size of synthetic yarn, expressed in terms of its weight/unit length. It is defined that a denier 5 the number of gram of weight contained in 9000 metres of a single mination of water molecules during they Cam weigh one gram it is called one Denier. Hence 9000 mtr.s of a gives compounds known as Poly vinyfs single yarn weigh 210 grams it is called 210 Denier. Hence, the vinyl alcohol., Poly vinyl chloride, Poly greater the denier thicker the yarn would be 210 Denier is commonly used for the fabrication of fishing twines. d. Tex System.: The tax system is adopted international system for expressing the twine size. As in the case of Denier System this is also a direct numbering system. In this the length of the yarn is 1000 meter as against 9000 metres in the Denier system. Thus when 1000 metres of a single yarn weigh one gram, it is called one Tex and so on c. Combing: Additional strengthening or smoothening of the fibres which is called combing. d. Twisting: The yarn is twisted in one direction. It may either by S twist or Z twist. The manufacture of twine from yarn is performed by two twisting operations. In the first operation two or more yarns are twisted together to form a strand or ply. In the second twistingtwo or more such strands are twisted together to form a twine. The twines are twisted in different directions. But the direction of strand twist and twine twist will be in opposite directions. Hence, twines are produced by twisting in different directions. Yarn S Z Z S Strand or Ply Z S Z S Twine S Z S Z
Number of strands in the twine: Fish nets are made of two strands three strands or four strands.
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The two strand twine has the merit that the strand is normally displaced. In this twine one strand is raiding over the other. But if one out of the two is slacked then the lead which is applied i fall on the other strand. The intensities of the stand get wider a round appearance is not obtained. Twines made of 3 strands are free from distortion. The sectional view of the 3 strand twine is the form of a triangle. This form cannot be easily changed and angle of lay is more acute than the two strand twine. The interstices are also narrower and the twine gets a round appearance. The four strand twine will not get a round appearance. Besides, the twine easily be distorted. 8.2.4 Fabrication of Nets a. Yarn: Yarn is a group of fibres or filaments which are twisted together form a continuous thread. Yarns are of two categories ; (a) Staple yarn and (2) continuous yarn. Staple Yarn are the filaments of cotton are short in length and have to be spun to form a continuous yarn. The length of each fibre is called the Staple length. It is similar in Kurlon yarn also which is having more elasticity Continuous Yarn are made of a number of continuous filaments which are grouped together to make the yarn. Ex:: Nylon, Terelyne, etc. Monofilament is a single filament of synthetic material and there will be no twist . Twines or ropes can be made out by twisting filaments according to the thickness required. b. Webbing, mesh and bar: The webbing consists of a fabric of twine, the intersections of which are firmly knotted so as to form meshes of fixed dimensions. A normal mesh of any webbing has four sides or called as bars of equal length and it is the length of the bar that determines the size of the mesh. The webbing description will have denie number, code no. of the nylon yarn, mesh size and mesh depth. Machine made webbing could also be tailored to desired shape by point Bar system. A point is a jointer i.e. a full mesh down. A bar is a leg between two knots i.e. half mesh down. c. Braiding of Webbing: The usual term applied to making webbing by hand is braiding. The tools needed for braiding webbing are simple. The twine has to be wound on some form of needle. The needles are smaller than the meshes they have to pass
63
through. The size of the mesh has to be controlled by a gauge called as mesh gauge or mesh stick. A spike is useful for coaxing knots into shape or unpicking work for repairs. A pocket knife with a thin blade is another useful ccessory as also a pair of. scissors. A diamond - meshed nets are Dmmonly used. The principal knot used is the common sheet bend weavers knot. The English or pink knot is used for small meshed nlets. The double knots are very essential for nylon nets to prevent slippage. d. Shaping of webbing: The shape of piece of webbing may be altered by ringing about a slope in one or both of its sides. This is done by altering the number of meshes in successive rounds. The number may be decreased by bating or increased by creasing Batinq meshes. To bate or reduce the number of meshes of the previous round in a single knot of the round bating should not be done in the middle of the round by near selvedge that is to be sloped. If the net is to be steeply sloped a bating will be made every round; lesser bating is done in 2nd, 3rd, 4lh, etc, rounds as desired. Creasing meshes. is done by making a small extra mesh besides the normal mesh, by making a second knot in the same place, before peeking up the next mesh. In the next round this extra small mesh is picked, just as if it were are ordinary mesh. It is usual to insert creasing meshes close to the selvedges. Fly Meshes. It is desirable to have fly meshes which results from leaving out the last mesh of the previous round. Fly meshing are selvedge resulting in reducing the width by mesh in every alternate round i.e., equal to bating one mesh in two rounds. Where special strength is required in fly meshes, they are doubled, by doubling are first mesh of each returning round i.e., the mesh that will become the fly-mesh in the next round. A round is [also called a row e. Mounting of Webbing: Webbing has to be fixed to some kind of line or rope, around some or all of their edges. The meshes of ordinary webbing hang diamond wise. The shape of the diamonds can be varied by the way meshes are spread out on the rope at the head line. The closer the meshes are spaced on the head line the [narrower and deeper the meshes will be.
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f. .Fastening of webbing: Webbing is fastened to the lines in [different ways. (1) The easiest and quickest but least satisfactory way [is to simply reeve a line through the head meshes and hitching every 6th 12m. 18th, 24th etc; meshes with large meshes they can be close-hitched on a tube and then passing the line through the pipe, dropping [the meshes off at appropriate distances. The fastening of the webbing to the lines is done to ensure that hanging cannot shift over the line or become loose once the net is hung. The net - line hitch and rolling hitch are the best knots for making hangings to ca two or more meshes. The clove hitch lends to became loose unless locked an additional half-hitch. The back- hand marline hitch is the most secure for rigid fixing of webbing to line It is also better to use rather heavy twine for hangings as it reduces wear on and cutting of selvedge meshes. In mechanically hauled nets, the hanging should be kept short to avoid snagging. Quite often as in trawl nets, it becomes necessary to join pieces of webbing, either of same mesh or different size. Several combinations are possible and each is applied according to the purpose of the joint. g. Felling: The term Felling gives the relation between the amount of slackness in the webbing and the line on which it is mounted i.e. it denotes how much more webbing there is than line excess webbing X 100. If 40 fathoms of webbing is mounted on 25 fathoms of line, the webbing is hung in 62.5% of the line and hung with 37.5% of felling. h. Head rope and foot rope: The top edge of the webbing is called the Head, the bottom the foot and the two edges at the top and bottom are the selvedges. The depth of the net is given in number of full meshes in one vertical line. The outer tips of end meshes hang free normally; these appear untidy and are often straightened by taking up long arm of first mesh of every round its own knot. These are also called double selvedges; they increase the strength of webbing at its edges. Selvedges are usually attached to their mounting ropes by marling hitchings. Instead sometimes simple half-hitchings are used. For flymesh selvedges a special kind of stapling is used. Each fly mesh is included in two staples and each staple takes in two fly meshes. This provides a great deal of give in the selvedges
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i. Net: Any kind of net consists of webbing fastened to appropriate lines and ropes which give the net its form and strengthen its buoyant material and weights keep the net in desired form under water during fishing. 8.2.5. Preservation of fishing gear The main factors for reduction in strength are abrasion (wear and tear), rotting and damage due to atmospheric condition like humidity and ultraviolet part of the sun light. Various types of preservatives are used like vegetable and chemical preservative to protect thegear. The best vegetable preservative is tannin. The chemical preservatives are gamoi, cupronol, cunimile, tar + kerosene, copper sulphate, marstein, net life green, an stil and mobilkote. Vegetable preservatives : These are mostly composed of Tannin Materials like root, stem or trunk, bark, twinges, leaves, fruits, seed coats, etc., contain this material. But the barks and fruits are commonly used for extracting tannin as the percentage of tannin contain is comparatively more in these two compared to their parts of plants. The percentage of tannin will vary from one type of bark to another. It is also governed by the factors such as locality, season and age of the tree. Extraction of tannin: Tannin can be extracted from bark by two processes. 1) Hot process 2) Cold process. 1) Hot process: Chop the bark into small pieces and then boil the same with sufficient water normally one Ib. of bark with 1 to 3 gallons of water. Boil the solution to 2 to 3 hours in a copper vessel of till it attains a deep colour (Dicochin). After this remove the bark of the hot decochin of tannin. Then dip the net in this solution for about half an hour. Sometimes, the net is kept remained in the same solution for 12 to 16 hours. The net is then taken out and dried. Some times the fishermen treat their nets after the solution is cooled down. 2) Cold process: In certain areas, the tannin solution is prepared by
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simply keeping the crushed bark in sufficient water. The bark is allowed to soak in water for two to 3 days without boiling. During this period, it is occasionally exposed to sun-light to quicken the extraction. After the desired time, the solution is filtered and then the net is treated as in the hot process. The trees that are having tannin content are detailed below. Tannin preservation: Now a days, ready made tannin extracts are available in the market. Cutch is the most important out of these extracts. A solution of the treatment of the net can be made out of these solid extracts. Tannin is easily soluble in water. Therefore, if the net is treated with only tannin, it gets easily washed out as the net is in operation continuously. Hence, it becomes necessary to treat the net again and again with tannin at frequent intervals. This involves wastage of time and money and is also troublesome. It also causes shrinkage of the twine which will cause reduction in mesh size. This is particularly greater in the case of vegetable twines like cotton. In order to avoid the frequent repetition of tannin treatment; methods have been found out to fix up the tannin on fibres so that once the net is preserved in the tannin and fixed by chemicals, the net can be used for a longer period before another treatment. Procedure of preservation with tannin is 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Prepare a solution of cutch in water. Preparation Ib to 1 Ib /1 gallon of water. Boil the water in a vessel made up of copper or galvanised zinc and should be treated in steel vessel. Thoroughly soak the net in this hot dicochin for a few minutes. Remove the net from the solution and suspend it above the container to allow the excess liquid to drain off. Spread out the net to dry in shade. Repeat the process two or more times. Usually for small net four times of the weight of the net of water is used. In the case of bulky and big nets, seven times of the weight of net of water is used.
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Fixation: Japanese method - Prepare the solution of potassium dichromate by boiling in clean water. Preparation Ib / one gallon water. Immerse the net (cutched and dried) in the hot potassium dichromate solution. Allow it to remain in the solution for one to two hours. During this time the net should be stirred well to ensure penetration of the solution into all parts. Remove the net out of the solution and dry. If the potassium dichnomate has acted properly, the net now will be nearly black. Fishing nets that are constantly wet should be cutched again after 6 to 8 weeks of regular use. In this case, treatment with the potassium dichromate solution is not required. The potassium dichromate treatment need to be given only after once in 12 to 24 months. It is important that cutch and potassium dichromate solution must not be mixed. Also the order of application should not be reversed. It is also necessary to make sure that the cutched net is dried before the potassium dichromate is applied. Fixation by Dutch method (OLIC method): This method is suggested by Olic in 1918 for fixing the net. In this prepare a solution of copper sulphate 1 lb/10 gallon of cold water. The amount of solution to prepared is 4 to 5 times the weight of the net. Add liquid ammonia. The preservative will be formed. Then add enough ammonia till the preservative dissolved and the colour of solution turns deep blue. Immerse the net in the solution till the colour of the solution turns brownish black which serves an indication. On completion of the process of oxidation, take out the net and wash it immediately in cold water till there is no more smell of ammonia. Dry the net in shade. The nets treated like this require retreatrnent only after about four months of continuous use in water. This method is found to be quite successful and can be recommended. Like the tannin method, it has also got the disadvantage of causing marked shrinkage of the fibres especially cotton.
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Tannin plus coal tar treatment: The use of coal tar either exclusively or on tanned rets has been recommended by many fishermen. Treat the net with cutch and fix the tannin. Prepare a coal tar mixture with tar and kerosene in the proportion of 3:1. The amount of solution to be prepared is 1.5 times the weight of the net. Mix well and dip the tanned net for about ten minutes. After draining off the excess tar. spread the net in shade for drying. The drying can be stopped when the tar on the twine does not stick to the fingers. This preservation is not suitable for gill nets. Coal tar treatment can be adopted for those types of nets which are immersed in water for prolonged periods of time like stake nets and trawl nets. Chemical preservatives: These are not commonly used by Indian fishermen. Most of these preservatives are.imported. Chemical preservatives containing copper compounds, should be avoided in tropical countries. The strong sun-light rapidly decompose these preservatives rendering them ineffective. The following are some of the important chemical preservatives that are used for preserving the gear. 1. Garnol 2. Cupronol 3. Cunimile 4. Tar + Kerosene 5. Copper sulphate 6. Marstein 7. Net life green 8. Tanstil 9. Mobilkote. Garnol: This is a product of Hampels marine paints, Denmark. This preservative is mixed with kerosene in the ratio of 1:3 and used. It is used for treating cotton trawls, long lines and seines. This preservative should not be used when the gear has already been treated with tar. Dying should be in shade. Cupronol: There are different trade names viz., B.C. green cupronol, Standard green cupronol, brown cupronol and Cunittate 6111 F.N.T. are product of cupronol Ltd., London. The company recommends the preservative for new and untreated nets. After treatment the excess preservative is drained off and the net is dried in shade. Cupronol as a solvent spirit dries off quickly. It is costly.
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Cunimile: This is to be mixed with sprit or distillate nephalene in the proportion of 2:3 and it should be dried in shade. : Tar + Kerosene: Tar should be mixed with kerosene in the proportion of 3:1. Soak the net for 10 to 15 minutes. Allow to drain off the excessive preservative and dry the net in shade. Copper sulphate: Prepare 0.1% of copper sulphate solution in water. After preparing the solution, soak the net for several hours. If sea water is used, the copper sulphate turns into copper chloride and if exposed to air, the chloride will separate and deteriorate the net. So the net should be used for fishing immediately after treatment. 8.2.3. : Types of Fishing gear: Basing upon the usage of materials and construction, the fishing gear are catagorized into 1. Net fishing gear, where fishing gears are predominatly constructed of netting eg. gill net, seines, trawls: 2. Tackles in which hooks are an important part and 3. Miscellaneous gear covering all the other gears such as traps, wounding gear etc. The following are the various types of fishing gear presently in operation in Indian marine fisheries and other countries. 8.2.3.1. Gill net Gill nets are used world wide inorder to catch every kind of fish, because the structure of the gear is very simple and one of the cheapest fishing gear. A gill net is a net wall where lower end is held in vertical position in water column by weighted sinkers and the upper end is held at the water surface by floats. When fish shoals are confronted by the presence of a gill net, frightened fishes attempt to pass through this net wall and during this process the fish get caught at their head portion. Gill net happens to be one of the most prominent fishing gears presently used in fishery sector. Gill nets are operated as both drift nets or bottom-set nets.
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GILL NETS
BASED ON THE PROCESS OF CARTURE AND RETENTION
BASED ON THE STRUCTURE
BASED ON THE METHOD OF OPERATION
BASED ON THE TARGET SPECIES (e.g.) SHRIMP GILL NETS CRAB GILL NETS SARDINE GILL NETS SALMON GILL NETS HILSA GILL NETS TUNA GILL NETS SHRIMP TRAMMEL NETS
GILL NETS ENTANGLING TRAMMEL NETS
DRIFT NETS SET NETS ENCIRCLING NETS
SINGLE WALLED GILL NETS & ENTANGLING NETS
MULTI-WALLED NETS
SIMPLE GILL NETS & ENTANGLING NETS VERTICAL LINE NETS FRAMED NETS
DOUBLE WALLED TRAMMEL NETS TRIPLE WALLED] TRAMMEL NETS
Classification of gill nets
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Structure of simple gill net A simple gill net consist of the float line, lead line, gavel lines (side ropes), floats, sinkers, buoys and buoy lines. The neting is mounted to the float line and the lead line according to a particular hanging ratio. Hanging coefficient determines the mesh shape and hung depth of the mounted gill net. A few meshes along the upper, lower and side edges of the main netting are generally stengthened eigher by using thicker twine size or by using double twine in order to protect the webbing from damage during handling and operation. A number of gill net units are attached end to end to form a fleet of nets. Classification of gill nets Depending on the type of fish to be caught and the fishing graved conditions, the gill nets are broadly classified into 3 basic types. They are (a). Fixed gill net (b) Drift gill net and (c) Encircling gill net. Actually there are six types of nets in use in gill net fishery. Among these two nets, have been proved as the best catching capabilities. (Fixed bottom gill net and drift gill net for surface and middle-depth fishing). Drift/surface gill net used to catch the fish, which swim near the surface water. Either one end (or) both ends of the nets is fixed to the sea bottom to prevent the net from drifting away by the current (or) winds while in operation. This type of gill net does not requires any anchor and is most suitable for the pelagic fishery in large scale. Bottom gill net is fixed on the sea bottom with anchor to catch bottom dwellers. The total sinking power of the net, ropes and sinker is large than the buoyancy of float. Set gill nets or anchored gill nets are fixed to the bottom or at a distance above the bottom by means of floatation and ballast. In shallow coastal waters they are fixed by means of stakes driven to the ground. Encircling gill net is operated for catching fish shoals feeding or moving in the surface layers. It is operated in the shallow waters and
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the lead line usually touches the bottom. After encircling the shoal, sound and vibrations are used to drive the fish towards the net so that they are either gilled or entangled. Based on structure and method of capture, gill nets are grouped in to simple gill nets, trammel nets and combination gill net-trammel net. Simple gill net consists of a single wall of netting supported by floats and sinkers. The mechanism of capture is by gilling. The meshes in gill nets are large enough to allow a fishs head but not the rest of the body to pass through. When the fish tries to back out of the net it gets caught behind the gill covers. Trammel nets are generally triple-walled with a loosely hung small-meshed panel between two large meshed panels which are relatively tightly hung. The inner wall intercepting a fish passing through the large mesh on the outher wall forms a pouch after passing through the large mesh on the opposite side in which the fish is trapped. Trammel nets are usually operated as bottom set. Some trammel nets consists of only two walls of netting. Entangling nets are loosely hung single or multi-walled netting of small mehes supported by floats and sinkers. The mechanism of capture is predominantly by entangling rather than gilling. The fish are held by the protuberances and spines on the body of the target species.
Fig.8.5 structure of gill net
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8.3.2 Trawls The trawl gear is a bag shaped gear dragged with in the water with the help of a towing boat. Its mouth is kept open by otter-boards and towed on seabed or at the desired water depth. Generally the trawl gear has larger size of the mesh at its towing end and the mesh size reduces gradually towards the cod end. The larger size of the mesh at its towing end is for the screening of unwanted fish species of certain size and the smaller mesh size at the cod end for retaining shrimp varieties. As such, the mesh size of the cod end webbing influences largely the size of fish caught by the trawl net. Structure of a simple trawl All trawls, whether small are large for both bottom and mid water trawling are basically funnel shaped with extending sides in the front to form wings which will prevent the fish from escaping when the trawl is approach. The trawl body is divided into cod end, extention piece, belly, baitings (top belly) square, lower wings, top wings, flapper and chaffing gear.
Fig. 8.6 structure of trawl net
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The trawls generally have a top canopy called the square extending forward from the top belly to prevent the fish from escaping over the top of the net. Panel sections are generally tailored from machine-made webbing. Top and bottom panels are attached to the head rope (head line) and the foot rope (ground line), respectively. Flapper is a suitably shaped piece of netting of smaller mesh size fitted in front of codend in such a way as to prevent the escape of fishes that has entered the codend. Most commonly used buoyancy elements are spherical floats which are attached along the head rope. Floats along the head rope and weighted foot rope keeps the net mouth vertically open during operations. Rigid kites or flexible sheers devices are also used to maintain the vertical opening of the trawl mouth. Trawl mouth is kept horizontally open using rigid sheer devices known as otter boards (trawl doors) which are attached to the wings either directly or by bridles or sweeps. Chaffing gear is some times provided underneath the codend of trawls operated in rough grouds in order to protect the codend from abrasion. Trawler requirements Generally 2 basic requirements are common to all trawlers. One is the need for towing power and the other is the need for a winch (or) mechanically hauling system. In order to have a good towing power, a trawler should have a reasonable draft (or) displacement and should have a large slow-turning propeller. Types trawlers: The main types of trawl vessels are: a. b. Otter trawlers Pair trawlers (i) (ii) (iii) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Side trawlers Stern trawlers Double rig trawlers Bull trawlers/Bottom pair trawler Pair seiners Cod pair trawlers Mid water pair trawlers.
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c.
Beam trawlers
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Single rig Double rig Scallop dredgers Danish seiners
8.3.3 Line fishing Lines are widely used in both traditional and modern fisheries. The basic principle in this method is based on the feeding and hunting behaviour of target species. Line fishing is an age-old fishing method practiced in India. This type of fishing is carried out, in India, mostly from the small traditional boats in the near shore waters. Line fishing is basically composed of a line and a hook. Hooks are made up of galvanized (or) alluminium coated iron, brass (or) stainless steel, with different shapes and sizes. A simple hook generally consists of a head (by which it is connected to the line), shank, bend, point and barbs.
Fig. 8.7 structure of a hook
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8.3.4 Purse seining Purse seining is one of the most advanced and efficient commercial fishing method for capture of shoaling pelagic species. Purse seines are also used to catch the demersal fish such as cod by modifying its design to operate close to bottom. It probably catches the highest percentage of total world fish landings than any other single fishing method. Purse seines are used in both small-scale and industrial sectors. Advances in purse seining was supported by introduction of high tenacity synthetic twines of high specific gravity, improvements in vessel technology and gear handling equipment, such as fish aggregation techniques and acoustic fish detection and remote sensing techniques. Structure of purse seine Design, shape and rigging of the purse seines vary greatly, depending on the method of operation, gear handling, depth of operation, target species and vessel characteristics. A typical purse seine could consist of the following parts: Bunt: This is the section of netting where catch is concentrated prior to its removal by brailing into the vessel and is the last part of the net to be hauled in. Netting used for bunt should be stronger and made of thicker twines than other parts. The bunt is either placed at the end of the wall of netting or at the centre, depending on the type of operation. Main body: This is the largest part of the net extending from the bunt which facilitate surrounding of the fish shoal during operations. It is constructed by joining together large sections of netting of mesh size appropriate for the target species. Relatively thinner twines are used in this section in order reduce the hydrodynamic resistance and increase the sinking speed during setting. Selvedges: Selvedge consists of a few rows of meshes of thicker and larger mesh size, provided along the upper, lower and side edges of the net body in order to protect the net from damages during operations.
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Float line, lead line, side ropes: The upper selvedge is attached to the float line (head rope)and the lower selvedge to the lead line (foot rope). Hanging ratio range from 0.5 to 0.9 depending on design. Hanging ratio is greater in lead line than in float line. Lead line is usually longer than float line by up to 10% or in some cases equal in length. Selvedges on the sides are attached to side ropes (gavel lines). Bridles and tow line: Bridles are ropes attached to float line and lead line on either end and are connected a tow line of sufficient length to facilitate setting and hauling operations.
Fig. 8.8 perse seine net Pursing arrangement: Purse line is used to close the bottom of the purse seine after surrounding the fish shoal. The purse line passes through purse rings attached to lead line by short lengths of ropes. The purse line must have good abrasion resistance and high breaking strength and its length is roughly 1.5 times the length of the purse seine. Purse rings are made of corrosion-resistant material such as brass or stainless steel. Float and sinkers: Sinkers are attached to the lead line to attain 1-3 kg. m-1 for small purse seines and up to 8 kg.m-1 for large tuna purse seines. Total buoyancy of the floats is maintained at 1.5 to 3.5 times the total under-water weight of the purse seine net and its appurtenances. Higher buoyancy is provided in the bunt area in order to counteract the sinking forces due to weight of the heavier netting in this area and the weight of fish while concentrating the catch.
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8.3.5. Other gear types Similar to handlining, traps and pots are used in rocky areas for capturing Lobster, Crab and other rocky fishes. Figure 4-8 gives pictures of some of these gear types. Scoop net, bag net, stake net, cast net etc., are used in the estuaries and back waters. Some of these are very primitive fishing methods still used by the fishermen on countryside. Shore seines in near shore waters catch sometime fishes. Dole nets are traditional gear resembling trawl net, but are held on seabed with its mouth wide open with the help of two wooden posts driven deep in the seabed. Bombay duck is the major share in the landings of dole net operation in the maritime States Gujarat and Maharastra.
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SUMMARY The types of fishing crafts of India falls under two general catagories. These are non machanised and machanised fishing crafts. The catagories of fishing craft types comes0 under non machanised were catamaran, dugout-canoes, plant built canoes, masula boat, built up boats. The machanised crafts are line boats, trap boats, dolnetter, gillnetter, trawlers. Some of the different kinds of fishing crafts used in marine sector are catamaran, canoes, dhinghi and fishing vessel. Different types gear are used during fishing operations. Gill, Trowl, Purse, Shore seine, Dole net and Longlines are used during fishing. Fishing operation methods are described. QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Describe different types of fishing crafts used in the marine fishery sector. Discuss different types of fishing gear used in the marine fishery sector. Give an account on fishing methods in marine waters. Describe the gill net and give its method of operation. Describe the mechanised vessels used in marine waters.
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9. FISHING METHODS
The way in which the principles of catch and strategies with both the gear features and its techniques with a set of conditions for a set of purpose of catch is a fishing method. The general design of the gear and the combination of principles of catch decide about the kind of fishing method. The way in which the chief constructional features realise the purpose of the catch decided the type of fishing method.The method of fishing or capturing the fish resources largely depends upon the habit and habitat of the species, constituting the resources. Numerous fishing methods operating today are based on a few basic principles. The methods include both frightening and enticing fish. When frightened, fish naturally disperse and as such this method can not be used for any length of time. The method of enticing, is found to be effective to gather the fish and is therefore consider as a effective method. A wide array of harvesting methods are used in fishery sector ranging from the most primitive to highly sophisticated methods. These methods have been broadly grouped into 13 categories of which some of the methods such as line fishing, fish traps, seine nets, surrounding nets, gill net and entangling net etc. were discuss in detail else where in this chapter, some other methods such as fishing with out gear, in which the fish has been collected by bare hand or by foot; wounding gear where harpoon, spear, arrows were used to catch the fish by wounding and killing stupefying method, in which poison or under water explosives were used to paralized the fish and electrical fishing where application of pulsatile electric field is used to catch the fish. 9.1 ELECTRO-FISHING (ELECTRICAL PISHING) Electric current as employed in fishing is harmless for fish ; it does not affect the growth, the viability and the reproductive capacity of the fish. Also, the electric field created in water during fishing does not influence the food of the fish. On the other hand, electric fishing
FISHING METHODS
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saves time, labour, money and man-power. At present, the electric fishing is being successfully used in several countries and on commercial scale both for river fishing and sea fishing. In electrical fishing an electric field is produced in water between two electrodes : anode and cathode. Electrical fishing operates on the principle of concentrating fish in a limited area between the electrodes, under the influence of an electric field, and then collecting fish by netting or fish pumping. Concentrating fish under electric field is based on behavioral reaction of fish to a certain electric current in fresh- or salt-water. The reaction of fish (falling in the electric field) to the three types of electric current, direct (D.C.), alternating (A.C.) and interrupted (I.C.) is as follows : a) Reaction offish to D.C. : the following reactions are shown : 1. When voltage is low the fish are not influenced by the electric field and they may escape. 2. When voltage crosses a certain threshold value, a reaction called electrotaxis is shown. If fish is in transverse position to current direction, it turns parallel to it with the head directed towards the anode. If in a parallel position to current direction, the body is vibrated. 3. When a fresh pulse is given, all fish turn parallel to current direction and begin swimming towards the anode. This is called galuanotaxis. 4. The fish get stupefied before reaching the anode. They are unable to move of their own and may turn up side down. This reaction is called galvanonarcosis. 5. If the electric current is now switched off, the narcotized fish are able to recover completely. b) Reaction of Fish to A.C. exhibited : The following reactions are 1. When a certain threshold value of voltage is crossed, the fish show a reaction called oscillotaxis. All fish between the electrodes take up a position transverse to the current direction. They cease to swim, and
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are narcotized. The colour of the body fades as .a consequence of contraction of the pigments. 2. If the electric current is cut off, the fish do not recover immediately. For quite sometime (several minutes) the fish remain in a state of hypnosis, unable to recover. Their body stays in lateral or dorsal position during this period. 3. After the period of hypnosis is over, the fish return to their normal swimming posture and may escape. c) Reaction of Fish to I.C. : The following reactions are shown : 1. When a pulse threshold is reached, electrotaxis is shown. The fish undergo heavy vibrations, and they swim towards the anode. 2. If now the electric current is gradually increased and then abruptly decreased, the fish turn about and swim towards the cathode. 3. Galvanonarcosis follows in the same manner as it occurs in the case of D.C. The electric current depending upon its nature (D.C., A.C. or I.C.), intensity, opening and closing of the circuit etc. influences fish in a variety of ways. Some important features of which are enumerated below : 1. A continuous flow of electric current has no effect on fish. 2. A fish is affected only when the electric circuit is either opened or closed. 3. The closing of the circuit has greater effect on fish than the opening of the circuit has. The closing of the circuit is responsible for the attracting anodic effect upon fish, driving fish towards the anode. 4. The I. C. has the greatest narcotizing effect on fish. AC, comes next, and D. C, is in the last place. Narcotizing effect renders fish motionless, though living.
FISHING METHODS
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5. D. C. and I. C. produce a blocking (frightening, driving) effect upon fish which are in the margin of the electric field. Under this effect, the fish are frightened away rather than attracted. The fish get excited, but soon swim away from the electric field. In an electric field, when the circuit is opened or closed the free nerve endings in the skin of fish are stimulated, The excitation is processed in the central nervous system, and it leads finally to tetanic contractions of the muscles, Sustained individual contractions produce muscle cramps resulting in immobility of fish under narcosis. According to Pflugers principle, the opening of the circuit produces smaller reaction than the one produced by the closing circuit. Whereas the opening of circuit drives fish towards the cathode, the closing drives fish towards the anode. Nerophysiology of fishs response to electric current Vibert (1963) has explained the anodic effect i.e. attraction to the positive pole Between two electrodes, there is decreasing voltage as distance increases from the anode. Thus, a fish facing towards the anode and placed at a greater distance away experiences over its body a smaller voltage drop (+ to - ) along its length. This means an inhibition effect upon the long motor nerve fibres since these run backwards from the brain to the tail myotomes ; swimming movements become weak and eventually cease. On the other hand, nearer the anode the effect of voltage change stimulates short sensory nerve fibres since these run forwards to the brain i.e. in series with voltage change over nerve length. The inhibition of motor fibres is eventually overridden ; swimming movements occur forwards and vigorously. When fish is very near the anode inhibition of motor nerve fibres overrides the excitation of sensory nerve fibres, owing to increasing voltage drop. Fish becomes exhausted turning on its side or back although still moving forward under Inertia of swimming. The nearer it approaches the anode, the more increase in voltage drop occurs along its body. But since at this stage the potential gradient has become steep it excites the short oblique spinal sensory fibres ; this results in uncoordinated spinal reflexes which produce jerky forward swimming.
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When very close to the anode finally, the muscles of the fish are excited directly by the potential gradient, and tetany occurs. In a fish facing away from the anode and placed at a great distance from it, a reverse action occurs. The long motor nerve fibres are stimulated but the sensory fibres are inhibited. Therefore, the fish swims away from the anode and not towards it. When placed near the anode such a fish would have its muscles directly excited resulting in tetany. Fish which are placed across the electric field have their such spinal nerves as face the anode stimulated ; the body is bent and the fish is eventually turned towards the anode. Fishes in a state of tetany are often turned to positions either across the electric field or towards the anode by the drifting current. Thus a great majority of fishes from whatever position they are with respect to the anode are eventually forced to move toward the anode. In the above effect, small sized fish experiences a smaller voltage-drop along its length and so is less affected than large sized fish. In commercial fishing, A.C. and D.C. are used in fresh water, while I.C. is used in sea water. The attracting anodic effect and the blocking effect are used to the advantage of fishery. The electrical fishing gear and equipment (such as electrodes, cables, source of electric current supply etc.) are designed keeping in view the following parameters : (i) condition of water and bottom such as currents, conductivity etc. ; (ii) type of species and size of fish to be affected, (iii) other local requirements and conditions, and (iv) the purpose for which the electric field is created, i.e. capture of fish or production of blocking effect. Attracting anodic effect : This effect is produced to capture fish on commercial scale both in fresh water and sea water, in case of fresh water, two electrodes are immersed in water ; the anode and cathode being 2 : 3 in size. The anode carries a hoop net at its base. The electrodes are handy, operated on battery. The stunned fish assembled at the anode are removed by the hoop net. The entire operation is conducted from a boat.
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Here, electrofishing becomes something of an art. The operators skill in matching the machine to the fish species and to the water matter very much in determining the efficiency of the whole operation. There is always great risk of scaring away the fish at the hands of unskilled operators. It must be remembered that efficiency also depends upon a number of environmental factors. Colour of water will lower visibility of stunned fish. Conductivity and temperature of water affect ion-flow and this in turn the extension of the electric field about the electrode. Excessive tetany produced due to carelessness may result in spinal damage in fish captured. Electro-seine is a modified version to increase the efficiency. It consists of a series of alternating positive and negative electrodes hanging like a curtain from floats. The electro-seine is dragged through deep waters followed by netting. In case of sea fishing, a condenser fed by a D.C. generator supplies the interrupted current. The electrodes are set at the mouth of a trawl net. As the fish are concentrated at the anode in a stunned state, they are captured in the approaching trawl net. In the place of trawl net, fish pumps are set near the anode to suck up the stunned fish collected near the anode. Blocking effect : This effect is produced in freshwater for many purposes, such as (i) to force fish to enter fish ways, new river systems, bays and catching areas where these may be easily fished ; (ii) to frighten away unwanted fish, thus fencing off a water area under management for angling etc., from such fish ; (iii) to prevent fish from entering into turbines or pumps of the hydro-electric plants and dams ; (iv) to create barriers so that migration of crabs etc. may be controlled. 9.2 Gill net operations Gill nets are operated from a wide range of vessel classes ranging from small traditional crafts to large vessels of 50 m loa and above. Gill nets and trammel nets are set across the current or the path of fish migration. The gear is set over the stern or over the side. The buoys and sinkers are
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thrown overboard manually to either side of the net to prevent tangling. Speed of the vessel during shooting may vary from 1 to 6 knots. After completion of the setting, in drift gill netting generally the end of the net is kept tethered to the boat. Set gill nets are weighed with anchor and marked with buoys and flag poles. In large-scale drift gill netting operaing great lengths of nets, flag poles and marker buoys are attached at intervals and radio buoys and radar reflectors are connected to keep track of the fleet. Length of buoy lines in drift nets are adjusted so that the nets occupy the desired depth corresponding to the swimming layer of the target fish. Soaking time for drift gill netting is generally 45 hours. Bottom set nets are often set to soak over night.
Fig. 9.1 gill net operation 9.3 Trawling methods: Modern trawling methods are identified broadly in two categories, they are 1. 2. Bottom trawling and Mid-water trawling
9.3.1 Bottom trawling operation Availability of fish, depth and nature of sea bottom in the fishign
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ground are ascertained using the echo-sounder, fishery charts, fishery forecasets, historical information and previous experience. Current and wind speeds are taken into consideration before operation begins. One-boat bottom otter trawling - During shooting operation, codend is closed properly and released first, followed by the main body of the net. When the net is in water, with the sweeps connected to the otter boards, the vessel slowly steams ahead so the net, sweeps and bridles spread out and open properly. The otter boards are then lowered to a few meters below the surface and kept there for a few minutes to ensure that they are spreading properly. The gear is then lowered to the desired fishing depth by releasing sufficient lenght of warp. The length of warp released in bottom trawling depends on the depth of the fishing ground and nature of sea bottom. The ratio of depth of fishing ground and the warp released is known as scope ratio and is typically around 1:5. In shallow waters less then 20 m with smooth ground, warp length could be 5 to 10 times the depth and in deep water operations using heavy gear and in rough grounds length of warp used could be 2.5 to 4 times the depth. After dragging the gear for a durationof 2 to 4 hours depending on the catch, the hauling operation begins. The main warps are heaved in evenly on to the winch drums, until the otter boards reach the gallows. Sweeps and bridles are then hauled in followed by the main body net and finally the codend. Bottom pair trawling - In pair trawling which is also known as bull trawling. A single net is towed between two vessels. Otter boards are not used in pair trawling. The horizontal spread of the trawl mouth, bridles and sweeps are maintained by the outward pull of the two vessels operating the gear. Horizontal distance between the vessels is generally half the length of released warp. The net is shot and hauled in by one vessel and the wing end and sweeps to be operated from the other vessel is transferred by a heaving line and a messenger. Warps are always towed on the star board side of each vessel to facilitate steerage, except in small vessels where it may be toward from a central point on the stern. Scope ratio between depth and warp length varies from 1:5 to 1:10 in pair trawling.
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Fig. 9.2 One boat and two boat otter trawl operation
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9.3.2. Mid-water trawling operation One-boat mid-water trawling - In mid-water trawling, the vessel is steamed towards the shoal of the target species after its location by sonar. In mid-water trawl, towing tension is on the head rope and the vertical opening is primarily achieved by the depressor weights attached to the lower wing-ends. Floats attached to the head rope help in keeping the head rope clear during shooting and hauling operations. Thus in min-water trawling, the combined length of the lower sweeps and bridles between wing-end and otter boards are longer than the upper sweeps and bridles. In contrast, the towing tension is on the ground rope along the sea bed in the bottom trawl and the vertical opening is achieved by lifting the head rope from the sea bed by net design features and floatation. Towing speed varies with the target species. A towing speed of 2.5 - 3.0 knots may be good enough for slow swimming target species while for fast swimming species towing speeds of 4.5 - 8.0 knots are used.
Fig. 9.3 one boat mid water trawl
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In India, the bottom trawling is practiced to harvest the near bottom animals, to catch demersal fishes such as Scianides, Rays, Skates etc. To catch demersal and shrimps a Double-rigged shrimp trawling is popular. Mid-water trawling is undertaken for catching coloumnar and pelagic fishes like Pomfrets, Seer fish, Butter fish, Silver bar, Ribbon fish, Sardines, Mackerels etc. Trawl net is the most popular and dominant fishing gear in terms of quantum of fish catches, since it covers maximum fishing area in a minimum duration of time. During the operation of both kinds of trawl nets, several structural and operational modifications have taken place resulting in the development of specific trawl gears for specific fishing. Recently, the Disco net formed as an important gear for exploiting the columnar fishes. The progressive improvements in the trawl nets and accessories, the fishing craft as well as onboard deck equipment also have brought in changes in the net design resulting in the improved harvesting of the fishery resources. The application of electronic gadgets onboard, the vessels have also greatly revolutionized the operational techniques. Because of these developments, the present day trawling operations are completely mechanized, bringing down the manpower needs to the minimum. Due to the adoption of trawling by more fishermen, especially for catching Shrimp in the near shore region, trawling has put tremendous pressure on the marine fisheries. Nearly 80% of the worlds trawling is said to be taking place within 50m depth in the near shore waters. The trawl fishing technique is also a serious disadvantage associated with this fishing gear being known as destructive gear. This is due to the fact that during fishing operations, the trawl gear practically sweeps the fishing operations, the fishing area taking in all animals that come in its way, irrespective of the kind, size or age group. However the trawl gear, if used and designed properly would facilitates to catching the desired size and age groups of fish species permitting the escape of undersized fishes for sustaining the natural fish stock. In this direction, various countries and the fishery research institutes are trying their best to improve trawl net design and, more importantly, diversifying the fishing methods from trawling to other fishing methods like long lining
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in order to retain the marine fishery resources at a sustainable level. 9.4 Types of line fishing methods: Different methods of line fishing such as handlining, trolling, longlining etc., are in vouge of which few of them are described below: 9.4.1 Handlining Fishing in the shallow rocky areas using conventional gill nets and trawl nets is very risky and may damage the fishing gear. As such, fishes which inhabit in hiding places like fissured rocks, crevices and on rough ground are generally caught with handlines attached with hooks. Because of its operational simplicity, small time artisanal fishermen find it profitable to practise handline fishing in such areas. Moreover, it is a low energy fishing technique requiring minimum investment. Normally, each handline consists of a main line made up of nylon mono-filament attached with a sinker and a branch line. The main line is around 100m long having a diameter of 2 to 2.5mm. At the end of the sinker, branch line made of a stainless steel wire rope with hooks is attached. Hooks used for the handline are generally smaller. Iron nut, bolt or lead weights around 30 to 50 g are attached at the end of the main line to keep the hooks closer to the bottom. The handline including the main line, branch line, hooks and sinker is wound on a small wooden plank and reeled off while in use. Fishermen use conventional wooden dugout canoes and FRP canoes in handline fishing. While fishing, fishermen wind one end of the main line to their legs to feel the bite of fish. When the bite of the fish is sufficiently felt, the line is hauled up quickly, fish removed, baited and the line cast again. Medium sized whole Ribbon fish, Mackerel, Squid and Shrimp are the commonly used baits. Fishermen also use more than one handline at a time. In such cases, one line is kept in the hand and a few wound to their legs, while others are attached to some places in the canoe. Thus simultaneously each fishermens operates nearly
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6 to 7 main lines et at time simultaneously. Actual fishing operation is carried out for 6 to 7 hours during daytime and about 1 to 15 kg of different varieties of fishes are caught per boat. Sometimes during the handline fishing operations, the main lines withhooks get snapped when bigger fishes are caught or lines entangled in the rocks. The existing handline fishing methods for the artisanal fishermen are being improved by using hand reels, Kirby bent hooks and increasing the number of branch lines for better hooking rates. Now a day, handline fishing is also used in other countries in deep waters for catching Shark, Tuna, Seer and other predatory fishes. Bigger trawl boats are used for this purpose. On reaching the fishing ground, the boat is allowed to drift along with prevailing water current and wind. The lines are dropped in the direction of the water current with one end of the line fastened to the water depending upon the water depth. One end of the line is held by the fishermen to feel the bite of the fish. When fish bite is felt, the line is given a sharp jerk so that the fish gets hooked properly. The lines are, then, hauled up gradually. Large size fishes are further hauled up on deck by hooking the fish at the head or belly portion using a gaff hook. The gaff hook is made of mild steel rod of 8 to 10mm diameter and is about 1 to 1.5m long. The fish is remove from the gaff hook and fishing operation is continued after putting fresh bait. If the fish catches during handlining are not very promising, then, the fishermen change the fishing grounds or change over to trawling operations. Generally, one or two rounds of trawling is also carried out on their way to new fishing grounds for collecting bait to be used in line fishing. 9.4.2 Trolling Troll line fishing consists of a line and troll jig attached to the vessel, which moves at a speed of 3 to 8 knots. It is the most active type of angling operation. Location and persuit of a school of fish, seeting the proper trolling depth for the fishing line and the performance of the fishing hooks and bait are the important points involve in the trolling
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operation. The trolling fishery is broadly divided into two major types. They are type-I and type-II.
Fig. 9.4 trolling methods
In type-I method, the lines and hooks are towed horizontally near the water surface. The fish caught by this method are piscivorous species with a large migrating range, such as, middle to large sized tuna, spanish mackered, yellow tail. In case of small fishing boats, one to three lines may be towed, but in middle to large sized boats may extend poles from either side of the boat to allow 6 to 8 lines to be towed. In type-II method, the lines and hooks are towed vertically to middle water depth to catch migrated fishes, such as sea brean, yellow tail, trout and flat fishes. The lines are equipped with devices like sinkers, underwater plates and floats that cause the line to troll in the middle to bottom water depths. The line is filled with multiple lures.
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9.4.3 Pole and lining This is another method of line fishing. Presently, in India, pole and line fishing is practiced for catching Skip-jack tuna in and around Lakshadweep islands using local country boats. In this, a flexible wooden or fiber glass pole of 4 to 6 meter in length is used to connect one end to line joined to a lead coated iron hook. The line is usually a little shorter than the pole and the material used in recent times is PA monofilament of 1.00 dia. In Japan, pole and line fishing is practiced on a commercial scale from large fishing vessels with several men operating hand held pole and lines.
Fig. 9.5 pole and line structure and fishing
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Pole and lining operation Tuna and other pelagic predatory fishes when they are detected, are attracted close to the vessel by scattering live baits into water. This process is known as chumming. Simultaneously water is sprayed on the sea surface from nozzles arranged along the fore or aft and side edges of the vessel using pumps. Water spraying ruffles the sea surface and simulates prey movements which attracts the target fishes and excites them into a feeding frenzy. When the school of fishes is attracted around the vessel, the vessel is stopped and fishing operation is started. Fishing is carried out usually from the stern and sides of the vessel. When tuna is struck, it is swung aboard and unhooked in a swift operation by the skilled pole and line fishermen. The barbless hooks makes it possible to unhook the fish by a skilful jerk of the rod. Live baits are small fishes such as anchovies, sprats and sardines and juveniles of carangids, mackerels and other fishes. The are kept alive onboard in bait tanks equipped with circulating sea water system or in the case of small-scale operations, in floating cages. Availability of live bait and their maintenance are important factors determining the success of pole and line fishing. 9.4.4 Longlining Longlines are passive fishing gears. Of all line fishing gears, longline fishing is the most popular method in which fishes like Tuna, Shark, Seer, Barracuda, Cat fish, Spanish mackerel and other predatory fishes are caught. It is known to be highly fuel-efficient eco-friendly and size and species selective. These can be operated for bothe pelagic and demersal fihes, covering the entire water coloumn. This can be operated from a wide range of vessel classes ranging from small coastal vessels to large automated tunalineer. A longline consists of a main line and many branch line, also called snoods or gangions. The main line is of polyethylene mono-filament, usually, 4 to 10mm in diameter and 400 to 600m long and is attached with branch lines of 2 to 3mm in
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diameter. The branch lines are also of polyethylene mono-filament about 10 to 20m long and 50m apart. Baited hooks are attached at the end of each branch line. Some time, steel wire rope of 2 to 2.5mm diameter having a length of 0.5m is used so that the fishes do not cut the line easily. Depending on the size of the fishing vessel and the deck machinery carried by it, the total length of longline can extend in sets of 400 to 600m measuring from 60 to 90km.
Fig. 9.6 long lining
With prior knowledge of the fish shoal depth, the longlines with baited hooks are let to set at desired water column. Dragging the main line along with branch lines captures fishes that attack and engulf the bait. Sometime, branch lines are attached with artificial lures like jigs, spoons etc., which imitate like sick fishes by their tumbling or whirling movement to make the predator think it as easy prey. Basic principle behind hooking is swallowing temptation of the fish for bait as a whole and getting entangled with the hook. Fish easily gets hooked with the moving bait rather than the motionless bait. This kind of fish behaviour is exploited by the fishermen to catch the migratory fishes like Tuna with the lines kept on drift.
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9.5. Purse seine fishing operations Success in purse seining depends on the speed at whifch the school is encircled, sinking speed of the net and speed of pursing operation. Purse seine is operated from a single vessel or a pair of vessels. Fishing operation consists of active search, chase and interception of the shoal or attraction and concentration the fish by luring techniques or aggregation devices; encircling and pursing operations; concentrating the catch in the bunt by progressively hauling in the net; and brailing out the catch before concluding the operation. Net haulers, pursing winch and purse gallows were the major gear handling equipment on board purse seiners. Power block is used for net hauling system. 9.5.1 One-boat purse seining: Fish shoal is detected traditionally by colour, texture, jumping fish or flocks of birds hovering over the school. In the night, fish schools can be found by bio-luminescence of the plankton caused by the school movements. Modern techniques, bird radar and aerial observation of surface schooling fish from air plane or helicopter. After the detection of the shoal of target species of sufficient catch potential, the shoal is chased at full speed. Work boasts are launched. The skiff to which the one end of the net is secured is launched and the net is set at full speed by the purse seiner and the shoal is surrounded. On completion of the encircling, skiff transfers the end of the seine passing a messenger rope to the purse seiner and hauling of the purse line is started by operating the pursing winch. Purse rings are lifted and stored on ring stripper and the main bag of the net is hauled gradually by operating the power block or other net hauling equipment such as triplex or net drum. Purse rings are pulled off the ring stripper as the net is stacked. When the catch is concentrated in the bunt which is held between the purse seiner and the skiff, the fish is transferred by brailing or operating fish pump. Work boats assist in keeping the vessels steady during catch transfer and in preventing the escape of fish from
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Fig. 9.7 one boat purse seining operation
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the net by herding. During night operations they are used as light boats for attracting and keeping the shoal aggregated, before encircling. Speed and direction of the target school, speed and direction of the wind and current are taken into consideration before the final approach and beginning of encircling operation.
Fig. 9.8 two boat purse seining
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9.5.2 Two-boat purse seining In the two-boat purse seining system, two large seiners each carrying half the gear are operated simultaneously to encircle the school, setting the middle part of the net first. The bunt is located in the middle of the net. In the two-boat system, a large net could be operated and the operation could be much more faster than in single-boat system. Twoboat operations are conducted generally during day-time, due to the additional skill required for co-ordination of the two vessels during operation. The net is usually set out against the direction of the current if the wind velocity is less. If the wind velocity is high, the net is set along the direction of the wind. Two-boat purse seining is declining in importance, due to disadvantages of investment requirement for an additional vessel and the need for better technical skill and seamanship for two-boat operation. SUMMARY Numerous fishing methods operating today are based on a few basic principles. The methods include both frightening and enticing fish. When frightened, fish naturally disperse and as such this method can not be used for any length of time. The method of enticing, is found to be effective to gather the fish and is therefore consider as a effective method. These methods have been broadly grouped into 13 categories of which some of the methods such as line fishing, fish traps, seine nets, surrounding nets, gill net and entangling net etc. were discuss in detail else where in this chapter, some other methods such as fishing with out gear, in which the fish has been collected by bare hand or by foot; wounding gear where harpoon, spear, arrows were used to catch the fish by wounding and killing stupefying method, in which poison or under water explosives were used to paralized the fish and electrical fishing where application of pulsatile electric field is used to catch the fish. Questions 1. Describe the electro fishing method in fish sector. 2. Give an account on purse-seine fishing operation. 3. Explaing the various line fishing methods.
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10. FISH PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING
Fish preservation is a very important aspect of the fisheries. Normally the fish farms or other fish capturing sites are located far off from the market place and there is chance of fish decomposition and the uncertainties of their sale in market. When the fishes are caught in numbers, greater than the amount of consumption, their preservation becomes a necessity for their future use. Preservation and processing, therefore become a very important part of commercial fisheries. It is done in such a manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, with a minimum loss of flavour, taste, odour, nutritive value and the digestibility of their flesh. 10.1. Freshness of fish Freshness is usually judged in the trade entirely by appearance, odour and texture of the raw fish. Since assessment depends upon the senses, these factors are known as sensory or organoleptic. The most important things to look for the freshness of fish are: i) The general appearance of the fish including that of the eyes, gills, surface slime and scales and the firmness or softness of the flesh. The odour of the gills and belly cavity; The appearance, particularly the presence and absence of discolouration along the under side, of the backbone. The presence or absence of rigor mortis or death stiffening; The appearance of the belly walls.
ii) iii)
iv) v)
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10.2. Causes of spoilage of fishes In the cooler regions of the world the fish preservation is not required for a few days after their capture. This is because, the temperature is low enough to discourage the bacterial growth and so the spoilage of fishes is minimized. In tropical regions such as India, the hot climate favours rapid growth of bacteria and so the spoilage of fish flesh becomes inevitable. Landed fishes may ordinarily remain fresh for not more than 8 hours and begin to decompose rapidly after that. The decomposition or spoilage of fish flesh occur mainly due to various chemical, microbial and the enzymatic action. 10.2.1. Chemical action The chemical action involves oxidation of fat, contained within the fatty tissues of the fish. It is more pronounced in fat fishes (e.g. oil sardine, mackerels, catla, trout, grass carp etc.) which as a result become decolourised. The oil starts getting oxidized as soon as it comes in contact with the atmospheric air, which is known as rancidity. The colour of the fat and its viscosity changes and the fish becomes strong tasted. Methods employed to prevent rancidity include application of antioxidants like polyphenols or other viscous fluid and minimizing exposure of fish to atmospheric air. 10.2.2. Microbial action Microbial action involves bacterial decomposition of the fish flesh. The bacteria are found in the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract and on the general body surface of the fish. They may also be contributed from the surrounding in sanitary a most suitable place for their growth and multiplication. Proteins, constituting 70 - 90 % are degraded by proteolytic organisms such as Pseudomonas, Proteus, Chromobacterium, Halobacterium, and Micrococcus , etc. The Carbohydrates, present in small amount in the fish flesh are spoiled by carbohydrate fermenting
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organisms like Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus , etc. Fats constituting 3 - 5 % of the flesh are digested by relatively few gram negative bacteria. Degradation process occur through the processes as follows: Proteins Proteolytic micro-organisms Amino acids + Amines + Ammonia + Hydrogen sulphide Fermentive micro-organisms Carbohydrates Fats 10.2.3. Enzymatic action Enzymatic action is due to action of various enzymes found in the body tissues / cells of fishes. They spoil the tissue by the process of autolysis and makes the fish susceptible to bacterial attack. Proteinase for example can digest muscle proteins of the fish, catalase, the gill spoilage and ATPase brings about a complete disappearance of ATP, from muscle tissue in 6 to 8 hours. Autolysis of protein results in formation of amino acids and other nitrogenous products, which on further decomposition produces ammonia, carbon dioxide, volatile basic compounds like various amines and fatty acids, and foul smelling products like indole, skatole, etc. 10.3. Methods of preservation Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration: 10.3.1. Preservation for short duration Chilling: This is obtained by covering the fish with layers of ice. Acid + Alcohols + Gases Fatty acids + Glycerol.
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However, ice alone is not effective for long preservation, because melting water brings about a sort of leaching of valuable flesh contents which are responsible for the flavour. But ice is effective for short term preservation such as is needed to transport landed fish to nearby markets or to canning factories, etc. Here autolytic enzymic activities are checked by lowering the temperature. 10.3.2. Preservation for long time When the preservation is required for a long period of time, the fishes are passed through the cleaning, gutting and conservation and storage. 10.3.2.1.Cleaning: During cleaning, the caught first are fish washed thoroughly in cold, clean water to remove bacteria, slime, blood, faeces, and mud, etc. from the body surface of the fish. It is being done under proper sanitary conditions. 10.3.2.2. Gutting: After cleaning, the fishes are cut along their mid ventral side, and their visceral organs are removed. By removing viscera, the bacteria in the gastro intestinal tract and enzymes of visceral organs are removed along with it to prevent bacterial decomposition and enzymic autolysis respectively. 10.3.3.3. Conservation and storage: Conservation is necessary to keep the dead fish in fresh condition for quite a long time. This is achieved by employing any one of the methods like freezing, drying, salting, smoking and canning.
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10.4. Freezing Freezing means removal of heat from the body. To check the enzymal, bacterial action and putrefaction it is preferred to store the fish under lower temperatures. The fishes are chilled in ice when they are to be stored for a few days. Ice is put inside the body cavity in large fishes. The fishes are arranged in tiers in shelves or boxes and stacked, and should not be dumped in heaps in cold storage. It is preferred to store at a temperature below 6.6oC to prevent microbial spoilage of fish. The formation of ice to some extent causes damage to the biological material, like growth of crystals of ice ruptures the structural components, releasing the enzymes and precipitation of liquid water and thereby causing precipitation of proteins effecting the change of pH making it more or less dry. The ice formation is initiated when the temperature of fish is lowered to about-1oC with a change in the concentration of inorganic and organic compounds. Freezing continues to fall with the lowering of temperature. At - 50oC to -60oC the entire water in the fish is frozen. The maximum freezing of water is between 1oC and 5oC with different sized crystal formation of ice. Ice formation occurs at a place where heat is extracted and then spread to warmer areas from where heat is conducted to refrigerating medium. The size of the crystals depends upon the nature of freezing in slow or quick freezing. Large crystals formed in slow freezing, ruptures the tissues more since it penetrates the cell wall easily and forms the drip. Drip is the flow of tissue fluids from the frozen fish or muscle during freezing of the fish or muscle. This drip is due to the cell damage caused in freezing. This drip leaches along with soluble protein, vitamins and minerals and gives an undesirable appearance. The formation of drip affects the appearance of the product and results in the loss of weight. Hence, drip is considered as one of the criteria for judging the quality of the frozen products. 1. 2. Uses of ice: Fish preservation time can be extended by using ice. Ice reduces fish body temperature and keeps the body cool for
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3. 4. 5. 6.
more time. Water, formed due to ice melting, cleans the mucous, and other material of the fish body. Ice is useful as good preservative due to its melting point 0oC and latent heat 80 cal./gr. Due to high relative humidity of ice, it is very good for preservation. Ice is cheap and very effective preservative.
10.4.1. Deep or quick freezing When fish is intended to be stored for a long period, quick freezing is preferred which inhibits bacterial action. During quick freezing every part of the product comes within the range of 0o to -5oC. Properly frozen fish at -20oC retains its physical properties and nutritive values for a year or more and is almost as good as fresh fish. Smaller sized crystals, shorter time taken for freezing less time allowed for diffusion of salts and evaporation of water and prevention of decomposition are some of the advantages in quick freezing. There are three ways effecting quick freezing: a) Direct immersion of fish in the refrigerating medium, b) Indirect contract with the refrigerant through plates and c) Forced convection of refrigerated air directed at heat transfer surfaces. There are several methods of quick freezing. Among the various types of quick freezing plants installed in India the carrier air blast type is widely used. Preserving of fish in cold storage is practised on a small scale in India. Cold storage preservation of fish is practised at the places where storage facilities are available. The fishes are preserved overnight in cold storage and marketed the next day. With the increase in availability of ice, fish is transported in ice by different modes of transport like rail, trucks, motor launches, etc. The west coast has a large number of freezing plants at places like Bombay, Mangalore, Cochin, Trivandrum where freezing of prawns, lobsters and frog legs are undertaken. At Bombay fishes like pomfrets, jew fishes, etc., are frozen and stored for several months.
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Oil sardines, mackerel and seer are the three commercial important food fishes used in the application of refrigerated sea water for preservation. These fishes were stored in artificial sea waters prepared by dissolving common salt to give a sodium chloride content 3.5% at a temperature of -1.1 to 0oC. In general the fishes stored in refrigerated sea water had firmer texture and better appearance than ice-stored ones. The oil sardines stored upto 2 days did not show any difference compared to ice samples. Further storing resulted inferior quality of the fish. Similarly mackerel and seer could be stored for 4 to 6 days and 12 to 14 days respectively. In general different methods of freezing are adapted through sharp freezer. air blast freezer, contact plate freezer, vertical plate freezer, immersion freezing, liquid freon freezing, liquid nitrogen freezing, fluidized bed freezer, cryogenic freezing, sub freezing, etc. All the methods of freezing shall help in absorption of heat and in preserving the initial qualities of fish. Among the various methods of freezing the blast freezer is mostly in use in India. The air blast freezer is in the form of a tunnel and heat transfer is effected rapidly by the circulation of air. The temperature used ranges from 0 to 30oC and air velocity varies from 30 to 1050 meters/mt. 10.4.2. Freeze drying This is modified deep freezing, completely eliminating all chances of denaturation. The deep frozen fish at -20oC is then dried by direct sublimation of ice to water vapour with any melting into liquid water. This is achieved by exposing the frozen fish to 140oC in a vaccum chamber. The fish is then packed or canned in dried condition. Any loss of flesh contents by way leaching during melting of ice is thus avoided. The product is quite fresh looking in appearance, flavour, colour and quality.
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10.4.3. Filleting and freezing of fish The processing industry also adopted freezing of fish in the form of fillets at times when prawns are not available. Fillets are nothing but the strips of flesh cut parallel to the backbone of the fish. Fishes like milk fish, cat fish, perches, mullets, carps, eel, etc., are suitable for filleting and freezing. Filleting can be done by hand which is economical or by using a filleting machine. Fillets may be with or without skin and it fetches a much higher price in the luxury market. Fillets are dripped in brine to enhance their appearance and to reduce the amount of drip and it also gives a salty flavour. The freezing of fillets can be an individual quick freezing of block freezing. After dropping in brine, the fillets wrapped in polythene sheet and frozen in contact plate freezer 0 0 at -35 C to 40 C. In block freezing the fillets in known weight 500gr., 1Kg., 2Kg. are packed in polythene bags lined with wax and sufficient quantity of glazed water is poured to cover the fillets. The fillets are 0 0 put in a freezer at -35 to 40 C and stored at -23 C. 10.5. Drying Drying involves dehydration i.e. the removal of moisture contents of fish, so that the bacterial decomposition or enzymic autolysis does not occur. When moisture contents reduce upto 10%, the fishes are not spoiled provided they are stored in dry conditions. Fish drying is achieved either naturally or by artificial means. 10.5.1. Natural drying In natural drying the fishes after being caught are washed and dried in the sunshine. They are suspended or laid out flat on the open ground. The process, however, has a number of disadvantages. It is slow and results in much loss, through putrefaction. It can be carried out only in dry, well aerated climate receiving sunshine which is not too hot. It, thus depends upon the environmental factors and availability of space. Lastly only the thin fishes can be preserved by this method, because the
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fat fishes have much flesh allowing bacterial decomposition to continue in deeper parts of their body. An additional disadvantage is that dried fishes require a long soaking period to restore water and that the sun dried fishes are not usually relished. 10.5.2. Artificial drying In artificial drying the killed fishes are cleaned, gutted and have their heads removed. They are then cut lengthwise to remove large parts of their spinal column, followed by washing and drying them mechanically. 10.6. Salting Salting is a process where the common salt, sodium chloride, is used as a preservative which penetrates the tissues, thus checks the bacterial growth and inactivates the enzymes. Salting commences as soon as the fish surface of the fish comes in contact with common salt and the end product shall have the required salinity with taste and odour. Some of the factors involved in salting of fish which play an important role are purity of salt, quantify of salt used, method of salting and weather conditions like temperature, etc. During the process the small fishes are directly salted without being cleaned. In the medium and large sized fish the head and viscera are removed and longitudinal cuts are made with the help of knives in the fleshy area of the body. Then the fish is washed and filled with salt for uniform penetration through flesh. Large fishes like sharks are cut into convenient sized pieces. Generally, sardines, mackerels, seer fishes, cat fishes, sharks and prawns are used for salting. The salt used should be pure common salt so as to keep the quality of the fresh fish. Traces of calcium and magnesium caused whitening and stiffening of the flesh and gives bitter or acid flavor to the product. In addition it does not allow the easy penetration of common salt. Dry
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salting, wet salting and mixed salting are the three methods employed in salting of fish. 10.6.1. Dry salting In this process the fish is first rubbed in salt and packed in layers in the tubs and cemented tanks. The salt is applied in between the layers of fishes in the proportion of 1:3 to 1:8 salt to fish. The proportion of salt to fish varies with the fish since the oily fish require more salt. At the end of 10 - 24 hours the fishes are removed from the tubs and washed in salt brine and dried in the sun for 2 or 3 days. Large fish lose about one third and small fish about one half of their dressed weights. 10.6.2. Wet salting The cleaned fish are put in the previously prepared salt solution. It is stirred daily till it is properly picked. In some fishes like seer, black pomfret, Indian salmon etc., the gut is removed and filled with salt in 1 : 3 proportion. First the salt is filled in the gut region of the fish and stacked, on the following day further addition of salt is done since the salt settles down at the bottom. Finally the process is repeated to ensure the proper filling up of salt and left undisturbed for 7 - 10 days allowing the liquor to flow off. This method is mostly followed in eastern parts of our country. In western parts the gut is removed and the salt is applied in one lot and they are arranged in bamboo baskets. The fishes preserved in wet salting process are to be consumed before the rain sets in and the fishes are marketed without drying. 10.6.3. Mixed salting In this process, simultaneous use of salt and brine is followed. The salting process is continued till the concentration of salt in the surrounding medium equalises with the concentration of salt in the fish tissue. The salting process may affect the shape, structure and the mechanical features of muscle tissue.
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10.6.4. Pit curing It is another process employed in south and south east of our country. In this process the fish treated with salt are buried in pits lined with leaves. After 2-3 days they are removed and marketed directly.
10.7. Smoking In this method, landed fish is cleaned and brined. It is then exposed to cold or hot smoke treatment. In cold smoking, first a temperature of 38oC is raised from a smokeless fire. After this heating, cold smoke at a temperature below 28oC is allowed to circulate past the fish. In case of hot smoking, first a strong fire produces a temperature around 130oC. This is followed by smoking at a temperature of 40oC. The smoke has to be wet and dense. Good controls are necessary over density, temperature, humidity, speed of circulation, pattern of circulation and time of contact with fish of the smoke. The phenol content of the smoke acts as an antiseptic and it also imparts a characteristic colour and flavour. Some condensation of tars and resins also adds to the taste. Strict hygienic conditions are maintained throughout this operation. For best results, fishes are hanged on special structures in special installations called smoke houses. Some are produced by burning wood in the smoke house itself or are conducted to it through pipes from fire produced at a distance. For making fire and smoke, only hard wood (Conifer wood, Saw dust etc.) are used. Smoke house has a chimney at the top for exit of smoke. It also has a number of galleries for hanging fishes. The smoke house is made of fire proof material and is very well insulated to retain heat. 10.8. Canning Canning is a method of preservation in which spoilage can be averted by killing micro-organisms through heat. It is generally well known that food carries micro-organisms which cause spoilage if left
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unchecked. These micro-organisms are to be eliminated and the entry of other are restricted. The canning process involves pre-treatment of fish, preparation of can, filling and closure of the can, technique of heating the filled cans to kill micro-organisms without damage to fish, finally cooling, cleaning and storage of the product. The raw material should be processed properly since it contains most dangerous Closetridium botulinium which should be destroyed. This is found in protein rich food such as fish which has pH 6- 7 and is nonacidic. There are some other heat resistant bacteria like Clostridium sporogenes which can be eliminated at a temperature of 5 - 6 times more than Clostridium botulinlum. It needs a temperature of 120oC for 4 minutes or at 115oC for 10 minutes to kill them in large numbers. 10.8.1. Cans Cans are made up of tin plates in canning industry. The tin plate is a thin steel sheet coated with tin on both sides. It has a combination of strength of steel and protective properties. The tin plate has corrosion resistance, since it is covered with 4 layers namely alloy, tin, protective oxide and oil, in addition with special enamels or liquors which have been developed. Various types of inorganic liquors are used to absorb sulphur. Seafoods when canned produce sulphur ions which may react with the coating of tin. These sulphur ions are not detrimental to health but affect the appearance of the product. Other materials like sulphur resistant black plate, steel coated with aluminium, zinc, nickel or titanium have been tried but its application is found to be very little. Glass jars are also tried which requires longer processing time than tin plates. The prepared cans should be protected against damage and corrosion and should be stored in dry closed room. The cans should be thoroughly washed with boiling water before filling to avoid dust and microorganisms if any present in the tin. 10.8.2. Methods of canning
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10.8.2.1. Filling: Empty cans should be packed carefully by employing the manual labour or through mechanical device. While packing, care should be taken to see that no air pockets are left which cannot be removed by exhausting. At the same time too tight packing should be avoided. It is always better to leave some space at the top for accommodating gas released while processing. Fatty fishes (salmon, herring, mackerel, etc.) results in acceptable products when salt is added. Non-fatty fishes call for special additives to improve flavour and texture. Brine is used when fish is not salted properly as an additive for enhancing flavour. Monosodium glutamate is used as additive for canned fish at a concentration of 1.6 gm / Kg fish. Vegetable oil and olive oils are also used for filling the cans. 10.8.2.2. Exhausting: The air and gas from the can should be removed before its sealing process. This can be done by using exhausting which minimizes the strain on the can through expansion of air during heat processing. Removal of oxygen to avoid internal corrosion and creation of vacuum when the can is cooled are indication of sound packing since it protects colour and flavour of products and retains vitamins, etc. Further it checks the growth of organisms which requires air for growth. Later sealing is done to obtain air tight seal between the cover and the body of container so that the spoilage agents cannot enter the sealed container after the canned fish has been sterilised. 10.8.2.3. Processing: Removal of air as completely as possible is an important factor in steam processing. The container along with the contents fish is heated in a retort at a temperature which is sufficient to kill the potential inactive spoilage agents without any damage to the fish inside. The retort systems can be operated continuously or in batches. In the recent times open
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boilers are being tried. Thus pressure processing either by steam or by water is delayed in this processing. The majority of retorts, may be horizontal or vertical still, or rotating, are fed by steam. The retort shall have an inlet at the top through which steam enters. The weight of the steam that entered the retort and the incoming steam both put together drives the air out from the bottom without mixing. Air pockets if present in a retort may give rise to uneven processing and lead to under processing while interfering between pressure and temperature. The processing time and temperature required for each food depends on various factors like types of pack, size of cans retort system, etc. By adopting the above heating process the majority of the spoilage agents or bacteria are killed. If any bacteria remains unkilled they can be eliminated by subjecting it to rapid cooling immediately after processing. The can should be cooled to a temperature of 35oC which is sufficient for rapid drying of the can surface. It protects against rusting. Chlorinated water of 5 ppm can be used for cooling purpose. Even after careful regulation of pressure during and after processing, the cans are sometimes exposed to temporary leaks. Through these leakages the bacteria may enter-after processing. Hence, to minimise this, chlorinated water is used for cooling. The canned product should not be transported immediately since the salt pellets and others additives used may take some days for equal distribution throughout the can contents. It is advised to store for 3 months before final quality control. During this period all cases of leak contamination would show up. 10.8.2.4. Microbial spoilage:
Sometimes the canned fish show signs of microbial spoilage which may be due to insufficient pre-treatment especially inadequate cooling or improper preservation of raw material. It exhibits signs of spoilage accompanied by the presence of dead bacteria. These bacteria
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may at times withstand the processing during cooling and storage. Insufficient processing leaves back a number of heat resistant spores forming bacteria in the canned product. The commonly observed spore formers are mesophilic anaerobes (Clostridium sporogenes, C. putrificum) They produce putrid swells, mesophilic aerobes (Bacilus sp) produces flavour and changes colour and softens the contents. Thermophilic bacilli produce flat sours which are rare. The bacteria has got ability to produce gas and to interact with the material inside the can. The gas accumulated at the head region in the can helps in determining the kind and cause of spoilage. The swelling of cans may also be due to CO2 and hydrogen formed due to microbial spoilage. Finally the canned product is thoroughly examined by various methods like examining the product organoleptically, chemically and microbiologically for the quality of final product. Then it is properly labelled which should exhibit the name of the product, meat contents and any specific information if required. The processed cans can be stored at a room temperature which should be just above the freezing point of canned products. 10.9. Demerits of fish preservation Although the preservation and processing constitute a very important aspect of the fish industry, it has certain draw back, as well, particularly with respect to retaining quality of fish flesh these are discussed briefly. 1. Chilling brings about denaturation of flesh. This is because of ice crystals formed during chilling and causing mechanical damage to the muscles. Cell walls burst, structure gets deformed and the flesh loses much of flavour and taste. The flesh also becomes dehydrated and losses texture. If proper hygienic measures are not taken during the processes
2.
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like washing, guttation and evisceration, etc. more harm would be done to the preserved material, owing to increase in the bacterial population. 3. Incomplete or poor preservation leads to decarboxylation of histidine of fish flesh into histamine. The latter some other related substances, collectively called saurine, are common causes of food poisoning. Drying reduces weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of the flesh. Excess salting allows growth of salt tolerant bacteria, causing pink eye spoilage of fish flesh. Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein, about 1 to 5 % due to salting and 8 to 30 % due to smoking. Smoking also accelerates rancidity of fat and so reduces digestibility of fat products. Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1, panthotenic acid, vitamin-C and pteroxylglutamic acid.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
SUMMARY When the fishes are caught in numbers, greater than the amount of consumption, their preservation becomes a necessity for their future use. Preservation and processing, therefore become a very important part of commercial fisheries. It is done in such a manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, with a minimum loss of flavour, taste, odour, nutritive value and the digestibility of their flesh. The decomposition or spoilage of fish flesh occur mainly due to various
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chemical, microbial and the enzymatic action. Employing any one of the methods like freezing, drying, salting, smoking and canning achieve the preservation of fish QUESTIONS 1. Describe the resons for spoilage of fishes ? 2. Explain various methods of prservation of fishes ? 3. What is canning ? Discuss the method of fish canning ? 4. Give an account on freezing of the fishes ? 5. What are the demerits of preservation and processing the fish?
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11. BY-PRODUCTS OF FISHES AND VALUE ADDITION FOR FISHERY PRODUCTS
Fishes are consumed as food in fresh condition. Some of them are also utilized after the preservation. During preservation and processing, some materials of fish and prawn are discarded as waste. Similarly some trash and distasteful fishes are unsuitable for human consumption. These waste material and above fishes become an important source to produce fish by-products. Which in turn are used to produce different useful fish by-products by different fish by-product industries. The following by-products are described in detail. 11.1. Fish meal The waste obtained after the fish processing for oil extraction is called as fish meal. It is prepared either by wet or dry processing, depending on the raw material. The good quality fish meal is used for animal feeding and other is used as manure. The chemical composition of fish meal has 50 - 70 % proteins, 5 - 10 % fats, 10 - 20 % minerals and 6 - 12 % moisture. The fish meal is considered as very rich source of proteins. Calcium 5%, phosphorous 4%, a variable amount of iodine and vitamins B1, B12, A, D, K are also found in fish meal, which promotes the growth of animals. It constitutes a valuable source of feed for farm animals. In dry method the fish meal is exposed to high temperature like in flame dryers or in steam drums under partial vaccum. In wet method large sized fishes are chopped and boiled to extract oil. These are then covered with canvas and screw-pressed to form the cakes. Dried cakes are pressed in hydraulic pressure to recover oil and are redried in steam, before being sterilised and packed for marketing. The fish meal is stored in gunny or coir bags as they are insect and vermin proof. The tin containers under an atmosphere of nitrogen are also employed.
BY-PRODUCTS OF FISHES AND VALUE ADDITION FOR FISHERY PRODUCTS
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The fish meal of inferior quality is used as manure in tea, coffee and tobacco plantations. The spoiled fish can also used as manure. The fish manure contains N-5-7, P2O5 - 4-6 and Ca O - 4-6 % . Fish waste is buried in pits for 35 - 60 days, then dried, fermented and used as manure which is known as pit manure. 11.2. Fish oils The oils from the fish are obtained by extracting from the entire body of the fish or only from the liver. The oil obtained from the entire body are known as body oils and are grouped into drying and semi drying oils. The drying oil comprises oils of sardine, salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovy, and white fish, while the oils of sprat and carp constitute semidrying oil due to the low iodine content. The body oil is edible and used for industrial purposes. Liver oil extracted form the liver, is of medicinal importance and contains vitamin A. The flesh with rich oil content possess liver with low oil content and the liver with rich oil content is associated with flesh with low oil content. Freshly extracted oils are differently coloured from colourless to golden yellow, greenish yellow or even red. The oil extracted from the stale fish is darker in colour and concentration of the oil also varies from fresh to stale along with iodine content. 11.2.1. Composition of fish oil The fish oils differ very much in their composition and against the comparable oils of other terrestrial animals and vegetable fats. The fish oils are much more complex and the fatty acids are composed of chain lengths varying from C-14 to C-22 and in some instances even C-24. Higher chain lengths are not uncommon. These fish oils have also varying degrees of unsaturation ranging from mono upto penta (5) and have 6 ethylenic acids. Oils of marine fish varieties have a higher concentration of C-20 and C-22 and lower concentration of C-16 and C-18 acids. The saturated acids mainly palmitic, form only 15 - 20 % of the total acids. The fatty acid composition of flesh and liver oils of
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fish are similar with body oils containing higher proportion of unsaturated C-20 and especially C-22 acids. The fish oils comprise a mixture of triglycerides which are comparatively more complex. Simple triglycerides are either absent or of very rare occurrence. The most common triglyceride is a compound containing three different fatty acids although occasionally two radicals of the same fatty acids are found over a single glyceride molecule. The amount of unsaponifiable matter in fish oil shows great variability. Shark liver oils are rich in its constituent. The unsaponifiable matter is comprised of a variety of alcohols and other hydrocarbons. All fish oils contain cholesterol. 11.2.2. Liver Oil Fish liver oil consists of vitamin A mainly and D in some species. These vitamins may be formed due to metabolic activities which might have been made their way into the liver and to be stored. Unsaponifiable matter in the liver oils of food fishes is lower in 0.1 to 2.4 % in cod than in other liver oils i.e., 80% in few sharks. The livers of fishes are grouped into three classes depending upon the commercial utility viz. 1. High oil content with low vitamin A potency in cods with 60 75% of oil and 500 to 20,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency. Low oil content with high vitamin A potency in large tuna with 4 - 28 % of oil and 25,000 to 6,00,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency. High oil content with high vitamin A potency in shark with 25 75 % of oil and 3,00,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency.
2. 3.
Vitamin A mainly gets stored in the liver. But in large fishes this vitamin gets accumulated in viscera also in addition to liver. The age,
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sex, availability of food, season, etc., play an important role in the activity of vitamin A and can be obtained from the large sized fish within a given species. No such correlation of size and concentration of vitamin A can be made among the fish of different species. The dark coloured liver in sharks yields higher concentration of vitamin A than the light coloured ones. Vitamin A content of liver lobes are varied markedly in different lobes. Vitamin A which is associated with the protein of the liver and partly with the oil exists as fatty acid esters (96 - 100 %). Vitamin A comprises Vitamin A2 which is 40 % active as A1. Vitamin A1 is of greater importance inview of its availability in commercial scale. Three cis-isomers viz. neovitamin A, iso-a and iso-b have been isolated from the liver oils but are less potent than vitamin A1. Some fish liver oils are rich in vitamin D. Tuna liver oil and cod liver oil contain 2,50,000; 500 units per gram of oil respectively. Vitamin D content is available in greater quantity where the oil is less in the liver. The vitamin D is present in the form of D3, available partly in free state and partly as esters. Vitamin E in liver oils protects any oxidation of vitamin A. Hydrocarbons, cholesterol, pigments, fatty glycerol alcohol and others form various constituents of the oil besides glycerides. 11.2.2.1. Extraction: For extraction of the oil from the liver it is advisable to collect the livers from the fish stored till the process of extraction. Viscera also are collected from some large fishes and are stored separately. The material thus collected must be given preservative treatment to prevent microbial decomposition of oil and formation of free fatty acids. Vitamin A is quite stable within the liver. The material may be preserved in common salt or frozen or treated with formalize. Sound livers, fresh or suitably preserved, are used for the production of medicinal grade oil while diseased or discoloured livers are used for the production of technical grade oil. Hence, the process of extraction depends mostly on the presence of oil content in the liver and the vitamin
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A potency. A simple method of steaming is followed for obtaining oil from the livers of fish such as cod which has high oil content. The liver is minced and cooked in tanks at a temperature of 85 - 90o. The liver cells disintegrate and the oil floats to the surface of the steam condensate. The oil is then skimmed and collected. In another method known are floatation process, the procedure is some what elaborate. First the liver is collected and preserved with aquacide ( a mixture of paraldehyde and sodium carbonate). This denatures the protein and yields a pulp when the separated aqueous liquid is drained off. The pulp is then allowed to pass through a series of tanks or cylinders with a stirrer, which are connected to warm water pipes. The emulsion of oil and water formed during the treatment breaks suddenly and oil floats to the top. In the steaming process, oil cannot be fully extracted from the fishes which are poor in oil content but high in vitamin A potency. The proteins present in the liver hold up the release of liver oil. In such cases other techniques like digestion of liver protein with alkali is adopted as in the livers of tuna and sharks. The material is ground mixed with diluted caustic soda 1 - 2 % by weight or sodium carbonate 2 - 5 % and digested with live steam at a temperature of 82 - 88oC with constant stirring for about an hour. The material is passed through centrifugal machine. Liver may be treated with sardine oil for separating the vitamins. The enzyme alkali digestion process can also be undertaken for the extraction of oil. In this process minced liver is mixed with an equal volume of water, pH adjusted to 1.2 to 1.5 by addition of hydrochloric acid, pepsin (0.5% by wt of liver) added and the material digested at 43 - 49o C. At the end of the process sodium carbonate is added to raise the pH to 9.0 along with the rise of temperature to 80 % to cook the material for about 1 hour. Later the oil is drawn off and filtered. The yield obtained in the digestion process is comparatively low than the yield obtained by employing solvent extraction used for separating the oil from livers. The oil obtained through this process is darker in colour and with high viscosity and is to be refined after extracting free fatty acids from the liver.
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The oil thus collected from any one of the methods should be allowed to stay undisturbed for sometime till water and soil particles settle to the bottom. The oil containing the stearin in the form of sediment is passed through filtration, centrifuging and treatment with fullers earth. The oil is extracted and stored at low temperature. The stearin can be separated by cooling the oil at 0 - 10oC, the oil is filtered at low temperature. Liver oils with low potency are used as vitamin supplements to animals and those with high potency is used for medicinal purpose. Liver oils are found to be very active sometimes reducing the blood pressure of animals. 11.2.3. Cod liver oil Cod liver oil is obtained from different types of cod fishes like Gadus callarius and Gadus morrhua and other cods. The fresh liver of these cods are passed through steam cooking process and later cooled at OoC to eliminate the stearin. A good quality cod liver oil is pale yellow and slightly soluble in alcohol and mixes with solvent ether, chloroform and light petroleum and remains bright at OoC. The liver oil consists of fatty acids which vary differently in different fishes. Sometimes the unrefined oil contains iodine (3 - 15 ppm) and traces of arsenic (1.4 to 5.1 ppm). The inferior quality oil is of dark colour, acrid or bitter and acidic. Vitamin A in the oil gets destroyed when exposed to sunlight and the oil becomes thicker when exposed to air. Hence, the oil should be properly stored to avoid the destruction of vitamin A by addition of certain preservatives like nordihydrogualaretic acid (0.05%) and ascorbyl palmitate (0.01%). In view of rich concentration of vitamin A and D with digestible fat, it is found to improve nutrition and calcification in patients with rickets and tuberculosis when used. It can also be used as supplement for children and can be applied to wounds and burns. Iodinated oil is used for several skin infections like eczema and mycoses. The cod liver oil can be extracted from partially or completely decomposed livers. The oil is considered as low technical grade oil and
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is used in the manufacture of leather, lubricating greases and soaps of inferior grades. The stearin separated at low temperature is used in soap making or as fish tallow in leather curing. 11.2.4. Shark liver oils Sharks of Indian waters except few are considered highly important from the yield point of oil from liver which consist of high vitamin A potency. (av. 12,000 IU/g of oil). Oils as rich as 3,00,000 IU/g. have been obtained. The shark liver oil obtained from species of sharks like Galeocerdo tigrinus Carcharhinus melonopterus, C. menisorrah, C. limbatus, Scoliodon palasorrah and S. walbecchmi have varied distribution in east and west coast. They also vary in different seasons. The oils from the livers are extracted by employing a simple method. In this method the liver is collected from various sharks and the entire mass is heated till the oil is separated and set free. The oil thus collected is filtered and dehydrated with anhydrous sodium sulphate. The oil after refining is diluted to the required vitamin A potency by deodorised groundnut oil and enriched with synthetic vitamin D. Development of rancidity, bacterial contamination and metallic contamination from containers exposure to light and air during extraction and storage may cause destruction of vitamin A. Hence, the livers should be rendered as easily as possible after landing of sharks. Organic peroxides in the oil also affect the vitamin A content in stored oil. To protect vitamin A content, antioxidants e.g., isobutyl gallate (0.2%) + citric or tartaric acid (0.01 %), O - triacetyl - gallyl phloroglucinaldehyde are used. Dilution with ground nut oil retards deterioration. The freshly extracted oil is yellow, orange or brown in colour with mild fishy odour, and low acidity. The dilute shark liver oil is prepared by the addition of refined groundnut oil with vitamin D. The fatty acid composition of liver oil varies differently in different species. The saturated acids in Indian fishes are 40 % than that of elasmobranchs liver oils from foreign sources. The latter has 20 % unsaturated fatty acids like hexadecenoic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, gadoleic and tertracos
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- 12. 16 - dienoic acids have been found from the fishes of Indian waters. Glycerides isolated from shark liver oil include linoleno - diclupano donin, arachidono - diclupanodonin, linoleno - arachidono clupanodonin, triolein, etc. 11.2.5. Body oils The whole fish is processed to obtain the fish meal and the body oil. Commercially important oils include sardine, herring and salmon oils. The fish with rich oil content and low oil content are processed through wet and dry processes respectively. In the wet process the fish is crushed to a pulp and cooked with steam continuously in vertical cylindrical cooker. The cooked material is pressed and oil alongwith a mixture of fish solubles known as stick water is drawn into settling tanks and later passed through centrifugal to separate the oil. The material after the extraction of oil is dried, powdered and marketed as fish meal. In dry process, fishes with low oil content are processed as the oil recovery is low. The fillet waste and shark carcasses are disintegrated in a grinder and cooked under regular stirring in a cylinder heated by steam. The oil is then pressed out. Raw oils have a disagreable odour and taste. Through hydrogenation this can be eliminated or minimised. Free acids are neutralised by caustic soda and the oil is deodorized by superheated steam at reduced pressure and finally dehydrated by heating at 105oC. Seasonal fluctuations in the oil content of different species have been observed. This variation may be related directly with availability of food. Presence or absence of the dinoflagellates and the copepods in the plankton has contributed to the variation in fat content. The oil consisting of fatty acids and the glycerides after deodorization and hydrogenation are used for edible purpose. Oils with
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low iodine content are used in the preparation of laundry soap, cheaper grade toilet soap, etc. Sulphonation, polymerization, saponification are the processes followed in getting an excellent quality soap. Fish oils are used in the leather industry in making leather flexible. Oil with high iodine content is used in application of paint, varnish, etc. Heat treated fish oils and destearinate fish oils mixed with driers are used in blends with linseed or tung oil since it gives flexibility and heat resistant films. The other important uses of fish oil are manufacture of candles, lubricants, cutting oils, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, rubber substitutes, water proofing compositions, printing links and core oils. Oil containing vitamins are used in animal and poultry feeds. Fish oil acts as a fungicides when applied to citrus trees. Fatty acids of the oils are suitable for concentrating low grade iron ores. 11.2.6. Sardine oil Sardine oil is extracted from Sardinella longiceps and is considered as cottage industry. The large scale extraction of oil generally takes place between August and March. The collected fishes are put into the water bath with little water and heated for 30 to 45 minutes. The oil is set free from tissues and floats to the surface and is collected separately. The residual matter is put into the coir bags and pressed. The oil along with the water separates out and collected in tanks. The oil then floats to the top which is separated and filtered. The yield of oil is 10 - 15 %. The residue known as guano is dried and used as manure. Freshly extracted oil contains vitamin A which is reduced during storage and is used for edible purposes. Technical grade oil is used for batching jute and dressing leather, and lubricant, for insecticidal soaps, for tempering of metals, for painting bottoms of country boats. 11.3. Fish manure The dried and putrefied fishes are used for the preparation of fish manure. Fish manure are prepared as mentioned in fish meal. Prawn manure are also prepared in similar way from the leftout things like head, tail, appendages and body shell. It contain 5 - 6 % of nitrogen, 3
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- 4 % of phosphates and traces of lime. Fish guano is prepared from the fish materials left after the extraction of oil. It contain 8 - 10 % of nitrogen and considered a rich nutrient for the plants. 11.4. Fish flour Fish meal is prepared by solvent extraction process on commercial scale. This can be blended with wheat or maize flour and is used as enriching component in bread, biscuits, cakes, sweets and soups. It forms an ideal protein supplement to human diets. Gruopers and seer fishes are used commonly for preparation of fish flours. 11.5. Fish flakes/wafers Thread fin breams and cat fishes are used in the preparation of flakes or wafers. Fish flesh is boiled, then mixed with maida, salt, etc. to prepare flakes or wafers. 11.6. Breaded prawns and fish sticks Body shell and digestive tract are removed from prawn body and boiled for 15 minutes in 7% salt solution. Fishes are cleaned and cut into 10 cm length and 1 cm width pieces. These are dipped in egg, maida, salt mixture, and then are added to bread powder to prepare sticks. 11.7. Fish salads The fishes are cleaned and pieces are boiled with steam. The boiled fish or prawns are mixed with tomatoes, salt, garlic, maida, pepper and oil to prepare fish salad. This can be used in fresh condition or can be stored. 11.8. Fish sausage Fish flesh is ground and mixed with sugar, fats, masala and
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preservatives. Small bags are prepared with above mixture and boiled to prepare fish sausage. 11.9. Fish cakes Tuna and mackerels are used commonly to prepare fish cakes. Fishes are cleaned and steam boiled, then separated in layers. Potatoes are boiled with salt, pepper and citric acid. Layered fish are mixed with the above mixture and packed in vaccum to prepare fish cakes. 11.10. Fish silage The fish is mixed with formic acid, sulphuric acid and molases resulting in the formation of semi stuff. This silage is preferred over fish meal since the vitamins are not affected and do not produce fish odour. 11.11. Isinglass Isinglass is the carefully washed and dried fish sounds or air bladders, made into special forms by mechanical means. Russian isinglass from sturgeon, is the best, but good quality isinglass is manufactured in Iceland, Canada, India, Philippines, West Indies and USA. The fish sound is a hollow compressible sac, containing air on the specific gravity of the fish to rise or sink. The swim bladder consists of several tissues, the outer layer of which is thick and fibrous containing collagen. The inner layer has guanin, a lustrous material. If fresh sounds are used, they are split open and carefully washed with cold or warm water to remove blood, membrane and other extraneous matter. If dried previously, they are soaked in water for several days, with frequent changes of water to soften them and permit removal of membranes. They are then dried in large trays. The later processing done in cold weather, as higher temperature melts and decomposes the isinglass. Weather, as higher temperature melts and decomposes the isinglass. They are soaked in water, chopped into small
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places, and passed trough rollers (hollow cylinders, with running cold water) a scraper removes isinglass in strips 1/8" to 1/4" thick and 6" to 8" wide, and of any desired length. They are then pressed through ribbon rollers, from which the sheets emerge 1/64" thick. The ribbons are quickly dried, to prevent putrifaction and rolled on wooden spools into coils, weighing less than a pound each. Isinglass does not dissolve in water, but merely swells slowly and absorbs some water, but not as much as gelatin. Isinglass is collagen. When heated with water, it hydrolyses to form gelatin which dissolves upon cooling, it becomes a tough gel (resembling animal gelatin gels) a clear, colurless glue of great adhesivensess. Isinglass is insoluble water and has a fishy odour. But isinglass has little insoluble salt and ash. 1. For cleaning of wine and beer, the isinglass is first made to become swollen in water, and then in wine, till it is transparent. It is throughly beaten with more wine, after which a little tartaric acid is added. The isinglass is then strained through lines and stirred into the bulk of wine. The solution is not heated and so the isinglass does not dissolve although disintergrated into fine suspension. Its fibrous nature is not destroyed but entangles in its meshes the colloidal bodies that produce undesirable turbidity, A small dose is enough to clarify the wine.
11.12. Fish glue The fish glue industry is one of the minor by-product industry in USA, England, Norway and Japan. The great obstacle confronting this industry is obtaining a regular supply of suitable glue stock in sufficient quantities. The conversion of animal skin and bones into gelatine has been the subject of many researches. The hydrolysis of fish sounds, or air bladders not merely resemble the manufacture of hide glue for when the tissue is heated with water, it dissolves, and upon evaporating and cooling the resultant solution forms a gel which is a gelatine of high purity. Fish
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skin and bones contain much collagen and other similar proteins. Upon careful hydrolysis with steam, or boiling water, the collagen and other related proteins yield gelatine. Fish glue is soluble in cold water, while hide glues merely swell in cold water and do not dissolve until the water is heated. Waste products of cod, haddock, etc., form the raw materials for the manufacture of fish glue. They are ordinarily graded as head, waste and skin stock. The skin of cod fish is thicker, and yields larger amounts of a better grade of fish glue, than haddock. Skin yields 70 gallons of glue per ton; head 25 gallons, and wastes 25 gallons. The stock must be free from salt or be fresh before use. It is agitated in running water free of chlorides, and pitched into cookers. A preservative is added, to prevent the decomposition of the glue liquors, during storage. A small amount of acetic acid or other moderately strong acid, is also added, to act as catalyst, to hasten hydrolysis. The stock is covered with water, steam turned into the outer jacket, and cooking continued for 6 to 10hours. The glue liquor is drained off, pumped into tanks and then into evaporators, the liquor is being filtered as it is passed through. A vacuum evaporator is the most efficient though evens heated with steam coils are also used and treating continued till proper viscosity is attained. Best grade is used (i) for photo-engraving and half tone plates (ii) as flexible glue for court plaster, stamps, labels and book binding (iii) ready to use adhesive in shoe repairs, etc., (iv) as balt cement, for leather cements, with hide glue (v) sizing operation and (vi) chipping of glass and for translucent glass and furniture works. 11.13. Fish proteins The proteins of the fish have high digestibility, biological and growth promoting value. Hence, it plays an important role in human nutrition. The available amino acids are more evenly balanced than the other proteins of animal origin. Amino acids like lysine and methionine are rich in fish protein. In general, fish protein is somewhat superior to egg albumen, bean protein and casein and perhaps equal to chicken
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proteins. 15 - 25 % of protein is obtained from the fish muscle which forms the chief source. About 95% of available protein can be obtained by using sodium chloride solution. The proteins present in the cells i.e. intracellular consist of myosin 66-75 %, myogen 6%, myoalbumin 7%, globulin 8%, etc., along with collagen and elastin contributing to stroma proteins together with crude protein of 3 % of total proteins, and other proteins including nucleoproteins and haemoglobins. The fish proteins are extracted with dilute caustic soda solution from fish fillets or waste after removing the fat. The extracted material is dried after neutralisation. This powder is white in colour without any fishy odour and taste containing 80 - 90 % of solubalized protein. This is used as a substitute for white of the egg in baking, confectionary, ice cream and pharmaceutical products. This is also used in paint, varnish, textile, paper, cosmetics, moulding powder and foam type extinguishers. Hydrolysed fish protein can be extracted from the flesh of Indian sharks and rays. The 85% of protein content, a cream coloured product, is obtained in yield of 10 % of the raw material. It is easily soluble in water and as greater whipping power than that of egg albumen and good keeping quality. 11.14. Shark fins The fins of the large sharks except caudal fin are cut near the root, washed in seawater, mixed with wood ashes and lime and dried in the sun or smoked, this product which is crisp and brittle are used in soups and regarded as delicacy in China and Philippines. 11.15. Fish roe Fish roe is a good source of vitamins B,C, D and E in addition to various aminoacids present. Viz. thymine, citruline, creatine, taurine, tyrosine, xanthine and hypoxanthine. Fish roe fat possesses high lecithin (59%) and cholesterol (14%). Roe protein is colourless and tasteless with digestibility coefficient and biological value at 81 and 88 % respectively. It is used in various food products and for the manufacture of glue and synthetic fibre.
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TABLE 11.1: Utilization of fish: Products & by products

Source
Fat of liver and body Protein of muscle And other tissue
Products/by-product
1. Fish liver oil + Vitamin A 2. Fish body oil 3. Fish flour, sausage, ham 4. Fish meal 5. Fish silage 6. Fish soluble 7. Fish manure 8. Fish guano
Uses
Pharmaceutical Pharmaceutical Human consumption Animal feed Animal feed Animal feed Agricultural Agricultural Industrial Industrial Industrial
Collagen of body tissues 9. Fish glue Collagen of air bladder Skin Scales 10. Isin glue 11. Fish leather 12. Animal charcoal 13. Guanine 14. Shagreen 15. Dried fins 16. Fish roe 17. Cholesterol 18. Squalene 19. Lecithin Enzymes & harmones
Industrial (Purification of liquids) Industrial (artificial pearls) Industrial (abrasive) Human consumption (soup) Human consumption Pharmaceutical Industrial (mordant in dyeing) Industrial (Antibloom agent in chocolate industry)
Fins Eggs Sterols
20.Enzymes & harmones Pharmaceutical
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11.16. Fish leather After tanning and removing denticles the skin of sharks and rays provide a strong and highly durable leather. In Japan, the skin of puffer fish is used for preparing latrious. The viscera is removed from the body and the skin is dried. The candle is burnt inside the jacket, the skin useful as a transparent shade. Dried and treated skins are used for making belts, shoes, bags, suitcases and other ornamental wears. 11.17. Shagreen It is the skin of the sharks and rays. These are armed with sharp pointed placoid scales. It is used in polishing wood and other materials, for covering jewellery and sword covers. 11.18. Helmets The skin of whales are used for the manufacture of helmets. 11.19. Fish soaps The fins of various sharks are dried and exported to other countries where they are used for the preparation of soaps. 11.20. Fish insulin The pancreases of large fishes are removed to obtain raw material for manufacturing insulin. 11.21. Artificial pearls The material obtained by scalping the silvery coating of the scales of certain fishes, is used for polishing the hollow glass beads. These beads are then filled with wax and marked as artificial pearls, used in jewellery.
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11.22. Ambergris This is a solid, buoyant waxy or fatty inflammable substance, grey, dull or speckled in colour and musky in odour, which occurs as a concretion, in the intestine or stomach of the spermwhale. Usually sick members vomit it. It is generally found floating in the sea or in the shore, in hot latitudes, usually during the cold and wet months. Pieces of considerable size have been found on the west coast of Sri Lanka. Ambergris is different from amber, a vegetable product of the sea. Formally it was thought to be fungoid growth, etc. It is usually found in all parts of the intestines, and is mostly a concretion of undigested squids and cattle fish; with the nuclear mass being horny beaks of cephalopods. Next to pearls, ambergris is the highest priced product of fisheries. It acts as a preventive to child - bearing if taken by females and use it in medicines. When picked up wet, it is soft and emits a rank repugnant odour. It is wrapped in cloth and dried. Exposure to air makes it harder, lighter, opaque, waxlike, and inflammable. It is used in flavour dishes. But at present its only use is in the perfume industry. 11.23. Value addition of fishery products Landings of high value marine products throughout the world are showing a state of stagnation as a result of unplanned exploitation of resources. At the same time, a significant amount of total catch consisting of low cost by catch fish remains underutilized. On a global scale, more and more consumer are beginning to look at fishery products as health foods, since unlike red meat, fishery products are good sources of therapeutically important polyunsaturated fatty acids, easily digestible proteins and several micronutrients. Further, fishery products are a major commodity of international trade and a source of foreign exchange for several countries particularly those from Asia. Therefore, there is a need for total utilization of the catch to meet the increasing global requirement of the commodity. Fish, however, is regarded as a smelly product cumbersome to bring it to a consumable form at home. In addition, lack of knowledge in preparing fish for a meal is another reason for the occasional lethargic
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attitude towards the commodity by housewifes and others. In most countries, consumers prefer processed food products including fish items in super markets in ready-to-serve form. Such a preference is favoured by change in work culture and life styles due to availability of additional income and lesser leisure for household work. This has resulted in rapid expansion in catering services and fast food chains, which continuously added semi-prepared ready meals to their menus. The fishery sector should take advantage of these changes to expand markets through diversification of processing popular food items throughout the world which are generally consumed with a sprinkling of mussels, prawns, and squids. For example, Italian creations of fish and chips, spaghetti, pizza, pasta etc. are popular food items throughout the world which are generally consumed, as stated above,with a sprinkling of mussels, prawns and squids. This contribution will discuss some of the technologies and potentials for value addition and development of convenient-to-use seafood products. 11.23.1Technology A number of techniques are available for making novel products from marine and freshwater aquatic resources. These include individual quick freezing, sous vide, cook-chill, high pressure processing, breading and battering, developing products from fish mince, surimi and seafood analogues, fish fillets and steaks, modified atmosphere packaging, and products through improvement of traditional processing techniques such as canning, curing, smoking etc. The IQF products allow the processor to supply the customer with frozen seafood in small, ready-to-cook quantities. The products may be prepared by cryogenic freezing of the product by directly applying carbon dioxide gas (boiling point, - 790C) or liquid nitrogen (boiling point, - 1960C) or by the more common mechanical refrigeration. Fluidized bed freezers are normally used for small sized shrimps. In this type, the products is frozen in a tray with perforated bottom, through which cryogens or mechanically cooled air is circulated. The upward movement of the air carries the product through the freezer by the same blast that freezes them. Normal handling capacities are 250 to 1000 kg
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per hour. For larger shrimps, spiral belt freezers are commonly used. Super markets are turning to high quality heat-n-eat refrigerated foods, through cook-chill technology, which imparts convenience, freshness and quality to the product. These foods, generally individually packed in a variety of retail packages, allow consume to make their own favourite meals by mixing various side dishes, within a short time after purchase. In sous vide processing, the food is prepared, seasoned, vacuum sealed and subsequently cooked at controlled temperatures followed by chilling immediately to a temperature below 40C and storage between 0 to 40C. The treatment gives the product a shelf life of about 3 weeks. It is reheated before consumption. The technology can be used for preparation of fish-based ready-meals. Many processing plants through the EU are at present using this means of production. Breading and battering is a technique to prepare tasty products for diverse seafood items including crustacea, fin-fish and cephalopods. The raw material is first predusted with flour or dry batter and subsequently conveyed through a special batter. The battered shrimp are usually frozen before or after frying. The fried products are heated in microwave oven before consumption. Automation in the process allows efficient handling, processing and freezing operations. In the emerging modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) technology, normal air in the package is replaced by a mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen (usually 30,40 and 30%, respectively) to reduce the spoilage rate. The CO2 dissolves in the moisture of the food forming carbonic acid, lowering the surface pH, which in turns retards the growth of bacteria. To prevent rancidity in fatty fish, oxygen in the packages may be completely replaced by nitrogen. ALL MAP products have to be stored below 30C to prevent the growth and toxin formation by Clostridium botulinum. The items may be wrapped by a shrink film for better freshness and to avoid drip formation. MAP products may be skinless and boneless fish fillets, fresh or cooked crustacean species.
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Meat mince from low cost fish can be collected by mechanically debnoing. Several products including pates, saucs, sausages, patties, sticks, balls and dried products can be manufactured from the mince by incorporation of ingredients such as vegetable oil, milk proteins, gluten, alginates, carrageenan, zanthan gum or pectin, sugar, salts and preservatives. Surimi is mechanically deboned, washed and stabilized fish flesh, and is widely used as an intermediate for fabrication of products including kamaboko, fish sausage, fish ball, fish cake and seafood analogues such as crab ligs, shrimp etc. development of these products is made possible by the characteristic property of surimi to undergo gelation in the presence of salt and heat.
Table . 11.2.Some technologies for value additon of fishery products 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Breading and battering Canning Cook-chill processing Extrusion cooking Fermentation High pressure treatment Individual quick freezing (IQF) Lamination and dehydration Low dose irradiation Marination Modified atmosphere packaging Smoking Sous-vide processing
14. Retortable pouch packaging
A number of fish species such as tuna, mackerel, saridine etc., and mollusks like clams and oysters are ideal for canning. Canned products(in fancy packs) such as tuna-based salads, marinated items and elaborated mackerel-based preparations are becoming popular in Europe. Salted and dried small fish such as anchovies is a popular dish
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in Japan, where dried fry and half-grown anchovy are referred to as shirasu-boshi and are delicacy snack items. Bombay duck (Harpodon nehereus) is one of the low-valued seasonal fish available throughout the west coast of India. A process to prepare dehydrated laminates of the fish has been developed. The laminates have a shelf life of 6 months at ambient temperature and is a source of good quality protein. Laminates of ribbon fish have also been developed. Texturised products such as sausages have been prepared by high pressure treatment of Pollack, sardine, skipjack tuna and squid by the treatment. Several such fish items have started appearing in Japanese supermarkets. Others technologies for fish items have started appearing in Japanese supermarkets. Others technologies for fish processing include accelerated freeze-drying, smoking, extrusion cooking, production of fish sauces by fermentation, marination, etc (Table 11.2). 11.23.2. Raw Material 11.23.2.1Crustacea: There is good market for IQF lobster tails. Shrimp can be traded as live, fresh/chilled IQF, dried fermented etc., in head-on, headlies, peeled, peeled tail-on, breaded, spiced, bottled and paste forms (Table 11.3). At present, there is good demand in the European market for a wide range of such value-added products. In several Southeast Asian cities, supermarkets are selling ready-to-eat sushi shrimp. Some of the other Japanese delicacies from shrimp include stretched shrimp [(Nobashi), sushi shrimp)], skewered with vegetable, single Kebab, butterfly shrimp and stretched shrimp. 11.23.2.2. Cephalopods and bivalves: Molluscs consisting of cephalopods (squids, cuttlefish and octopus) and bivalves (mussel, clam and oyster) have become major commodities in the seafood market. In India, during 1985 to 1995, the annual production of cephalopods has increased from 31,000 tonnes to over one lakh tonnes, out of an estimated potential of 180,000 tonnes.
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Compared to the western markets, in Asia, consumption of cephalopods is varied as raw (suchi/sashimi), cooked, chilled, fried, seasoned, smoked/roasted, battered/breaded, marinated etc. the cephalopods processed as whole cleaned, fillets, tubes, slices, stuffed, chunks, rings and small tidbits, are marketed to both institutional and retail outlets. Export of fried cephalopods has also started recently. The most preferred products from cuttle fish and squid are whole cleaned and whole frozen forms. Some of the other popular products are half-shelled oysters, clams, scallops and mussels in sauces, vacuum packed mussels, IQF products, breaded crab balls, stuffed crab, and crab claws. Vacuum packed, cooked and frozen molluscs are also gaining in importance. Dried ousters and oyster sauce are important items in Chinese cuisine. While these products are mainly produced in chine, oyster sauce is being processed in several Asian countries. Cooked dried oysters are produced by keeping washed oysters in peanut oil and salt and boiled till they become firm and elastic. The cooked meat is drained, cooled, spread and dried. The fluid obtained during cooking is also concentrated to give oyster juice.
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Crustacea Peeled tail on shrimp Peeled tail on stretched Shrimp (Nobashi) Butterfly tail on shrimp Heat on shell on shrimp Blanched/boiled peeled Shrimp Accelerated freezedried Shrimp Breaded butterfly shrimp Breaded round shrimp Breaded baby clams (pre-fried) Shrimp delights Peeled shrimp Breaded baby clam
Cephalopods Squid ring Squid tubes Stuffed tubes Peeled squid Double skinned Cuttle fish fillets Dried squid Head-on squid, Cuttle fish Products in boil-inbag packs Oysters, clams in sauce
Finfish Fish fillets (Vacuum packs) Composite fillets from mince Raw tuna steaks Grilled tuna steaks Cooked tuna lightmeat Breaded and stuffed product Fish burger Seafood cocktail Tuna kebad (raw) Seafood skew Seafood salad Grilled tuna steak Cooked tuna lightmeat Tuna mini crisp
11.23.2.3. Finfish: Depending upon the species, a variety of novel products can be prepared from marine or freshwater finfish. These include IQF fillets, steaks, smoked and canned items. Meat mince can e prepared from low cost fish such as sardine, lizardfish, eel, barracuda, striped mullet, leather
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jacket, needlefish, mackerel, threadfin bream, big-eye snapper etc. A variety of products from mince can be developed as mentioned above. The eu markets, especially france and spain started surimi production in the middle of the eighties, the production being about 40,000 tonnes in 1996. france has developed domestic production of surimi products such as imitation crab and sticks as well as lobster tails from surimi base imported from japan and republic of korea. US, Europe and japan consume tuna in the form of tuna loins, fillets, steaks, minced products, smoked products etc. these can be used to season western style soups, sauces, pastes and broths for seasonng/ flavouring. Some of the other novel tuna products include teriyaki tuna, tuna sheet, flakes etc. canned mackerek and sardine are also popular items. Shark meat does not attract much consumer interest in many asian countries including India. Novel restructured products in the form of cutlets, steaks or paneer have been developed for value addition of shark meat based on its gel forming property, at the authors laboratory. Cookchill products for pomfret steaks and also for shrimp have also been developed at the laboratory. The products have a shelf life of three weeks at 0-20c, and can be consumed with minimum preparation. The Food Technology division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, has been interested in the application of low dose radiation treatments for shelf life extension of fresh and hygienisation of frozen and dehydrated fishery products. In addition, the division has developed some processes for value addition of low cost fish items such as shark. These are summarized in Table 3. 11.23.3.Machineries A number of sophisticated machineries are available for production of fancy seafood items depending upon the requirement. These include spiral and tunnel freezers for the production of IQF products having capacities from 500 to 2000 lbs per hour. Gutting machines that belled and gut fish such as cod, haddock, hake etc., of 50-90 cms in length, without damaging their roe or liver at a speed of 30 fish per minute, have been fabricated. Machines for descaling, evisceration as well as
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filleting for finfish with attached automated pin bone remover are used for the preparation of boneless fillets. State-of-art peeling, deveining as well as grading machines for shrimp have come to the market. In Netherlands, single processing line is available for processing more than one species of shellfish. Automations for making oyster products, machineries for processing squid and cuttle fish, surimi making machines, micro-processor controled cold or hot smoking oven suitable for fish having capacities of 20 to 500 kg, are all available. With the recent expansion in breaded products, sophisticated machineries for predusting, and applicators for large crumbs have come to the market with facilities for applications of batter. Development of new microwaveable products for the fast food markets require new methods of cooking natural and coated products. Automatic frying systems and cookers allow food products to be fully fried or cooked, with minimum cooking loss. Forming machines for tuna processing system for cooking and vacuum cooling operations have been designed. Others include commercial deboning machines that can handle 400 to 500 kg fish per hour and moulders for the production of fish ball that can produce 160 to 460 balls per min. High pressure food processing systems are available in USA, Europe and Japan. The growing need of consumers and the retail trade for btter packaging for new products is being met by parallel progress in packaging technology. Consumers in the US, Europe and Japan are seeking a wider range of prepacked foods including fishery products which offer convenience and considerable saving in time and labour. The unit packaging material in direct contact with food should have adequate barrier properties to protect the product from dehydration, oxidation, discolouration and off flavour in order of offer shelf life extension, ease of distribution and presentation, convenient preparation, and information to the consumer.
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Table 11.4. Some value added products developed at the Food Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research, Centre, Mumbai. Restructured, breaded and battered shark gel steaks/ cutlets Shark paneer for convenient use Spray dried powders from low cost fish such as croaker, threadfin bream etc. Dehydrated Bombay duck laminates Dehydrated ribbon fish laminates Biodegradable film/coating from low cost fish meat for frozen high value fish items Jawala protein hydrolyzate for aquafeed Cook-chill process for extended refrigerated storage of shrimp and white pomfret steaks Radiation processed fresh fish for extended refrigerated shelf life Dehydro-irradiated shrimp
New packaging films trays are being developed to suit different processing methods such as freezing, heating, vacuum-packaging, or microwave cooking. These packaging materials may be polymers (polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyester), paper or metal (aluminium) foil, or co-polymers of two different types of plastics (ethylenevinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride or polyvinylidine chloride), which give required tensile strenth, puncture resistance, provide barrier to oxygen, water vapour and aroma retention, light permeability and antifogging properties. Vacuumised boil-in-bag packs are used for prepared foods which require light cooking. Packaging foods in retortable pouches are replacing conventional canning in metal containers. The pouches are made form laminates. The pouches are made from laminates generally consisting of polyester/aluminum film and polyethylene or polypropylene which are bonded together with a high performance adhesive. The product is sealed in the pouches and subjected to heat sterilization as in canning. Expanded polystyrene is widely used in making trays which can carry the fish products, which may be overwrapped or vacuum skin packaged. The latter technique for pack aging involves shrinking of a clear plastic film around a product in vacuum, thus forming an extra skin. This is an extension of vacuum
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packaing which can be applied to both film-to-film and film-to-tray sealing. Table 4 shows some of the packaging possibilities for product development.
Table 4.5. Packaging possibilities Packaging options
Trays and form-fill packs made of rigid plastics (polystyrene, expanded polystryrene and polyvinyl chloride, PVC). Single ply films (polyethyelene 50-100 micron), Co-polymers (e.g. Polyvinylidene chloride [PVDC, commonly known as saran], ethyl vinyl alcohol). PVDC has the lowest water vapour, oxygen and CO2 Permeabilities. Laminate packs (e.g. Polyester/polyethylene or nylonpolyethylene laminates). Crystallised polyester based trays. Manufactured also from specially treated polystyrene pellets. Shrink wrapping (shrinkable polyethylene) Stretch wrapping using elastic films.
Advantages
Permeable to oxygen. May need extra protection by overwrapping by PVC Celing film or skin packaging. Commonly used packaging material.
Good rigidly and protection. (e.g. for frozen foods).
Better protection to foods
Thermostable, microwaveable
Protection by flexible films covering the trays carrying the Tight draping around the product by machine for better protection. Ideal for heat sensitive products. Cooked products with long shelf life at ambient temperature. Better refrigerated shelf life
Retorable pouches (Polyester [PET]/ aluminium/adhesive/ polyprolypene)
Vacuum packaging (Polyester, PVDC)
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11.23.5.Marketing Preference for a particular type of fish varies with respect to consumer seqments. Therefore, the products should essentially derived from species of consumer choice. The constraints I the export promotion of value-added fishery products include high international competition, large number of exporters for some products, lack of marketing tieups, need for additional investment on machinery, high cost of production and fear of rejection. Suggested strategies for export promotion include information on markets, training of work force, and promotional activities for image building apart from the availability of required raw material in good quality and the necessary technology. In India, the Marine Products Exports Development Authority Cochin is conducting regular workshops for entrepreneurs on production of value-added seafoods. The seafood industry should avail of the opportunities to market products of mass appeal and quality. There is also vast scope for the development of these products for the expanding domestic markets. Apart from the marine resources, such products can also be developed from freshwater fish including aquacultured fish. Availability of efficient cold chain, refrigerated transport and storage facilities are highly essential for handling these products for both domestic as well as foreign markets. Successful efforts in this direction can help in the total utilization of the fish catch for commercial purposes as well as to meet nutrition requirements of population. SUMMARY The following by products are prepared from fish Fish meal; Fish oil: Fish manure : Fish floor: Fish Flakes/ Wafers: Breaded prawns and fish sticks: Fish salads: Fish sausage : Fish cakes: Fish silage: Ising glass: Fish proteins: Shark fins: Fish roe: Fish leather: Shagreen: Fish soaps: Fish Insulin and artificial pearls. QUESTIONS 1. What are by products? Explain various types of byproducts of fish? 2. Desacribe value added products from fish? 3. Discuss the methods employed for the production of fish oils?
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12. MARKETING AND MARKETING INTERMEDIARIES
In earlier days, the term marketing of fish meant buying and selling of fish at the landing centre. After the second world war, the concept and function of fish marketing have taken a new role in business activities. The fisheries have now become highly industrialized in all advanced fishing nations. The new marketing techniques have been adopted so as to sell more fish. The modern fish marketing system lays emphasis in meeting the existing demands for fish, besides tapping the potential demand in the important markets. In many advanced countries the improved methods of fish marketing are being adopted with the advancement of fisheries development. A progressive fish marketing system will also provide remunerative price to the primary producer though the interest of the consumer is also protected. In many developing countries traditional system and fish marketing is adopted. The methods and practices in trade dealings are based on some customs. These practices have remained unchanged and unimproved over decades. The fish marketing is normally done at the collection centres which are mainly situated in the area of fish landing. Fish has peculiar feature at its own and gives a big strain and stress on the method of its marketing. The fish marketing should not have the object of only catching and selling of fish but should have the wide scope for exploitation, production, distribution, preservation and transportation of fish in addition to actual sale of fish by reducing middlemen. 12.1. Characteristics of marketing 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Perishability of the commodity Large number of intermediaries involved. Handling and treatment, icing, peering, curing and packing Seasonal concentration of landing Scattered landing places
MARKETING AND MARKETING INTERMEDIARIES
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6. Small quantity produced by each fishermen, to be assembled, stored and transported 7. Non-uniformity of landing, quantity, freshness and size. 12.2. Factors affecting fish marketing patterns 1. Concentration of landings as a result of construction of improved port and landing facilities increases maneuverability of boats in the course of fishery development. Increased size of capital requirements for fishing activities often with outside investors coming to fisheries. Increases the scale of operation resulting in economic growth. The above factors will lead to greater bargaining power of fishermen or producers. Increase of processed or frozen fish. Institutional development by Government intervention, eg. fish marketing organization, state fishing corporation, Government loan schemes and fishermens co-operatives are very likely to affect and change fish marketing patterns.
2.
3. 4.
12.3. Preparation of fish markets The fishermen visit the fishing grounds and tend to bring the produce to the nearby market for sale as soon as possible. In some cases the fish catch may be of good size and variety acceptable to the customers while in some cases it may be poor. There are no effective means for regulating the catch or forecasting the varieties of the fish that would be landed. The quantity of catch is also uncertain, therefore, creates gults and shortages which affect the fish marketing and pricing of fish. The fishermen who actually catch fish play only an insignificant role in the disposal of catches. Their role is only an insignificant role in the disposal of catches. Their role is only to hand over the fish catch to fish merchants at the landing centres for sale. The final distribution and marketing of catch is done by commission agents who step in at this stage.
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12.4. Types of markets Based on the marketing place, production importance and products, the markets can be classified into the following types. 1. Whole sale market: More amount of fish comes to this market, then distributed to other types of markets. These are two types: a. Primary whole sale market: More amount of sale of fish takes place in this market. Collection of the fishes from surrounding places and selling the fish to wholesalers takeplace. This type of markets are found either in a village or a place covering a group of villages or towns or cities. These are known as shandis. Secondary whole sale market: These are also called as gunjs. The fishes are brought from the primary whole sale markets and sold to the wholesalers.
b.
2.
Terminal markets: The fishes are sold to the retailers or consumers or to the agents. Retail markets: The fishes are sold to the consumers by the retailers or wholesalers. Fairs: These are found temporarily during festival times or in fairs. The fishes are sold directly to consumers.
3.
4.
12.5. Functions of the fish market Fish markets are bridges between producers and consumers. The following are the functions of the market. 1. 2. All types of fishes are brought together for selling. Transportation of fishes
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3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Storage of fishes Business problems can be solved Fishes can be graded here Money transactions take place in markets Time and distance is saved.
12.6. Fish marketing intermediaries There are many fish market intermediaries from fish producers consumers to forms a complicated network which is given below: Fish market intermediaries Fish farmers Fishing workers Fish farmers-cum-contractors Fish farmers-cum-contractor-cum-wholesellers Fish farmers-cum-wholesellers Fish farmers-cum-retailers Fish farmers-cum-fishing workers Commission agents Commission agent-cum-wholeseller Wholeseller Wholeseller-cum-retailers Fishing worker-cum-retailers Fish Farmers-cum-vendor Fishing worker-cum-vendor Fish contractor Retailers Vendor Consumer Notation FF FW FFC FFCW FFW FFR FFFW CA CAW W WR FWR FFV FWV FC R V Cum
12.7. Marketing system The marketing system of fishes can be analysed in terms of use flows, physical flows and channel flows.
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12.7.1. Use flows The production from inland resources is largely consumed in fresh form. A negligible quantity is dried by traditional method and used for non-edible purposes. Ice is used to preserve the freshness of fish. Very rarely the facilities of cold storage are used. When fish is sent to outstation, it is packed with ice but processing is done. 12.7.2. Physical flows Due to food habits and economic conditions of the people in and surrounding the fish production centres, fish flow to other stations, mainly to urban centres. In India, Calcutta alone consumes more than 10% of fresh water fish of production and about 30% of reservoir fish especially of major carps. A major share of production from pond and riverine resources is consumed locally or nearby production centres. Unlike pond and riverine fishes, the catch from the reservoir is mainly consumed in urban centres, away from the production centres. This is mainly because of poor local consumption and due to high price and bulk production from reservoirs. As the fish marketing is controlled by powerful marketing intermediaries, they prefer to send the fish to outstation and distant places, where the demand and price of the fish are very high. 12.7.3. Channel flows The fishes are distributed in different marketing channels. Srivastava (1985) identified 16 marketing channels and also stated that all the channels are not in operation in fish markets. Some channels are more popular than other. Four popular channels identified are: Channel I: Channel II: Fish farmer (producer) sells fish directly to theconsumer. The fish farmer sells fish to retailer, who sells to consumer.
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Channel III : Channel IV:
Fish farmer sells fish to wholesaler, who sells to retailer, then to consumer. The fish farmer sells fish to commission agent, who again sells to wholesaler, he sells fish to consumer through the retailers.
Out of the above four channels, middle two channels (II and III) are most popular and common in Indian fish markets. In case riverine and reservoir fisheries the fishermen get more profits than other market intermediaries, because of the low input cost. More profits are found in shorter channels. 12.8. Fish marketing Procedures 12.8.1. Sale proceed at markets At the landing centres, the fish is sold in many ways. Although, it is not possible to draw an exact time of demarcation between different methods of marketing in India. At the landing centres, the fish is assembled and sorted out by the agents or wholesalers or fishermens group leaders. At Chilka lake area in Orissa, the fish is collected by the leader of fishermen party who is known as bahanias. Similarly, in Kakinada area, of Andhra Pradesh, the fish is mostly collected by the Pettamdars , whereas in Kerala, Thruvilarya. In Gujarat and Maharashtra the primary collectors are known as Tindels. The fresh water fish in most of the cases is sorted out species-wise and also size-wise. Then thefish is packed in ice and kept in bamboo baskets or wooden boxes for despatch to the distant markets particularly in Calcutta. These activities are done by the agents on behalf of the wholesalers or on behalf of the commission agents. In some cases, the primary co-operative fish marketing societies directly consigns the fish to the private traders. The fish is filled in empty gunny bags and transported to the nearest fish market for disposal. The fish before reaching to the market is handled by 5 - 6 middlemen in case of fresh water whereas 3 - 4 persons in case of marine. In Haryana only 2 - 3 persons handle fish because the owner of the waters is generally a commission agent in case of
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notified water. Of course, incase of private owned waters or ponds, the number of middlemen do increase. By and large the prevalent methods in fish marketing are given below: (i) In the primary fish markets, the fishermen or producer directly sell fish to the buyers without having intermediaries. In many places the buyers may be wholesalers or fish merchants or middlemen. In the Southern States particularly in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, the women who belong to fishermens family traditionally sell fish in retail markets unlike the upper eastern or northern India. The prices are usually negotiated between individual fisherman, seller and buyer.
(ii) The fishermen send fish to the commission agents as consignments. The commission agents auction the fish and the gross sale proceeds are remitted to fishermen after deducting various marketing charges. (iii) Selling of fish is also done by contact method. The prices are fixed before the fishing season starts. The traders make some agreement for the delivery of catches by fishermen at stipulated prices. All the fish caught is disposed of at the fixed price. In Gujarat, the Mandela Committees are formed where the fishermens representatives, Government representatives and traders assemble and fix the price based on the previous years prices and also to some extent on the Bombay fish market prices. In this case generally, prices do not fluctuate much. Mostly it is observed that the fish being a perishable commoditys is brought to the nearest fish markets and mostly cleared daily. In all markets the fish is put for sale without gutting and cleaning. However, the sorting is done size-wise and group-wise. As a usual practice in almost all the fish markets the entire catch is assembled at the wholesale fish markets for disposal by auction to the merchants and the retailers between fixed time from 9.00 A.M. to 11.00 A.M. The fish is generally auctioned in small heaps. The vendors or retailers assess the weight of
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fish and give the bid as per his estimate only. The bid is released to the highest bidder for the particular heap and weighed after the auction. The spoilage starts in fish no sooner it is taken out of water. Hence, care is taken at every stage to maintain the quality of fish. Unpreserved fish become unsalable within eight hours. There are several variables in fish marketing practices. These includes sale, preservation, processing method, partnership, selling price by variety. Payment and borrowing by producers from fisher merchants. There are many channels of flow for sale. 12.8.2. Sale proceed at production centres The fish producers sell their produce at the ponds site to the rural masses at the time of harvesting. It is not a popular practice and only a fraction of total production is sold in this manner. 12.8.3. Sale at district headquarters The producers bring their produce to the district headquarters and sell fish door to door as vendor. It is also not a popular practice and only small quantity is sold in this manner. 12.8.4. Intra-districts marketing Although there is a Government contractors shop at every headquarter, fish is transported from one district to the popular fish market of other district with the idea to have good price. 12.8.5. Sale of fish at the fish markets, outside the state It has been observed that good portion of fish is sent to the markets outside the state for sale. 12.9. Role of co-operative in fish marketing A four-tier structure gets operated in by fishery co-operatives: National Federation of Fishermens Co-operatives, State Level Cooperatives, Central Co-operatives (mostly at district level), and Primary
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Co-operatives. The co-operatives at central and primary levels are divided into two sectors - marine and inland (some have jurisdiction covering both the marine and inland sectors). Mercantile orientation is primarily limited to easy-to-handle inputs. Very few societies attempted to market fish. Those who marketed fish operated as follows: i. Bulk of the fish marketed by co-operatives come from reservoirs/ ponds under their own monopoly management (usually in the form of lease). A negligible number of societies sell fish directly to retailers or vendors. Only a few societies have their own outlets. Majority of the societies prefer to sell fish through contractors (wholesalers) on an annual or bi-annual fixed price contract system. In the way societies pass on all the risks of price fluctuations to wholesalers and similarly pass on the possible profits. Wherever the societies themselves despatch the fish to terminal markets for sale through private commission agents. The fish is usually auctioned or sold in the absence of the supervision of cooperative personnel. Thus, the commission agents are in a position to manipulate the prices, especially due to the nature of fish market where price fluctuation was significant on the same day. This is evident from the fact that actual commission earned is more than the contract rate of commission in all terminal markets.
ii.
iii. iv.
v.
vi. Almost all societies selling fish dealt with private trade, and very rarely a primary society sell through central or apex society.
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12.10. Price and price determinator of fish The fluctuation in fish price is very prominent. The changes are so frequent to predict any trend. There may be one price in the morning while another in the evening in the same market. Sometimes prices change at short intervals of time. This happens not only due to the sudden supply and demand of particular variety of fish but also due to prices of other varieties in the market. The perishability tendency of fish, has a definite role to play in determining the price of fish at the markets. The fish price often varies from spot to spot in one fish market when many auctions take place simultaneously. When fresh fish reaches early in the morning a high price is quoted. Generally, the fish prices fall as the day advances. The uncertainty of supply and demand plays a great role in price determination. In the fish markets at the time of auction, the pace of selling fish is so fast that it cannot permit news of low prices. There is a great price risk because of high perishable tendency of fresh fish. The fish markets are having certain timings. Generally, the auctioneers start the bidding price based on the experience. It is also observed that some buyers in some instances purchased one type of fish at a higher price from one particular agent while some other brought the same fish at a lower price from a neighbouring agent, indicating a big variation in prices. Time factor plays a prominent role in almost all the fish markets. It is also observed that increase in market arrival cannot create a steady demand of fish. Therefore, there is a wide range of fluctuation in prices which indicates the instability in selling and purchasing of fish. For any extremely perishable commodity like fish, the method of auction is most feasible because it reflects the tendency of consumers demand in the wholesale market through the retailers. The fish producers and fishermen hardly gets any remunerative price for the produce in wholesale fish markets where the monopoly of fish contractors exist. Normally, the producer share to sell his produce at the lower rates foregoing his profit with the fear of blockage of money and spoilage of fish. It is seldom possible either for producers or seller to impose a higher price at the wholesale markets. The short-term changes in demand and supply are responsible for frequent price variation to some extent.
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The long term demand and supply are the important factors in bringing down the cost of production for the whole industry. The aggregate supply of fish in the short period, theoretically speaking, will remain constant over a momentary time and space; and even if there is some change in actual supply and demand of fish, it will remain constant for finding out the equilibrium market price. Under such circumstances, if there is a high demand, it will give a higher price and vice versa. Huge supply of fish normally means that, if there is unchanged demand, buyers will ask for fish at a very low price. The low price can be increased if any public agency or Government purchases the excess supply of fish by giving a higher support price. So as to regulate the price of fish, the report on fishery policies in Western Europe and North America have rightly observed, Measures aiming at stabilizing first hand prices, it may be justified on account of the heavy fluctuation in catches in many countries. With the aim of contributing the overall economic stability in the industry, for which it is necessary that the fishermen receive an adequate return for catches, the Government or the industry itself of member countries have established more or less elaborate measures. In Norway, for instance, a minimum price policy was introduced by the sales organizations, which are co-operatives in character, in consultation with the government. When fishermen/fish farmers in the past were virtually unprotected against heavy fluctuations in the prices caused by frequent changes in supplies, then price support measures were introduced. All the fish produced in Norway cannot be sold lower than the minimum price i.e. first hand wholesale prices, stipulated under the Raw Fish Act, 1951. The White Fish Authority and Herring Industry Board of the United Kingdom now called Sea Industry Authority and the Agriculture Marketing Board of Sweden have also adopted such price measures in regulating price of the fish. The need for a similar minimum price system is highly required in India to give a boost to fishery trade. 12.10.1. Factor affecting prices The following are the factors influencing the prices of fish in fish markets.
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12.10.1.1.
Elasticity of demand :
Whenever there is a demand of fish markets, the price of fish tends to rise. In period of no demand of fish during the particular days near festivals, the fish consumers take no fish due to religious conception. Similarly to take no fish also plays important role in affecting the price pattern. 12.10.1.2. Type, sex, weight and quality of fish: Large size and fresh fish fetches good price in the markets. Sex never plays any role in fixing the price. In few places, for example in Andhra Pradesh, people like black fish like murrels and cat fishes, mostly they prefer live fish in markets. In other places (ex. West Bengal), people prefer major carps. 12.10.1.3. Distance of procuring centres to markets: The distance of procuring centre to fish markets also plays an important role in the pricing of fish. Low catch is normally transported by buses early in the morning. In number of occasions the bus conductors refuse to allow the fish to be placed in the bus. The fishermen tend to hide it from the conductor and pack it in such a way to escape from the eyes of the conductor. With the result of that the quality of fish generally get spoiled. The larger the distance so covered, the greater would be the spoilage which naturally has adverse bearing on the fish price. 12.10.2. Fishermens share in consumer rupee Since fish moves from producer to consumer through market intermediaries, there is no unique price of fish even for a particular quality, at one point of time, and at one particular location. Instead, there is a price which the fishermen/fish farmer receives which equals the price the first intermediary pays, and so on, the last being the price,
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the last intermediary receives or the one the consumer pays. Since each of these intermediaries incur certain cost in the channel and have commercial motives behind their operations, the prices at several levels cannot be the same. In fact, each successive price in the channel is higher than the previous one, with the result there is a positive gap between the price the consumer pays and the one which farmer receives. It is often alleged that because of this gap, neither the fishermen receives a remunerative price for his produce nor the consumer gets his consumption basket at a reasonable price. Incidentally, it should be pointed out that the presence of intermediaries is not necessarily harmful, for they are productive as they add value to the fish by transporting it from places of supply to the places of demand and by storing the product between the time of harvest and the time of purchases by the consumer. 12.11. Strategy for fish market development Since all the fish markets are not organized in well manner, a thrush is required to reform the markets by modernizing the traditional fish marketing methods by introducing new management techniques. The strategy of fish market management can be created by analyzing the present pattern of marketing, setting the objectives, developing the fish demand, formulation of new plan, marketing operations and market control which has been given in figure 10.1. There are many environmental opportunities for fish marketing as there are many places where fish is not marketed. The tourist complexes established by tourism corporation where good fish sale stall can be established. Like wise, in University campus and sports school much stalls can be set-up. This kind of environmental possibilities exist in many areas and more areas can be found out by conducting survey. A fishery firm can take up a relevant marketing action in which it is likely to enjoy a differential advantage over the firms. This is because of its experience and technical resources available with the firm. A fish firm can set up ice plant and net fabricating unit to give a boost to the fish marketing process. A particular firm can have the specific advantage by dealing the
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particular kind of fish. Cat fish group is in great demand particularly in winter season. The need of people can be met by importing cat fish from neighbouring states and exporting the major carp group in lieu of this. It can also explore the possibility of marketing of major carp as well as miscellaneous group side by side the cat fish. Analysis Market analysis Planning Formulation of new scheme Control Marketing operation Marketing control Fig.5.1. Strategy of fish market development A core marketing need to be designed for the market development. This system has three type of classifications - Intensive growth, Integrative growth, Diversification growth. 12.11.1. Intensive growth Some opportunities are hidden in the present marketing efforts or traditional marketing which have to be explored. The following methods can be adopted to intensify the growth in the market. 12.11.1.1. Market penetration: Developing of fish demand Setting of objective
It includes the more aggressive fish marketing efforts to increase the sale of fish. These efforts include the publicity of the fish by various methods to depict the nutritional value. It has been accepted throughout the world for the fish is rich in protein and phosphorus. Fish is considered
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as one of the best nerve tonic. Fish can be supplied instead of meat products in school and college messes. In addition to this, there are a number of people who like to take but do not know the process of cooking and fish recipes. Short term courses can be conducted by the food processing institutes to impart the knowledge of fish cooking. Free distribution of palatable fish products can be distributed to the general public to create taste. 12.11.1.2. Market Development:
Efforts of present fish sales from those markets can be diverted to new markets where new sale centres can be opened in different areas. Identification of the regions, according to consumers taste is necessary so that new segmented market may be approached for future marketing of fish or fish products. 12.11.1.3. Products development: The main hindrance in the sale of fish is its peculiar odour. New fish products can be evolved which have no smell and can give a good taste to the consumer. Improved fish products can be created like fish bournvita, fish biscuits, fish fillets, fish fingers, fish wafers, etc. 12.11.2. Integrative growth The basic fish market may be combined with another concern unit by making backward or forward or horizontal integration. 12.11.2.1. Backward integration: A firm selling fish may seek the ownership in other firm who is applying fish or fish products. A wholesaler can combine with
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commission agent or can do the work of fish exploitation. By clubbing the wholesale with the commission agent as well as fishing workers the number of intermediaries can be reduced to provide more profit to producers to wholesaler and consumer. 12.11.2.2. Forward integration: The fish production and distribution are the two main components of fish marketing. The fish marketing machinery if combined with the distribution authority then market development would be easier. If the wholesaler combines with retailer and fish hawker then the intercompetition between channel who tends to earn more profit can be reduced. Thus consumer would get good fish at reasonable price apart from promoting the market in future. 12.11.2.3. Horizontal integration: A fish firm can join hands with other parallel firms who are producing ice, baskets, packing material, etc. so that the competition can be recuced to stabilize the market. 12.11.3. Diversification of growth The fish markets should also take up the act of diversification of products for promotion of the market. 12.11.3.1. Concentric diversification: Introduction of products which are technically market synergies, with the present fish commodities, can promote the fish marketing. The introduction of new products like fish ham and fish sausages may attract more customers. This type of change will also create interest to the new customers who intend to take fish.
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12.11.3.2. Horizontal diversification: If a new products like frozen fish kheema or fillets are supplied alongwith the chilled fish, the customers number would increase. If the dressed fish is also sold along with the raw fish then more customers would be attracted as the dressing of fish for non-traditional fish eater is a tedious task. 12.11.3.3. Conglomerate diversification: It comprises to add new product to the new customer because of deficiency of old one. In addition of above, the following factors must be taken into account for the development of fish markets. 12.11.4. Setting up of firm object The objectives of a firm should be clear-cut with the firms target to obtain the goal. The strategy should be designed in such a manner that firm objectives can be achieved easily. 12.11.5. Segmentation Market segment is the basic factor. Every market should have different needs, tastes, styles and links of the buyers. No single type of fish and fish product would satisfy all buyers. The market segments like, geographical situation, use of the products, types of buyers, etc. must be taken into account. 12.11.6. Marketing positioning A particular pattern of market concentration can give the maximum results to achieve the main goal. The firm cannot go to all places even if there are opportunities. It should go after viable positions. The main features are as under:
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
currently the market segment is of sufficient size. Segmented market is not over occupied by present competition. It should have the potential of growth. Segmented market has some relative unsatisfied needs in which a particular firm can serve well.
It is observed that one type of marketing of product is not economically advantageous, but in combination with two or three products, marketing becomes economical. If a retail fish merchant sells aquarium fish along with other meat products like eggs, meat, etc. then market of all the products would increase. 12.11.7. Market entry strategy It is seen that many fish merchants leave the trade when they are unable to have notified waters on lease from the Government. The Government should render support to them who have the thorough knowledge to trade. The established firm should have technical staff for conducting survey. 12.11.8. Marketing mix strategy This is one of the main factor to see the response of the buyers towards the product. Advertisement for sales promotion and feed back method should be adopted to make the people familiar with the fish and firm. These products should be tried in public at reasonable rates. 12.11.9. Timing strategy Proper timing is the important factor for promotion of fish markets. If a regular fish customer takes a particular variety of fish then he may be asked to try the fish of other kind also, which might create a good taste for him and expand the market as well.
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12.11.10. Formulating plans A firm and sound planning is necessary to obtain the objectives of the firm. The commitment of targets should be achieved with full efforts. A sale target based on the past experience, areas, regions etc. be fixed. The market budget should be based on the targets. The Fisheries Department, while auctioning the fishing rights of notified water should also fix the sale target of exploited fish. Government should render the help to the contractors in achieving the targets. The management of fish markets is not up to the mark. The pattern of marketing is traditional. All the existing markets need improvements in working on the basis of modern management techniques as already mentioned. All the components of the marketing such as production, exploitation, transportation, preservation, distribution and even technique of using fish as food requires improvement for the promotion of fish marketing system. The Fish Farmers Marketing Co-operative Societies should be formed for performing combined fish marketing activities. SUMMARY After harvest of fish the fishes are marketed either in fresh condition or in preserve condition. Various factors such as concentrations of landings, size of the capital requirements, fishing activity, processed or frozen fish, Govt. intervention, etc are affecting the patterns of the fish marketting. Various types of markets are existing for the sale of the fish like whole sale, terminal, retail markets and fairs are some among them. The fish markets are acting as a connecting link between producers and consumers. Various fish marketing intermediaries are found. The common marketing intermediaries are producers, commission agent, whole saller, retailer, vendor and consumer. The marketing system of fishes can be analysed interns of use flows, physical flows and channel flows.
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Various marketing channels are used to distribute the fish. The popular channels are channeling II III IV and I. Out of these four channels, II and III are most popular and common in Indian fish markets. More profits are found in short channel. The fluctuation in fish price is very prominent in markets. The changes are so frequent to predict any trend. There may be one price in the morning while another in the evening in the same market. Sometimes prices change at short intervals of time. This happens not only due to the sudden supply and demand of particular variety of fish but also due to prices of other varieties in the market. The perishability tendency of fish has a definite role to play in determining the price of fish at the markets. The fish price often varies from spot to spot in one fish market when many auctions take place simultaneously. When fresh fish reaches early in the morning a high price is quoted. Generally, the fish prices fall as the day advances. The uncertainty of supply and demand plays a great role in price determination. In the fish markets at the time of auction, the pace of selling fish is so fast that it cannot permit news of low prices. There is a great price risk because of high perishable tendency of fresh fish. A number of factors such as elasticity of demand, type, sex, weight and quality of fish and Distance of procuring centers to markets are having marked influence on the prices of fish in fish markets. All the fish markets are not organized in well manner, a thrush is required to reform the markets by modernizing the traditional fish marketing methods by introducing new management techniques. The strategy of fish market management can be created by analyzing the present pattern of marketing, setting the objectives, developing the fish demand, formulation of new plan, marketing operations and market control.
QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What is market? How it is useful to sale the fish? Describe various marketing intermediaries and Explain their role in fish marketting? Discuss various fish marketing channels? Give an account on determination of fish price in markets? Discribe the factors affecting on the fish price in markets? What are the measures to improve the marketing facilities in India?
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13. FISHERY ECONOMICS-SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE FISHER FOLK AND CO-OPERATIVES

Our country is blessed with vast inland water resources in the form of rivers, estuaries, natural and man-made lakes, brackish water impoundments and mangrove wetlands. The length of coast line of India is about 8,041 km. In addition to this it has 2.25 million hectare of fresh water ponds and tanks, 1.3 million hectare of bheels and derelict waters, 0.12 million hectares of irrigation canals and channels, 2.3 million hectares of paddy fields and 1.41 million hectares of brackish water and estuarine area. Such a vast water resource, yet under exploited, could be wisely used to boost Indian economy to a greater extent. Aquaculture stands as a plausible answer to it and India is all poised towards Blue revolution. 13.1 Role of Fisheries sector in Indias Economic Development: The role of fisheries sector in the country economic development is amply evident. It generates employment for a large coastal and other population, raises nutritional standards, increases food supply and earns foreign exchange. According to quick estimates of the Central Statistical Organization (CSO), the contribution of the fisheries sector to gross domestic product (GDP) in Rs. 10,693 crore (1.28% of total GDP) at current prices and net domestic product (NDP) has shown a four fold increase from Rs.1, 478 crores in 1984-85 to Rs. 9,826 crore in 1995 96 (1.29% of total NDP) at current prices. A fishery in present economic sence is identified as the sunrise area that offers the scope of rapid growth for sustainable development. India is placed eleventh with a share of only 2% in the 45 billion global markets. The current marine fish production of 2.2 million tones awaits a boost to3.9 million tones. Similarly, the fresh water fish culture is expected to provide 5.0 million tones of fish by 2025. The marine fisheries find a growth rate of 4.32% in comparison to inland fisheries which is 6.25%. During the last 40 years, fish production has shown a steep rise from 7.5 lakh tonne to 42.30 lakh tones of which inland fisheries approximately 55%.
FISHERY ECONOMICS-SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FISHERMEN & CO-OPERATIVES
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The fisheries growth in India is essential to meet three major targets: (i). Increase in production to meet protein requirements. (ii). Development of export potentials. (iii). Improving the socio-economic status of fishermen. 13.2 Contributions of fisheries sector: The fisheries sector is contributing to Indian economy mainly through the following ways. (i). Food supply The per capita yearly consumption of fish has been 3.2 kg on an average up to 1992 (5.13 kg for fish eating population / year) as against the estimated requirement of 11.0 kg. Pisiculture has the potentiality due to its on the spot food characteristic, balanced nutrients and above all, affordable price. (ii). Raising nutritional standards Fish is considered as the poor mans diet. It costs much less in comparison to its food value. It is an almost zero carbohydrate food, good for diabetes and other such patients. Fish is a rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals with approximate composition as crude protein 14.2 22.8%, fat 0.6 -2.4% and energy 76 161 Kcal/100 gm. A special feature of fish flesh food is content of vitamin B12 which is absent in plant food and also a good source of calcium and vitamin A. Fish also contains poly unsaturated fatty acids which are known to provide protection from cardio-vascular diseases. This has got advantage over the other flesh food like meat. Fish has a better biological value (BV) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) than other meat food. The monthly per capita consumption of fish in India was highest in Lakshadweep (3.38 kg) followed by Kerala (1.59 kg) and Goa (1.38 kg). It can be noted that per capita requirement is 12 kg as recommended by ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) and assuming Indias fish eating population till 2025 to be around 6.90 million, the requirement of fish will be around 8.2 million tones.
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(iii). Employment generation Fisheries sector provides employment to about 24 lakh full time engaged fishermen and 36 lakh partially engaged fishermen. Around 10% of these are engaged in allied activities related to fishing, marketing, net making, fish curing and processing. (iv). Income generation - The average gross income for all categories of farmers is Rs. 13,944/ha and Rs. 16,554 /ha for small, Rs. 18,270/ha for medium and Rs. 19,049/hafor large scale formers. Quick growth of fisheries has also created positive impact on ancillary industries like packaging, cold storage and ice plants, transport by insulated vans, excluding net and other such materials manufacturing enterprises generating additional employment opportunities. Several externally aided projects are under-way which may provide employment to shrimp farmers and allied workers. It is worth mentioning that, fish farmers, artisan fishermen and fisherwomen engaged in fish culture, collection of fish seed from natural resources, fishing in closed and open inland and coastal waters, processing, transport and marketing etc., are the primary producers of the fisheries sector and as such they are the focal objects for sectoral development and welfare schemes. (v). Foreign exchange In last three decades fishery exports has drastically increased from 16,377 tones valued at Rs. 3.92 crore to 1,39,419 tones valued at Rs. 893.37 crore. During the last three four years particularly sea products displayed a quantum jump of 50% by volume and 100% by earnings. Frozen shrimps accounts for about 70% of the foreign exchange earnings. Other items of exports are frozen fish, lobsters and dried fish items. The major markets of these products are Japan, US, Western Europe and West Asia. With systematic planning and management, there is a good scope for improving Indias share in the International market from 2%.. 13.3 Potentials: Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 200 nautical miles into the
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sea and the total area is 2.02 million sq. km, the potential of which 2.57 million tones is awaiting a total production limit of 3.92 million tones. This zone is exploitable in accordance with the UNs guidelines of right to fish is conditional and accompanied by the duty to manage and conserve resources for present and future generation. It is considered that marine fish production towards the end of X five year plan would increase to 3.25 million tones with the inland fisheries catching up with it soon. A potential market for fresh water fisheries, particularly Indian carp is West Asia. The actual yield from inland fisheries is about 40 50 thousand tones in total. 13.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FISHERMEN A fisherman is a person who fishes. There can be commercial fishing only with fishermen. There can be any number of devices to facilitate fishing, but fishermen will have to be there to operate the nets. The fishing results are directly related to the efficiency of fishermen. It is therefore axiomatic that the fishing activity will develop well only when fishermen are developed. The problem of development of fishermen is often looked into from a narrow angle all over the country. The development of fishermen is often restricted to traditional fishing communities. Traditional fishermens communities should no doubt receive all attention, however, fishing activities are now no longer the monopoly of traditional fishing communities. Persons from other communities have now entered the field and several have become fishermen, irrespective of caste and community. All these fishermen deserve all facilities from the Government to upgrade their skills and rise up in their profession. All those belonging to traditional fishing communities are not in the business of fishing at the present day. Several of these pursue avocations other than fishing. The aspect has to be borne in mind in implementing schemes providing for assistance to traditional fishermen.
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A long range policy is necessary in harnessing and developing the capabilities of existing fishermen on one hand and adding to the available number on the other. While a new class of fishermen, from communities other than traditional fishermens communities is coming up, the bulk of the fishermen will continue to be from fishermen communities for long. It is therefore imperative that close attention is paid to them, so that they can contribute substantially to the national fishing effort. Traditional fishermen, by and large, have no faith in the capabilities of fisheries departmental officials. There is some justification for this, for, most of the officials do not have adequate professional knowledge of the type necessary to deal with the fishermen. The traditional fishermen are proud people. They think that it is impossible for other to know more than what they know of. When departmental officers visit them they deal with them with deference and tolerance. Since they are poor, they check on only one point - whether the visiting officer can get them something free, materials or money. Their interest, mostly, does not go beyond this. Unless their attention is captured and their attitudes are attuned to upgraded and higher - income - yielding techniques, progress cannot be made. In order to achieve this, there has to be a long range plan. 13.4.1. Social interaction Representatives of Government i.e. fisheries officials have to first become part of the fishermen community. The relationship should be so intimate that it should pave the way for planting new ideas. Fishermen have a great attachment towards their traditional festivals. These should be recognized by the government and some grants should be given for their celebration in a fitting manner. The fisheries officials should participate in these festivals. The customs and beliefs of the community have to be closely studied and understood. With this background, it will be easier to gain their attention and enlighten them. The older generation can then only been lightened. There can at last be partial success with the middle-aged and younger generation, in planting new ideas and making them to accept improved techniques.
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13.4.2. Catch them young More than these, action that is necessary is to catch the fisher children in their tender age and educate and train them in fisheries schools, specially set up for them. Government have to set up such schools and attract as many fisher boys as possible from the age of 8 or less. This approach is the surest way to develop our traditional fishermen. When they complete their training such boys should be able to end up as skippers or engineers or vessel-owners, with various facilities provided by the Government. With their training they will be in a position to appreciate the facilities and avail of them. The training institutes we have at present are meant for grown-ups. Few grown-up traditional fishermen will have the qualifications to join the institutes. Hence it is necessary to have schools to provide professionoriented education training to fisher boys for about 12 years continuously, combining general education as in higher secondary schools with professional training and education. All boarding and lodging and educational expenses have to be borne by the Government. Such schools, need not, in fact, be exclusively meant for boys from traditional fishing communities. Other boys, interested in the line can also be given admission. People representative (MPs and MLAs) from constituencies with predominant fishermen population, have to champion the cause of traditional fishermen in their area, unless this is done and fishermen are made into men capable of undertaking improved method of fishing that would give them higher economic returns, the fishery sector cannot prosper. 13.4.3. Mechanisation on the socio-economic status Mechanisation has been introduced through power-driven fishing craft or by motorization of the traditional craft. These reforms have enabled
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the fishermen to increase the rate of fish catch along the off-shore region. Thus Fishing is regarded as powerful income and employment generator as it stimulates the growth of a number of subsidiary industries (Srivastava etal, 1982). Introduction of modern fishing techniques has increased fish catch compared to traditional methods, which has led to increase in the income of fishermen. The impact of technological changes in fishing depends on the level of control over resources and markets, the economic and social background of the beneficiaries and the traditional fishermen and the nature of technological changes in terms of labour displacement /absorption. 13.4.4. Problems identified Increase of income of fishing households, leading betterment of their living conditions are inhibited for the following reasons. a. Poor management of fishery resources - absence of closed season, closed area, adjustment of number of fishing units among different fishing gears resulting lower catch and thereby income. Absence of fishing harbours - makes it impossible to enlarge the size of fishing boats. Absence of fish auction market - makes the price of fish sold unreasonable. Absence of fishery co-operative society - makes it difficult for Government to render various services to all fishermen. Lack of ice supply - makes the fish price lower due to loss of freshness of the catch. Poor condition of road to consuming areas - makes fish marketing difficult. Lack of side jobs during slack season of fishery - results lower income of fishermen.
b. c. d. e. f. g.
13.4.5. Credit for fishermen Fishermen need fund. For the purpose of production , acquisition of
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fishing boats, improvement of conversion boats, purchase of engines, purchase of fishing gears and equipments, construction of fish ponds, fuel oil, maintenance of engine and gear, advance to crews, housing, purchase of daily necessities, education of children and medicare care, ceremonies such as marriage. 13.4.6. Difficulties of fishermen to obtain credit and the consequences Poor financial standing Small scale and dispersed Little collateral to offer Risky nature of fisheries No proper insurance arrangement. Consequences: i. ii. Commercial banks are reluctant to lend money. Fishermen to go individuals, private money-lenders, middlemen for funds both for production and house hold expenses. iii. High rate of interest. iv. Pledge to sell the catch to middlemen. v. Chronical debt and vulnerable to exploitation. 13.4.7. Need for Government intervention i) Establishment of Government loan fund for fisheries. ii) Allocation of fund for fisheries by national development banks. iii) Establishment of special financial institutions for fisheries (fishery banks). iv) Promotion of credit fishery co-operatives. v) Government loan guarantee. vi) Interest subsidy. vii) Government assistance to fishing boat insurance.
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13.4.8. Suggestions The socio-economic condition of the traditional fishermen using non-mechanised craft areas are far from satisfactory on account of lack of infrastructure and communication facilities. An apprehension has been created among the traditional fishermen that harbours are hampering than basic having mainly because mechanised vessels owners try to catch fish in the exclusive zone of 5 km earmarked for the traditional fishermen. There is a great need to improve the living conditions of these traditional fishermen. Efforts should be made to provide basic infrastructural facilities like pucca road, drinking water supply, sanitation facilities, transportation, schools, and medical facilities etc. Vigorous efforts are called for to motivate these fishermen for undergoing training so that bank loans are availed by them for the purchase of mechanised vessels or craft with assistance from State and the Centre. The absence of an organised system for marketing of fish have pushed the traditional fishermen to depend upon the middlemen/fish merchants resulting in poor financial return for their catch. It is imperative to evolve a proper marketing plan by organising traditional fishermen into co-operative societies by the State Governments. Retail outlets may be opened for the fish collected from the traditional fishermen. As a part of the harbour activities, schools may be constructed upto the primary level in these villages so that the objectives of National Literacy Mission are realised. In time of cyclonic weather and other adverse conditions the auction hall may be utilised as night shelters for the crew. The approach roads need to be widened for the movement of trucks and to move freely.
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13.5 CO-OPERATIVES IN FISHERIES SECTOR Collective efforts in a trade are known as co-operative movement. This movement has gained importance in fisheries trade also. This movement guards the interest of small entrepreneurs in the trade, saves them from the clutches of the exploitation of middlemen and promotes the trade. Fishermen are living at a line below poverty level, and have an unorganised trade, hence the fishermen cooperative societies are extremely essential to get things done smoothly. To solve the fishermen problems and to enhance their status the fishermen cooperative societies are formed. Besides, importance of fishermen cooperative movements is realised depending upon the needs and economic condition of the fishermen. Cooperative movements are directed towards improvement by introduction of more mechanisation and more sophistication in fishery operations at all stages from fish capture to marketing. The fishermen cooperatives strive to make improvements by solving socio-economic problems of fishermen, fighting against their ignorance, their exploitation by middlemen, and providing credit facilities and other facilities of equipment and marketing. 13.5.1. Fisheries development in cooperative sector An astonishing paradox is that while the harvests have been good, fishermen remain underfed. 50% of the consumers money goes to the middlemen. Therefore, one method and probably the only method to check such exploitation would be to encourage cooperatives of fishermen. Moreover, fishing itself is a cooperative activity, therefore, there is a need that fishery cooperatives are encouraged and supported. The cooperatives have a large responsibility of providing a wide range of services required by the fishermen to support their production, marketing programmes and also to promote their welfare. In India fishermen cooperative societies are found. The Government is also trying to improve the condition of cooperatives. These include enactment of fishery regulations, subsidies and loan facilities to fishermen through cooperative movements, better education,
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training and research centres, extension services and rural integration programmes. 13.5.2. Principles of cooperatives Principles of cooperatives gradually evolved after the cooperative movement started in England (1844). Six principles of cooperatives were amended and adopted at the ICA conference in 1966. These are 1. Voluntary membership, election, or appointment of office bearers in an agreed manner by members. 2. Cooperative societies are democratic organisations, their affairs shall be administered by persons elected. Members shall enjoy equal rights of voting - one member one vote, and participation in decisions affecting their societies. 3. Share capital shall only receive a strictly limited rate of interest, if any. 4. The economic results, arising out of the operation belong to the members of the society and shall be distributed in such a manner as would avoid one member gaining at the expense of others, which shall be achieved i. by provision for development of the business of the society ii. by provision of common services iii. by distribution among the members in proportion to their transactions with the society. 5. 6 Societies shall make provision for the education of their members. Collaboration among cooperatives at local, national and international levels having as their aim the achievement of unity of action.
The cooperative society has a minimum of 11 members and no maximum limit. Every person should pay Rs.10-00 to become a member and get eligibility for voting. The society also gets money from members who go for fishing in society tanks and ponds. Whatever profit they
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get, is distributed among the members equally. Each member contributes 10 % of his profit to the society for its smooth maintenance. The tanks, ponds or reservoirs are leased to the society by the Government. Previously they used to give a three years lease, and then extended to five years. But, at present, the Government is giving only a one year lease to avoid the problems in long leasing. State Fisheries Department decides the lease amount for a waterbody and is collected in one or more instalments. The primary fishermen cooperative societies are found at village or mandal levels. Each society has one or more waterbodies for fishing activities. Generally these societies have few members depending on the fishermen population of that area. At the district level, the cooperative societies are found with more members. The regional societies have more members than above two societies. All are under the control of Fisheries Department. Along with members, directors, co-committee members, auditors are also found in each society. Directors execute the business and represent the cooperative. Auditors supervise the cooperatives business execution and accounting. Other staff such as managers and accountants are employed to carry out activities under the instruction of the above officers. A general meeting consists of all members of the society, who have voting rights. A minimum of two meetings should be conducted in every year. All aspects like amendment of by-laws, expulsion of members, business operation, loans, fishing rights, elections, management of fisheries, etc. are discussed in the general meetings. Societies get financial assistance for fishing activities from State Fisheries Department, NCDC (National Cooperative Development Corporation) and all nationalised banks at a nominal interest.
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13.5.3. NCDC and fishery development NCDC started promoting and developing fisheries cooperatives after its Act was amended in 1974 to cover fisheries within its perview. In order to discharge its functions effectively, NCDC has formulated specific schemes and pattern of assistance for enabling the fisheries cooperatives to take-up- activities relating to production, processing, storage, marketing, etc. Such assistances provided to fishermen cooperatives for the following purposes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Purchase of operational inputs such as fishing boats, nets and end lines. Creation of infrastructure, facilities for marketing (transport vehicles cold storages, retail outlet, etc.) Establishment of processing units including ice-plants, cold storages etc. Development of inland fisheries, seed forms, hatcheries, etc. Presentation of feasibility reports Appointment of experts under technical and promotional cell scheme. Integrated Fisheries Projects (marine , inland and brackish water)
13.5.4. Activities of societies The business and non-business activities of fishermen cooperative societies are: i Credit Society receives deposits, current or ordinary deposits and time deposits. Members deposits are encouraged by regular depositing of a part or whole of the proceeds of members fish catch. Deposited funds used for
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a. b. c. d.
extending loans reserve for payment capital funds of the society purchase of craft gear and fish seed.
ii. Loans Loans for both production and consumption purposes are necessary to cover fishermens needs. An important consideration is to fix a maximum amount of loans to be extended to one member at the general meeting, so that as many as members as possible can get the benefit of the credit. By and large, normal banking business procedures are followed e.g., collaterals, securities, guarantors. Co-operative banking system consists of primary fishermens cooperatives, their regional credit federation and Central Co-operative Bank facilities adjusting both at regional and national levels surplus and deficit of funds of cooperatives to meet the credit need of the member fishermen. iii. Supply A supply business either in the regional or national scale through regional federation and primary cooperatives is essential to maintain supply both for production requisites and household consumption goods. iv Marketing Also includes related activities such as, ice making, storage, transport, processing. Marketing is the most important business among others in terms of turnover, even through a little risk is involved, as the business is conducted on a commission basis regarding the proceeds of members catch sold at auctions operated by cooperatives.
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v. Joint utilisation Service facilities, e.g. slip-way, dock facilities, boat and engine repair services, and net repair facilities are made available by the cooperatives. vi Advisory service Co-operatives can render educational and informational services to their members by the way of , i. Consultation or advice-giving regarding fishing techniques, plan of operations, business management. ii. Education and informations by means of bulletins, seminars, meetings and extension work. iii. Welfare and cultural activities. iv. Prevention of accidents. v. Promotion of fishing boat insurance, mutual aid. vi. Representation of fishermens interests to the Government authorities for the purpose of legislations, financial assistance. vii Fishing Although fishermens cooperatives normally gives services (credit, marketing, supply) to member fishermen, who are independent and carry out their fishing on their own account, some cooperatives are engaged in fishing activities themselves, apart from their services to the members. In such cases, the Fishery Co-operative Law provides that one half or more of the workers shall be the members of the cooperative and that a written agreement is required from two thirds or more of the members of the cooperative. In Japan, most of the fishery co-operatives have their own shop for supply of engines, spare parts fishing materials, etc. In terms of business turnover, the supply of business is comparatively small in Japan.
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viii Insurance In Japan, separate cooperatives have been set up to deal with fishing boats and fish catch insurance. The Government gives financial assistance in the form of premium, subsidy and reinsurance, thus spreading the risk of the insurance. 13.5.5. Administrative problems In general whatever the organised cooperative structure, the problems common to every society are either administrative or financial. Generally the fishermen societies are organised involving the weaker section communities, and therefore, at times, social problems are expected to take place. The present statistics and observation generally speak about the common problem that can be sorted out. This pose a difficult task for a member of society which needs a reconsideration to strengthen the crisis situation by appropriate solution. The following are certain common problems identified. The cooperative societies act in operation in every state is according to the prevailing situation. There are certain sections with appropriate railings to suggest and take action for an identified situation. As the categories of cooperatives, fisheries cooperatives are also a part of this act. The problems are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Registration of a society. Enrolment of membership whether community oriented or professional/defaulter/header. Area of operation resource-wise or village-wise. Amalgamation and deletion of area Removal of default members. Problems obtaining waterbodies. Purchase of seed , sale of fish at competitive rates. Distribution of sale proceeds and meeting expenditures.
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9. Secure working capital and running the business / management. 10. Disputes between the submerged Government and private lands and running waters. 11. Encroachment and control of fishery cooperatives by the merchants who act as middlemen. 12. Political crisis/competitors for leadership management within political groups. 13. Lack of Government support and institutional finance. 14. Overall illiteracy which restricts the member in understanding, planing and follow up management. 15. Almost the whole population is under the superstitious binding of the community in all respects. Government authorities should take care of the above problems to provide a smooth life to fishermen and their cooperatives. SUMMARY A vast water resource, yet under exploited, could be wisely used to boost Indian economy to a greater extent. Aquaculture stands as a plausible answer to it and India is all poised towards Blue revolution. The role of fisheries sector in the country economic development is amply evident. It generates employment for a large coastal and other population, raises nutritional standards, increases food supply and earns foreign exchange. In India fishermen cooperative societies are found. The Government is also trying to improve the condition of cooperatives. These include enactment of fishery regulations, subsidies and loan facilities to fishermen through cooperative movements, better education, training and research centres, extension services and rural integration programmes. The business and non-business activities of fishermen cooperative societies are credit, loans, supply, marketing, joint utilisation, advisory service, fishing and insurance.
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A fisherman is a person who fishes. The problem of development of fishermen is often looked into from a narrow angle all over the country. The development of fishermen is often restricted to traditional fishing communities. Traditional fishermens communities should no doubt receive all attention, however, fishing activities are now no longer the monopoly of traditional fishing communities. Persons from other communities have now entered the field and several have become fishermen, irrespective of caste and community. All these fishermen deserve all facilities from the Government to upgrade their skills and rise up in their profession.. The suggestions are listed out to omprove the socio economic status of fishermen.. QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. Explain the role of fisheries sector in Indias Economical Development. Give an account on socioeconomic status of fishermen? Write short notes on (a). Social Interaction of the fishermen (b). Problems facing by the fishermen (c). Role of Government to uplift the fishermen community. Describe the role of co-operatives in fisheries sector? Discuss the principles of co-operatives in fishing sector? Give the list of activities of the co-operative societies?
4. 5. 6.
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14. GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES-EMPLOYMENT GENERATION IN FISHERY SECTOR

During sixth five year plan (1980-85) a large number of fisheries institutions and centres were recognised by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce. For fresh water aquaculture, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI) was established, which was further bifurcated into two different institutes in 1985, namely Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute (CICFRI) for capture fisheries and Central Institute of Fresh water Aquaculture (CIFA) for culture fisheries. Many other institutes have also been came up such as NCFRI, CIBA and CMFRI. The fisheries Research and Extension programme are carriedout by five groups of organisations. ICAR, the Ministry of Agriculture, The Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Food processing In dustries, CSIR and also the State Agricultural and traditional Universities. Several policies and programmes were implemented by the government to safeguard the rights of fishermen, socio-economic status of fishermen, women and promoting better facilities to enhance fishery products. Some of them are: 14.1. The Indian fisheries act, 1897 Where as it is expedient to provide for certain matters relating to fisheries. It is hereby enacted as follows: 1. Title and extent (1) This act may be called the Indian Fisheries Act, 1897. (2) It extends to the whole of India, except (the territories which immediately before the 1st November, 1956 were comprised in Part B States).
GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
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2.
Act to be read as supplemental to other fisheries laws: Subject to the provisions of sections 8 and 10 of the General Clauses Act, 1887, this Act shall be read as supplemental to any other enactment for the time being in force relating to fisheries in (the territories to which this Act extends). Definitions: In this Act, unless there is anything repungent in the subject or context, (1) fish includes shell-fish; (2) fixed engine means any net, cage, trap or other contrivance for taking fish, fixed in the soil or made stationary in any other way; and (3) private water means water which is the exclusive property of any person on which any person has for the time being an exclusive right of fishery whether as owner, lessee or in any other capacity.
3.
Explanation: Water shall not cease to be private water within the meaning of this definition by reason only that other persons may have by custom a right of fishery therein. 4. Destruction of fish by explosives in inland waters and on coasts 1) If any persons uses dynamite or other explosive susbstance in any water with intent thereby to catch or destroy any of the fish that may be therein, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two months or with a fine which may extend to two hundred rupees. 2) In sub-section (1) the word water includes the sea within a distance of the marine leagues of the sea coast; and an offence committed under that subsection in such sea may be tried, punished and in all respects dealt with as if it had been committed on the land abutting on such coast.
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5.
Destruction of fish by poisoning of waters 1) If any person puts any poison, lime or noxious material into any water with intent thereby to catch or destroy any fish, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two months or with a fine which may extend to two hundred rupees. The State Government may also, by a like notification apply such rules or any of them to any private water with the consent in writing of the owner thereof and of all persons having for the time being any exclusive right of fishery therein. Such rules may prohibit or regulate all or any of the following matters, that is to say: the erection and use of fixed engines; the construction of weirs; and the dimension and kind of the nets to be used and the modes of using them. Such rules may also prohibit all fishing I any specified water for a period not exceeding two years. In making any rule under this section the State Government may: Direct that a breach of it shall be punishable with a fine which may extend to one hundred rupees and when the breach is a continuing breach, with a further fine which may extend to ten rupees for every day after the date of the first conviction during which the breach is proved to have been persisted in; and Provided for: the seizer, forfeitur, land removal of fixed engines erected, or used, or nets used in contravention of the rules; and the forfeiture of any fish taken by means of any such fixed engine or net. The power to make rules under this section is subject to the condition that they shall be made after previous publication.
2)
3) (a) (b) (c) (4) (5) (a)
(b) (i) (ii) (6)
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7.
Arrest without warrant for offences under this Act. (i) Any police officer or other person specially empowered by the State Government in this behalf either by name or as holding any office, for the time being may, without an order from a Magistrate and without warrant arrest any person committing in his view an offence punishable under section 4 or 5 or under any rule under section 6: (a) if the name and address of the person is unknown to him; and (b) if the person declines to give his name and address, or if there is reason to doubt the accuracy of the name and address if given. (ii) A person arrested under this section may by detained until his name and address have been correctly ascertained.
Provided that no person so arrested shall be detained longer than may be necessary for bringing him before a Magistrate except under the order of a Magistrate for his detention. The department of Fisheries is implanting many developmental activities for upliftment of Socio-economic condition of fishermen as well as to fish farmers. 14.2. National Fishery Policy of India (draft for approval) The salient features may be enumerated as: Curbing the erstwhile policy of joint ventures of the Indo-foreign vessels for exploitation of the Indian EEZ. Empowering the tradational fishermen, who are till now capable of fishing in inshore waters only, with modern mechanized boats to enable them to carry out fishing farther and deep into the EEZ. Targeting the goal of 100% exploitation of the marine resource potential of the EEZ beyond 50-metre depth which at present is at 40% level of exploitation only.
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Targeting an increase in per capita consumption of fish to 11 kg/ year from the present 8 kg/year, by the turn of the century. Increasing fish production through integrated approach to capture fishery and culture fishery. Promoting conservation of aquatic resources and genetic diversity. Promoting fishing industry with a view to generating more job opportunities for the coastal and rural people and to improving socio-economic condition of traditional fishermen and farmers for improving rural economy. Promoting export of fish/fish products. Promotion of fishery education. Rejuvenating/rehabilitating endangered species, particularly those affected by river valley projects. Laying special emphasis on prawn farming in both brackishwater and freshwater. Reducing pollution load in waters. 14.3. The Controversial Deep Sea Fishing Policy of India
To reap the resources beyond the 12 to 14 nautical miles from the coast, which largely remained unexploited, the Govt, of India made a Deep sea Fishing Policy in 1991. Under this policy, deep sea fishing was started through joint ventures with foreign countries. This brought in use of big vessels and necessitated fresh lease arrangements. The aim of the necessitated fresh lease arrangements. The aim of the policy was two-fold. One, to step up fish production by tapping the unexploiteed potential of the EEZ to the extent of 1.7 million tonnes (from the deep sea alone). Two, to have technology transfer from foreign sea sector.
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The deep sea fishing policy soon ran into trouble as it did not find favour with the traditional fishermen. The 80-lakh strong Fishermen Forum opposed it tooth and nail on the grounds that the big fishing vessels failed in their mission and instead poached in the inshore waters, depriving the traditional fishermen their due catch. They demanded outright revocation of the policy. The Murari Committee was set up by the Govt, of India in 1994 to go into the issue in depth. The Murari Committee recommended in 1996 cancellation of licences issued to the big vessels. However the Committee did point to the danger of losing to other countries if the resource of EEZ are not optimally exploited by Indian fishermen, under the United Nations Law of the Seas. Finally, in Februay 1997 the Govt, of India decided to rescind the 1991 Deep sea Fishing Policy in partial implementation of the Murari Committee Report and to the satisfaction of the fish workers union. The Govt, is seized of the whole issue and shall not process any new licence for deep sea fishing until the whole matter is reviewed. The Govt, of India has instituted another Committee, under the chairmanship of P.Murari who headed the Murari Committee of 1994. This fresh committee will renew the New Fisheries Policy and at the same time safeguard the interest of the traditional fishermen. 14.4. Coastal Regulation zone Act. Ministry of Environment and Forest declared coastal stretches of seas bass, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are influenced by the tidal action towards land up to 500 meters from the High Tide Line (HTL) and land between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and HTL as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). For the regulating developmental activities, the coastal stretches within 500 meters from HTL land wand side are classified into 4 categories. CATEGORY 1 (CRZ I) Ecologically sensitive areas) Ecologically sensitive and important, such as national park/marine
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parks sanctuaries reserve forests, wild life habitats, mangroves, coral reefs, areas close breeding and spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural beauty/historical/heritage areas rich in genetics diversity, areas likely to be in undated due to rise in sea level consequent upon global warming and such other areas as may be declared by the central Government of concerned authorities of the state/union Territory level from time to time are treated under special provisions in the notification. (i) Category where no activity is permitted (ii) Facilities for carrying treated effluents and waste water discharge into sea, facilities for carrying seawater for cooling purpose, oil, gas and similar pipelines are permitted CATEGORY 2 (CRZ II) These are the areas that have already been developed up to a close to the shoreline. Developed area in referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which is already substantially built up and which has been provided with drainage and approach roads and there infrastructure facilities, such as water supply and sewage main and building are permitted in CRZ-II as the land wand side of the existing and proposed roads existing and proposed roads existing authorized structures subject to the existing local town and country planning regulation including the existing norms of FSI/ FAR. CATEGORY 3 (CRZ III) Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either category-I or II, come under this category. These includes coastal zone in the rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and also areas within municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas, which are not substantially built up. In areas up to 200 meter from HTL in CRZ-III, only repairs of
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existing authorized structures not exceeding existing FSI, existing plant area and existing density are permitted. Agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pastures, parks, play fields, forestry and salt manufacture from sea water and also permitted. Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500 meters of HTL in CRZ-III areas permitted for construction of hotels/beach resorts subject to guidelines gives in the CRZ Notification. Construction/ reconstruction of dwelling units between 200 and 500 meters of the HTL, permitted. CATEGORY 4 (CRZ IV) Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and small Islands except those designated as CRZ-I, CRZ-II, and CRZ-III come under this category. For Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands, building within stipulated distances from HTL shall not be more than 50% of plot size and total height of construction shall not exceed nine meters. The following activities under CRZ notification are permitted with prior approval of Ministry of Environment and Forests. (i) Construction activities related to defense. (ii) Operational constructions for parts and harbours. (iii) Thermal power plants (foreshore) facilities for in take of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated waste water/cooling water. (iv) All other activities with investment exceeding crores. ACTIVITIES PROHIBITED WITH CRZ (a) (b) (c) Setting up of new industries and expansion of the existing industries, except those directly related to water front or directly needing foreshore facilities. Manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of hazardous substances. Setting up and expansion of fish processing units.
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(d)
Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of waste and effluents. (e) Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities or towns and other human settlements (f) Dumping of ash or any waste from Thermal power stations. (g) Dumping of city or town waste for the purpose of land filling or otherwise. (h) Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas. (i) Any construction activity between LTDL and HTL, except those requiring foreshore facilities. (j) Dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills natural features including landscape, landscape champed as beautifications, recreational and other such purposes. (k) No new constructions within 500 meters of HTL, as well as between LTL and HTL in CRZ-I. (l) Construction of buildings neither on seaward side of the existing road of existing authorized structure in CRZ-II. (m) No construction permitted within 200 m. from HTL in CRZ-III. (n) Mining of coral and sand from the beaches and coastal water for construction and other purposes. (o) Dredging and under water blasting in and around coral formations. (p) No new construction of building within 200 meters of the HTL and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (q) No new construction of beach resort/hotel in ecologically sensitive areas. Under Marine Sector, the government is implanting the following schemes: 14.5. Relief cum savings scheme: Under this scheme if fishermen will save 45/- for every month for a period of eight months the Central Government will sanction another 45/- and state Government for every month sanction 45/- as a matching to the saving fund and the total amount will be paid during slack seasons of fishing to Fishermen.
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14.6. Accident insurance scheme: It any fishermen will be died during fishing time he will be paid Rs.25,000/- and if the gets disability he will be paid Rs.10,000/- as assistance to survive to his family. 14.7. Group insurance scheme: Under National security scheme the Department will also identify active fishermen to enroll under life insurance scheme and if the individual dies the risk coverage will be borned by L.I.C. of India. Under this scheme the identification fishermen have to pay RS.25/- per year as premium and RS.25/- will be paid by central Government as matching amount towards premium. A sum of Rs.1000/- will be paid to individual in case of accidental death and Rs.5000/- will be paid in case of natural death. 14.8. Financial assistance to fishermen: The department is extending financial assistance to fisherwomen towards to purchase of dry and fresh fish to do marketing to improve the economic conditions. This scheme is being implemented to members fisherwomen cooperative societies. 14.9. Supply of out board motors: The department is sanctioning subsidy amount towards the purchase of out board motors to identified active fishermen. By fitting the out board motors to traditional crafts the fishermen can supplement their income and thereby to improve their livelihood. 14.10. Supply life saving appliances: The department is also supplying the life Jockets on subsided craft to enable the fishermen to get reserve of their lives in sea during fishing operation.
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14.11. Supply of ice boxes: As a fish is personable commodity and as a measure to ensure proper fish preservative the department is supplying Ice boxes to selected fishermen beneficiaries through DRDA, so that the fishermen can get good remuneration to their catch. 14.12. Supply of fishing imputs: The Department is supplying fishing nets, fishing crafts, teppes, Bench landing crafts on subsided cost to selected fishermen beneficiaries of afflicted coop. banks of AFCOF. 14.13. Enlistment of shore station: The Department is also attempting to construct shore station to arrance walke-talke facilities so that the fishermen can communicate with show out the weather of endangering situation in sea. 14.14. Establishment of ice plants and cold stores: As a measure to improve the marketing of fish the department is establishing ice plants and cold storage. 14.15. Construction of jetties and landing centres: The Department is also taking efforts in construction of Jetties and landing centers in some coastal fishermen villages so that the fishermen could protect them boats. 14.16. Construction of plant forms: The Government is construct plant forms in selected fishing villages to enable the fishermen to dry the fishes in a economic way.
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14.17. Construction of community halls and auction halls: The Government is constructed community halls to enable the fishermen to get together for their meetings, functions and auction halls for marketing of fish. 14.18. Supply of insulated vehicles to fishermen cooperative societies: Through the DRDA the Department is also supplying insulated vans on subsided cost to the selected good functioning fishermen cooperative societies as a measure to improve the marketing of fish products. 14.19. Establishment of training institutes: The department has established training institutes at Kakinada, Machilipatnam, Badampudi, Warangal, Kurnool. The training Institutes at Kakinada, machilipatnam is imparting one year training course to fishermen boys in the subjects namely Navigation, Seamanship, crafts and engine and genr. The training centers at Kurnool, Badampudi, Warangal is imparting training to fishermen boys in fresh water fish culture. 14.20. Establishment of cooperative societies: The Government is encouraging co-operative movements among the fisherman through establishing societies. The welfare activities are generally implemented though co-operative societies. 14.21.Fishing complex: Complexes are established in selected fishermen villages duly provided with all civic eminities as a cluster. Under literacy programme the government has committed in establishing of CRUCHES through non-formal education.
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14.22. Establishment of schools: The Government has established Ashram school in some selected Fishing villages. 14.23. Under inland sector: The Government is vigorously implementing its development of inland fisheries activities though FFD as and DRDA and ITDA and Sc. Corporation etc. The department of fisheries is activity participating in the implementation of welfare activities. The department has got a no fish seed farms and supplying good quality of fish seed to fishermen co-operative societies to charge the water bodies to fishermen co-operative aoxiwiriwa on nominal lease rentals. A no, of fishermen co-operative societies was established to uplift socio-economic condition of fishermen and to avoid them from cultures of middlemen. The Government is extending support to fish farmers also through T.F.D as by selecting the beneficiaries and imparting training to them and sanction of subsidy to construct the tards for culture of fish. The Government is extending support to certain fishermen in sanction of subsidy towards purchase of seed and craft and tackle and cycles for marketing through DRDA. The Government not only extending its support to fishermen but also to tribal people through ITDA sanctioning of subsidy towards the construction of tanks and importing training in culture of fisheries and thereby to supplement their income. In all ITDA. Fisheries personal are employees to supervise the implementation of programme the Government is extending support through S.C. corporation to the selected
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scheduled caste beneficiaries for construction of new tnads for culture of fishes and craft and tackle, cycle to supplement their income and thereby to improve their levelly good under special component plan. The Govt. is extending financial assistance to good funneling societies though NCDC is covered to inland fisheries also. Housing colonies are constructed to the poor selected fishermen beneficiaries. Approach roads and the Government is providing civic amenities. Lab to land programme is a actively under implementation though the extension word. So many extension personnel are appointed by government to implement the extension work. Research station as are established by Govt. to analyse the problems of farmers putting the biothermeal factors. Under Inland fisheries development the Govt. Has established there inland fisheries traing centers at Warangal, Badampudi, and Kurnool to impar the practical training in inland fish culture. The govt. has state to improve to reservont potentialities under World Bank project. 14.24. Employment Generation In Fisheries sector Fish industry provides ample employment opportunities of which some of them are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Field Assistant/Field Technician in Fish Farms Assistant in Laboratories dealing with Aquaculture Seed Production Assistant in Fish Seed Farms Hatchery Operators Marketing Assistants Marketing Units of Aquarium, Ornamental Fishes & Accessories Ornamental Fish Breeding & Supply of Seed, Aquatic Weeds Aquarium Maintenance in Institutions on Contract Basis Net Making Weed Control Contracts Fish Seed Transport
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12. Fish Transport/Container Services/Dry Fish Marketing/Fresh Fish Marketing 13. Ice Production Units 14. Cold Storage Units 15. Ice Box Production Units 16. Pituitary Gland Banks 17. Dealership of Nets/Fishing Equipment 18. Fisheries Extension Assistant 19. Preservation of Biological Specimens & Supply 20. Dealership of Fish Feed/Prawn Feed/Anti-biotics/Pumps/Aerators 21. Dealers of Models of Fish Farms/Hatcheries/Boats/Nets and Audiovisual for Fisheries Education 22. Assistant to conduct Socio-economic/technical surveys by Govt./ NGOs/Banks 23. Harbour Maintenance Assistant 24. FRP Boat Repairs 25. Seed Collection trade for F.W. Prawns 26. Maintaining Permanent civil structure for storage of fish at landing centers 27. Fabrication & Supply of Bambo/Auminium Cages for seed rearing/ fish culture 28. Assistant for erection of Pens in Reservoirs and perennial tanks 29. Secretaries for Management of Fishermen Coop Societies 30. Fish marketing information services 31. Starting Fish seed farm/seed rearing 32. Starting farms for rearing fish/prawn 33. Starting cage culture in reservoirs 34. Mechanised fishing vessels for exploration of marine fishery 35. Laboratory Attender in 10+2 Vocational Jr. Colleges. Even employment opportunities are also be generated by various organizations involved in fishing activities, such as CIFE (Central Institute of Fishery Education), CIBA (Central Institute of Brackish Water Aquaculture), CIFA (Central Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture), CIFRI (Central Institute of Fisheries Research Institute), CICFRI (Central Institute of Coastal Fisheries Research Institute), CMFRI (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute), CIFT (Central
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Institute of Fisheries Technology), FSI (Fisheries Survey of India), CIFNET, (Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical Engineering and Training), NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) and MPEDA (Marine Products Export Development Authority). SUMMARY Several policies and programs were implemented by the government to safeguard the rights of fishermen, socio-economic status of fishermen, women and promoting better facilities to enhance fishery products. Indian Fisheries Act, deep-sea Fishing policy of India, Coastal Regulatory Zone Act and Various Governmental policies are described in detail. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the various governmental policies to improve the fishing activities? 2. Give an account on Indian Fisheries Act? 3. Discuss deep-sea fishing policy of India ? 4. Describe coastal regulatory zone Act ?
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15. EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL
15.1. Export Indias exports of marine products had their beginning as early as 1938-39. May be a startling revelation but nevertheless true. This historic year was recorded in gold in the Annual Statement of the Sea-borne trade of British India with British Empire and foreign countries. The exports included dried, salted or smoked fish, aquatic animal oils, fish meal and fertilizers and miscellaneous aquatic animals and plant products. Most of the dried fish to be exported to east Asian countries such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Myanmar (Burma) and Sri lanka as a result of these steps. In this year, 21,874 t valued at Rs. 73,16 lakhs were exported. By 1945-46, the exports of the same complexion reached a level of 32,283 t valued at Rs. 269 lakhs. By 1959, Sri Lanka (Then Ceylon) remained to be the only country for the export of Indian dried fish. During that year the exports were 25,932 t valued at Rs. 4.43 crores, but declined later to 4703 t valued at Rs. 67 lakhs. Trading pattern of this kind, however, dwindled down over years. So far as dried prawns (shrimps in present day parlance) are concerned, India exported to 22 countries 3067 t of them valued at Rs. 89.43 lakhs in 1962 and 2808 t valued at Rs. 93.24 lakhs in 1963. Over half of these exports went to (Burma) present Myanmar. By 1967, these exports, came down to 1540 t valued at Rs. 89.61 lakhs. Later, in 1968, the exports plummeted further to 1410 t valued at Rs. 72.58 lakhs. The export of this commodity came down to 139 t by 1972 from 684 t in 1971. After 1972 exports of dried fish and prawn products from India dwindled. With an annual production of over one million tons of fish, India is one among the eight major fish-producing countries of the world. The National income from fisheries is estimated at about Rs. 600 crores per annum.
EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL
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The Sea Fisheries resources consists of a large variety of fishes such as. Sardiences, Mackerel and Prawns. Several other favorite varieties like Pomfrets, Seer fish, Indian salmon, etc., are also available in large quantities. Fishing is generally confined to the narrow coastal belt of about 6 to 10 miles from the coast and the production is in the hands of nearly a million fishermen. The Coastal fisheries are largely seasonal Surplus productions are obtained in some months and scarcity in other months. Large-scale expansion of the fishing industry depends up on increased off-shore fishing activity which is being fostered by mechanizing the indigenous crafts, by introducing small-powered crafts and by employing large modern vessels. The west coast of India at present accounts for over three-fourths of our total sea fish production. With the gradual development of the marine fishing industry, the export industry was making a turning point on modern scientific lines. To ensure a high quality of marine products exports, the Government of India has bought in quality control and preshipment inspection for marine products on a volunturing basis. A marine product Inspection council was set up in 1964 to advise the Government on the measures to be taken for implementing compulsory quality control of various marine products. 15.1.1. Export promotion measures 15.1.1.1. Supply of Tin Plate Against Export of Tinned Fish: The Ministry of Commerce and Industry in the Government of India have introduced a scheme for supply of tin plate against export of tinned fish. According to the scheme, the Deputy Chief Controller of Imports and Exports, Ernakulam (Cochin), will register persons who are engaged in canning fish and wish to take advantage of the scheme, provided they have been dealing in the export of fish or sale of fish in the international market for at least on year. Those who do not fulfil the above condition will have to be recommended for registration by the Fisheries Development Adviser, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, New Delhi.
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15.1.1.2. Supply of other requisites for canning fish: There are some items in which the internal relationship between imports and exports is direct and intimate. The ability to export some of these manufactured goods depends largely on the facility with which the exporter or the manufacturer can procure the basic raw materials required in the manufacture. With a view to promoting the export of such goods, a scheme has been devised for the grant of special import licences to replace imported raw material content of the exported product, or to provide an inducement for larger exports. The foundation for the exports of frozen marine products, which is a revolutionary milestone in the history of marine products exports of India. the present status of the marine products exports of India is a tribute to his vision and the pioneering start he gave to the marine products export sector. On this foundation he laid, an infrastructure. Records show that exports of marine products of all categories including canned product of all categories including canned products from India were 19,700 t valued at Rs. 2.46 crores in 1950-51. In 1953 frozen shrimp entered the export basket. There was a drop in the quantity exported by 1960-61 to 15,700 t but with a higher value (Rs. 3.92 crores). The drop was for the reason that caned shrimp exports came down owing to prohibitive cost of cans. From then onwards there was a steady growth, with exports reaching 97,200 t with a value of Rs. 531 crores by 198788. By 1990-91, exports touched a level of 139,419 t valued at Rs. 893 crores. 15.1.2.Export Trends: The export trends were presented in table (15.1 and 15.2) There had been a major spurt in the exports in terms of quantity by 1994-95 (Qty 307, 337 t; Value Rs. 3575.62 crores) which moved up by 19992000 to 340,003 t valued at Rs. 5095.73 t, registering an increase of 10.13% in terms of value and 12.24% in terms of volume over the previous year. For the first time, seafood exports crossed Rs. 5000 crores. The total volume exported increased from 302,934 t in 1998-99 to 340,003 t on 1999-2000. The share of marine products in the total export
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earnings of the country was 3.16% during the year. In terms of US$ export earnings of the marine products was US$ 1184.23 million. The growth in dollar terms was 6.96%. the unit value has, however, shown a declining trend from Rs. 152.73 (US$ 3.65) to Rs. 149.87 per kg. (US$ 3.49). In 2000-2001 by December 2000 the exports reached a level 316,320 t valued at Rs. 5016 crores. This shows an increase in exports by 32.75% (from 238,276 t in 1999-2000) in terms of quantity and 34.26% in terms of value (from 3,736 crores in 1999-2000 to Rs. 5,016 crores so far in 2000-2001 by Dec 2000). It is expected that Indian exports may cross the level of Rs. 6000 crores or US$ 1.3 billion by March 2001. 15.1.3. Features of Exports a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Exports of frozen shrimp increased by 7.2% in terms of volume and 8.7% in terms of rupee realization and 5.6% in terms of US$; Export of frozen fish increased by 19.5% in terms of volume and 7.6% in terms of volume and 7.6% in terms of rupee realization and 4.5% in terms of US$; Export of frozen squid increased by 7.4% in terms of volume and 9.1% in terms of rupee realization and 5.9% in terms of US$; Export of chilled items showed an increase of 17.79% in terms of volume and 54.14% in tersm of rupee realization and 49.7% in terms of US$; Export of cuttle fish declined in terms of volume by 6% but increased by 4% in terms of rupee realization and 1% in terms of US$; Export of dried items declined by 2% in volume and increased by 5.8% in terms of rupee realization and 2.8% in terms of US$; Export of Live items declined drastically, 21.8% in volume, 19.3% in rupee realization and 21.6% in terms of US$.
15.1.3.1. Frozen shrimp: Frozen shrimp, considered to be one of the major item in our export which, contribute 71% of total marine products exports in 1999-2000 by value. The share of frozen shrimp in the total exports, however,
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declined from 33.83% to 33.31% in terms of volume compared to last year. At the same time, the export of frozen shrimp as such increased by 7.21% in terms of volume and 8.67% in terms of value. The unit value realization of shrimp has increased by 7.21%in terms of volume and 8.67% in terms of value. The unit value realization of shrimp has increased marginally from Rs. 326.38 (US$ 7.82) to Rs. 330.85 (US$ 7.69). Though India could retain her position as the major supplier of shrimp to Japanese market during the year, the shrimp exports of India to Japan declined by 1.37% by volume and 2.39% by value. Shrimp exports to the member countries of European union, the second largest market, increased considerably during the year. The increase considerably during the year. The increase in volume was 3807 mt with a value of Rs. 155.66 crores, showing an increase of 21.29% in volume and 42.20% in value. Exports to the USA, the third largest market for Indian Shrimp, has shown an increase both in terms of quantity and value unlike the previous year. The total quantity of shrimp exported to USA was 21.391 mt fetching a value of Rs. 633.73 crores which was respectively 18.54% and 35.68% more in volume and value than the previous year. The export of shrimp to South East Asian market and other markets also increased both in volume and value during the year when compared to the previous year. The unit value realization of shrimp increased form Rs. 326.38 to Rs. 330.85 in rupee terms during 19992000. However, in US $ 7.81 to US$ 7.70. This was mainly because of the weakening of Indian Rupee against US dollar. The average unit value Indian shrimp fetched in Japanese market had declined from US$ 9.67 to US$ 9.30 during the year. The fall in prices was due to Japanese currency fluctuations and the sale of smaller sized shrimp at lower rates on account of distress harvest to prevent disease. 15.1.3.2. Frozen fish: Frozen fish continued to be the largest item in our export contributing a share of 38% in terms of volume while in value terms it is the second largest item contributing 10.45% of Indian marine products export earnings. As in the previous years, Ribbon fish contributed the major share (30%) among fin-fish varieties, followed by Promfret (24.53%) Croaker (8.55%), Mackerel (7.75%), Seer fish (5.73%) and
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the rest of other fishes. The value-added products made out of finfish varieties were fish fillets, fish loins/steaks and shark meat which contributed 3.80% of the total finfish export, the share of which has shown an increasing trend over the previous year. The value of this item grew from Rs. 8.85 crores to Rs. 20.22 crores during the year. China is the largest importer of frozen fish which accounted for about 46% in terms of value and 57.69% in terms of quantity in the overall export of frozen fish. 15.1.3.3. Cephalopods: European Union was the major importer of the cephalopods, accounting for about 53% of the total export from India in terms of value. Spain alone contributed to 2.5% (value wise) of the total export of frozen cephalopods. The landings of squid and cuttle-fish in major maritime states were not however promising. Overall export of Cephalopods (Squid, Cuttlefish and Octopus) increased by 2921 mt valued Rs. 49.36 crores, registering a growth of 4.22% by volume and 8.90% by value. Export of Cuttlefish declined by 6% while export Squid increased by 7.4% in terms of volume. Export of frozen Octopus increased both in terms of quantity and value considerably during the year registering a growth of 105.81% by volume and 116.58% by value. 15.1.3.4. Other Items: Export of frozen Lobsters also increased by 26.76% in volume and 63.86% in value. Export of Chilled items also registered an increase of 17.68% by volume and 54.11% by value while dried and live seafood items have declined over the last year. Among live items, export of live crab and lobster declined considerably while live finfish, live shrimp and ornamental fish have shown a positive trend of increase. Other items, which have shown a considerable growth, are Surimi (86%) and Crab (64%). Products like AFD Shrimp powder, Cuttlefish ink, Frozen whole crab, Soft shell crab and Pasteurized crab meat have found a place in the export basket, while items like Yellofin tuna, Live snail, Beche-demer of size 6 up and 4-6, dried Cuttlefish, Fish meal, etc. were not exported during the year.
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15.1.4. Major Markets: The main markets for our seafood products are Japan, member countries of European Union, USA, South East Asia and Middle East countries. Among the markets, Japan continued to be number one market sharing 19.6% in terms of volume and 44% in terms of value (Rs. 2263.6 crores, US$ 526.10 million). 15.1.4.1. Market Shares The share of the different markets in Indias total exports are as follows: Japan accounted for 44% in terms of value, USA accounted for 15% in terms of value, European Union accounted for 18% in terms of value, South East Asia accounted for 18% in terms of value, Middle East accounted for 2% in terms of value, and others accounted for3% in terms of value. Exports to: i) ii) iii) E U registered a growth of 20.37% in terms of volume and 32.15% in rupee realization and 28.37% in terms of US $, USA showed a positive growth by 6.18% in volume and 25.54% in rupee realization and 21.95% in US $ To S E Asian countries increased by 25.82% in volume and 18.14% by rupee realization and 14.76% in US $, to Export to Middle East countries declined drastically by 25.82% in volume and 22.45% in rupee realization and 24.67% in US $, and Japan declined marginally by 1.1% in terms of volume and 1.39 in terms of rupee realization and 4.21% in terms of US $.
iv)
15.1.4.2. Other Countries: There has been considerable growth in exports to several
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countries. Among these are Canada (18%), Chine (20%), Belgium (73%), the Netherlands (10.2%), the U.K. (32%) and Spain (29%). Decline in exports too has been noticed in respect of UAE (25%), Greece (41%), Turkey (10%) and Japan (10%). During the year, new markets such as Canary Islands, West Indies, Argentina. Democratic Republic of Korea and Brunei have emerged for Indian seafoods, while no exports are made to the countries like Kenya, Brazil, Peru, Uruguay, Hungary, Bulgaria, Syria, Malta and Finland. To these countries exports were made during 1998-99. During the past fifty years, there has been considerable diversification of exports and there has been a major increase in countries to which exports have been made.
Table 15.1 Export Growth of Marine Products A: Quantity in mt; V: Value Rs. Crores; $: US dollar million Year 1995-96 Q V $ 1996-97 Q V $ 1997-98 Q V $ 1998-99 Q V $ 1999-00 Q V $ Export 2962.77 3501.11 1111.46 378199 4121.36 1152.00 383818 4697.48 1295.86 302934 4626.87 1106.91 340003 5095.73 1184.23 Growth -11000 -74.16 -27.16 +81922 +629.35 +41.37 +7619 +576.12 +143.03 -82884 -70.61 -188.95 +37069 +468.87 +77.32 (%) -03.60 -02.07 -2.39 +27.65 +17.72 +00.72 +02.01 +13.98 +12.41 -21.48 -01.50 -14.58 +12.24 +10.13 +06.99 Unit Value (per kg) 118.17 3.75 108.97 3.05 121.75 3.36 152.73 3.65 149.87 3.49
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Table 15.2
Item-wise Export of Marine Products Q: Quantity in M.tons; V: Value in Rs. Crores; $: US Dollar Million
Items Apr-Mar 1999-2000 109868 3635.01 844.76 129679 532.72 123.8 32528 284.13 66.03 34648 293.27 68.16 6136 42.65 9.91 1679 38 8.83 3088 44.97 10.45 22377 224.98 52.29 340003 5095.73 1184.23 Apr-Mar 1998-1999 102484 3344.91 800.22 108556 495.03 118.43 34589 273.31 65.39 32254 268.93 64.34 6273 40.3 9.64 2148 47.08 11.26 2624 29.18 6.98 14006 128.13 30.65 302934 4626.87 1106.91 Variation (%)
Fr. Shrimp
Q V $ Fr. Fin Fish Q V $ Fr. Cuttle fish Q V $ Fr. Squid Q V $ Dried Items Q V $ Live Items Q V $ Chilled Items Q V $ Others Q V $ Total Q V $
7384 290.1 44.54 21123 37.69 5.37 -2061 10.82 0.64 2394 24.34 3.82 -137 2.35 0.27 -469 -9.08 -2.43 484 15.79 3.47 8371 96.85 21.64 37069 488.86 77.32
7.21 8.67 5.57 19.40 7.61 4.53 -5.96 3.90 0.98 7.42 9.05 5.94 -2.18 5.83 2.80 -21.83 -19.29 -21.58 17.68 54.11 49.71 59.77 75.59 70.60 12.24 10.13 6.90
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Table 15.3
Country-wise Export of Marine Products Q: Quantity in mt, V: Value Rs. Crore, $: US Dollar million
Country Japan Q V $ Q V $ Q V $ April-Mar 1999-2000 66540 2264 526.10 65313 905 210.20 36603 775 180.10 145811 905 210.30 12814 115 26.70 12922 133 30.80 340003 5096 1184 April-Mar 1998-1999 67277 2295 549.20 54261 685 163.80 34472 617 147.70 116610 766 183.30 17274 148 35.40 13039 115 27.60 302934 4627 1107 Variation -737 -32 -23.10 11052 220 46.50 2131 158 32.40 29201 139 27.10 -4460 -33 -8.70 -117 17 3.20 37070 469 77 (%) -1.10 -1.39 -4.21 20.37 32.15 28.37 6.81 25.54 21.95 25.04 18.14 14.76 -25.82 -22.82 -24.67 -0.89 14.98 11.70 12.24 10.13 6.99
EU
USA
SEA Q (Including V China) $ Middle East Others Q V $ Q V $ Q V $
Total
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The diversified range of exports now cover canned shrimp/fish, several items in frozen form such as headless and head on shrimp, PUD and PD, and several value-added products such as peeled tail-on shrimp, peeled tail on stretched, butterfly tail-on shrimp, blanched/boiled peeled shrimp, breaded round shrimp, squid rings, squid tubes, stuffed tubes, peeled squids, cuttle fish fillets, dried squid, head-on squid whole fish, fish fillets surimi, shark fins, shark meat, live crabs, crab meat, fish maws, Becha-demer, dried fishes, particularly Bombay Duck, ribbon fish, masmeen, and quite a few other products. IQF and Accelerated/ Freeze Dried products have also become an important part of exports.
TABLE 15.4 Pattern of shrimp exports (Qty. in tones; Value in Rs crores) Year 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 Quantity 51,162 51,068 51,358 52,180 55,002 54,444 55,398 50,349 49,203 55,736 56,835 57,819 62,395 76,107 74,393 86,541 101,751 90,000 105,429 100,977 Value 194.79 211.25 201.78 247.95 316.15 314.81 329.69 329.82 377.93 425.78 470.33 463.31 663.32 976.16 1180.26 1770.73 2510.27 2429.00 2701.79 3121.35
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Regarding progressive additions to exported products, it may be mentioned that frozen fish exports picked up fast from a level of 66t valued at Rs. 7.70 lakhs to 38,787t valued at 197.39 crores. Exports of frozen cuttle fish/fillets and squids which were at 141t in 1974 valued at Rs. 12.0 lakhs rose to 66,843t by 1998-99 with a value of 542 crores. Exports of fish maws clubbed under other miscellaneous items commenced in 1980. Export of frog legs was banned by the government in 1987. 15.1.5. Marine product export during 2000 2001 Marine product exports from the country increased by 23.3 per cent and touched Rs. 6,300 crore during 2000-01, according to provisional figures released by the Marine Products Exports Development Authority (MPEDA), Marine products export during the 1999-2000 fiscal was Rs. 5,117 crore. Marine exports scaled new heights in quantity terms also during the year. During 2000-01 quantity of marine exports rose to 4,21,000 tonnes (3,43,031 tonnes), showing an increase of 22.8 per cent. The previous best figures were in 1997-98 when 3,85,818 tonnes of marine products valued at Rs. 4,697 crore were exported. Chennai Port stood first in terms of value of exports followed by Kochi and Visakhapatnam. All the major ports except Kochi showed an increase in value of exports. The exports through Kochi Port dropped from Rs. 1,137 crore in 1999-00 to Rs. 1,031 crore in 2000-01. The share of Kochi also dropped from 37.9 per cent of total value of exports 10 years ago to 16.3 per cent in 2000-01. A detailed market-wise item-wise analysis would be available only after the final figures are received. However, an analysis of the figures for te first 11 months shows that the main increase has come from exports to the US.
212
The increase in exports to the US over the previous year is nearly 55 per cent. In terms of percentage share, the US has now overtaken the European Union to attain second place. Japan, with 41 per cent of the market share continues to be number one, followed by the US with 18.6 per cent and the EU with 15.3 per cent. There was also substantial increase in exports to China, which along with Hong Kong, now has 12 per cent market share. Shrimp continues to be the number one commodity exported, accounting for 71 per cent of the value of exports, although in quantity terms the share of shrimp is only 26.8 per cent. An interesting feature is the increase in quantity of shrimp exported, in spite of stagnation in catches from the sea and the disease and other problems in aquaculture farms. The share of fin fish in the export basket is now 12.6 per cent, mainly because of the increase in export of low value Frozen Ribbon Fish to China which has gone up by over 100 per cent when compared to last year, Cuttle fish and Squid account for 5 per cent each of the value of exports. Another interesting feature of the exports this year has been the increase in value added items, which is a welcome sign. Export of Surimi, a product manufactured from trash fish as Croaker and used in the preparation of imitation fish abroad, has gone up by over 110 per cent, making India a major player in the Surimi market. 15.3. Quality control The development of the export trade of India, certain proposals for subjecting Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products to quality control and inspection prior to export, were published as required by sub-rule (2) of rule 11 of the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Rules, 1964 in the Gazette of India, Part-II, Section 3, Sub-section (ii) dated 1st November, 1994 under the Order of the Government of India in the Ministry of Commerce No. S.O. 785 (E) dated the 1st November 1994;
213
1. 2. 3.
Fish and fishery products freshly caught are in principle free of contamination with micro-organisms; However, contamination and subsequent decomposition may occur when handled and treated unhygienically; Therefore, the essential requirements should be laid down for correct hygienic handing of Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products at all stages of production and during storage and transport; It is expedient that these control measures should be introduced to guarantee the uniform application and to ensure smooth operation of the provisions of this notification and that the measures apply in an identical manner; Provisions should, therefore, be made for procedure for monitoring to ensure the above conditions of equivalence with reference to the requirements of importing countries; The Government of India nominated competent authority should ensure the effective compliance of the quality standards in the country; In this Order, Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products mean:-
4.
5.
6.
7.
All sea water and fresh water animals or part thereof, including their roes, in fresh and chilled frozen or processed form, but excluding Frogs. 15.3.1. Specifications 15.3.1.1. Specifications for shrimps/prawns 15.1. General: Appearance and colour shall be characteristic to the particular type/form of fresh/freshly cooked shrimps/prawns as the
214
case may be. The material shall be reasonably free from dehydration, discoloration and black spots. The material shall not show any sign of deterioration and shall be free from off odour and foreign odour. The texture of meat shall be soft and consistent and shall have characteristic flavour of Fresh/Cooked Shrimps/ Prawns. The products shall be free from extraneous matter.
(b) Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen (1) (2) (3) (4) Total plate count at 370C per gm. Maximum 5,00,000 E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
15.3.1.2. Specifications for lobsters in any form (a) General: Appearance and colour shall be characteristic to the particular type/form of fresh/freshly cooked lobsters as the case may be. The material shall be reasonably free from dehydation, discolouration and extraneous matter. the product shall not show any sign of deterioration. The product shall be free from off odour and any foreign odour. The material shall be freefrom extraneous matter like sand, dirt, etc. The material shall be free from eggs unless permitted by the buyer. Lobsters of uniform size shall be packed together. Texture of the meat shall be soft and consistent.
Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen (1) (2) (3) (4) Total plate count at 370C per gm. Maximum 5,00,000 E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
(b)
15.3.1.3. Specifications for cephalopods (cuttlefish, squid, octopus, etc.) and their body parts including roes (a) General: Cephalopods of different varieties shall not be packed together. Material of uniform colour and size shall be packed together. The product shall be clean and shall be characteristic to the particular type/form
215
appearance, colour and odour of fresh/freshly cooked cephalopods. The product shall be reasonably free from dehydration, discolouration and extraneous matter. The product shall not show any sign of deterioration and shall be free from off odour and any foreign odour. The texture of meat shall be soft and consistent.
(b) (1) Bacteriological: Total plate count at 370C per gm. Maximum Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000
(2) (3) (4)
5,00,000 2,00,000 for products meant for raw consumption E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms.Nil Nil
Nil 100
9.3.1.4. Specifications for fishes - whole, dressed, fillets or any other type (pomfrets, seer, pearl spot, sardine, mackerel, hilsa, etc.) (a) General: Fishes/Fillets of uniform size and colour shall be packed together. Fishes/Fillets of different species shall not be packed together. The products shall be clean and shall have appearance, colour and odour charactaristic to the particular type/form of fresh/freshly cooked fishes. The products shall be free from dehydration and discolouration. The product shall not show any sign of deterioration and shall be free from odour and any foreign odour. The products shall be free from softening of texture and any objectionable extraneous matter.
Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
Total plate count at 370C per gm. Maximum 5,00,000 E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil
15.3.1.5. Specifications for crab and crab meat (a) General: Crab/Crab Meat of uniform colour shall be packed together. Body meat and claw meat shall be packed separately or as sandwich pack or any other manner as required by the buyer. The material shall be clean having characteristic of the particular type/form appearance, colour and odour of
216
fresh/freshly cooked crabs as the case may be and shall not have deterioration, off odour or any foreign odour. The products shall be reasonably free from dehydration, discolouration and objectionable extraneous matter and shall be soft and consistent. (b)
(1) (2) (3) (4) Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
Total plate count at 370C per gm. maximum 10,00,000 E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil
(1) Crab dipped in boiled water for the purpose of extracting meat shall not be treated as cooked variety. (2) Cooked crab meat shall be prepared by boiling the eviscerated and cleaned crab for sufficient length of time to make it fit for direct consumption.
15.3.1.6. Specifications for whelk (a) General: Appearance, colour and odour shall be characteristic to the particular type/form of fresh/cooked whelk as the case may be. The products shall reasonably be free from dehydration and discolouration and shall not have sign of deterioration, off odour or any foreign odour. The products shall be free from extraneous matter and sand and shall not show grittiness. Texture shall be soft and consistent. Whelk meat shall be reasonably free from shell or shell pieces.
Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4)
15.3.1.7. (a)
Specifications for clam/mussel meat
General: Appearance and colour of the product shall be characteristic to the particular type/form of fresh/cooked cham/mussel as the case may be.
217
The product shall reasonably be free from dehydration and discolouration. The product shall have characteristic odour of fresh/cooked clam/mussel. The Product shall not show any sign of deterioration. The product shall be free off odour, foreign odour/sand (grittiness detected by chewing) and objectionable foreign matter. The texture of meat shall be soft and consistent.
(b) (1) (2) (3) (4) Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Frozen Cooked/ Boiled 1,00,000 Nil 100 Nil
Crab/mussel treated with hot water for opening the shell and the meat then packed, shall not be treated as cooked/boiled variety. 1. Raw material:
1.1 The raw material used for preparation of Prawns (Shrimps) canned in brine shall be fresh, sound, wholesome, properly cleaned and free from entrails. 1.2 Only refined salt conforming to IS:594-1962 shall be used. 2 2.1 Cans: The material shall be packed in suitable internally and uniformly lacquered cans. The cans may also be lacquered externally. The lacquer used shall be such that it does not impart any foreign unpleasant taste and smell to the contents of the can does not peel off during processing and storage. The lacquer shall not be soluble in brine to any extent. The can exterior shall be free from major dents, rust, perforations and seam distortions. The cans after sealing hermetically shall not show leaking, panelling or swell. The interior of the can on opening shall not show any visible black discolouration, rust or pitting and the inside lacquer shall be in good condition. Brine: The brine, if used, shall be clear and shall not be discoloured.
2.2
3. 3.1
218
4. 4.1 4.2 5. 5.1 5.2 6. 6.1
Packing and Labelling: Only material of the same species shall be packed in a can. The lables, if used, shall be in accordance with rules and regulations of the country to which the material is to be exported. Drained Weight and Size Grade: The net drained weight of contents shall not be less then the declared weight. The size count (number of pieces per unit weight) shall conform to the size grade declared on the can. Organoleptic Quality: The contents of the can on opening shall present a good appearance and shall not display any appreciable disintegration. Pieces from which portions have separated out would be treated as disintegrated shrimps. The surface of the prawns shall not be slimy to the touch. The meat shall be soft but firm and shall not crumble to granular forms when pressed between fingers. The prawn pieces shall not appear to be pressed together and it should be possible to separate the pieces easily. The pieces shall be of uniform size and shall be clean and free from loose hanging pieces of meat. The material shall have the odour and flavour of fresh and cooked prawn meat and shall be free fro scorched, bitter or any other objectionate flavour. The material shall be free from pale bleached colour with a greenish yellow tint indicative of pre-processed spoilage. The material shall also be free from any black discolouration.
6.2
6.3
6.4 6.5
6.6 The material shall be free from sand, dirt, insect, hair or any other extraneous matter. It shall be reasonably free bits of veins,shall particles and pieces of appendages. 6.7 The material shall be free from any poisonous and deleterious substances.
219
6.8 6.9
The cans on opening shall not give any odour, indicative of bacterial spoilage, shall not show liquilation of contents and shall not show blackening. The product shall also conform to the following requirements:
TABLE 15.6
Sl. No.
Characteristics
Requirements
Method of Test Ref: To Appendix Appendix in IS: 2236- in IS: 2168 1968* * 1971* 4 A B C D B C D E F 5
1 I) II)
3 100 64 3.5 0.06 to 0.20 1 5 10 50 250
Vaccum of the can in mm Hg. min Drained weight of the contents of the can, as percentage by weight of the water capacity of the can, min III) Sodium chloride in brine per cent (W/V) max. IV) Acidity of brine as citric acid (anhydrous per cent (W/V) V) Arsenic, parts per million, max: VI) Lead, parts per million, max: VII) Copper, parts per million, max: VIII) Zinc. parts per million, max: IX) Tin, parts per million, max: * **
Specification for Pomfret canned in oil. Specification for Prawns/Shrimps canned in brine (First Revision)
7. 7.1
Bacteriological Requirments: The initial incubation of the sampled cans shall be done at 37 10C for seven days or 35 1 0C for ten days. After this incubation, necessary quantity of the liquid protion is asceptically pipetted out and inoculated into thioglycollate cystine broth and incubated at 37 10C for 48 hours. The incubated broth shall not show bacterial growth.
220
8. 8.1
Coding: The can shall be embossed with the marking of grade, size, drained weight, name of the manufacturer, or his factory code, year, month and batch of manufacture. An illustration for embossing the code in the abbreviated form is given below: T5 X 4 B 05
15 stands for Tiny packed with 5 oz. drained weight, X stands for the name of the manufacturer in the abbreviated form or the factory code, 4 stands for the year of manufacture and in this illustration it signifies year 1994 B stands for the month of manufacture (here it signifies the month of February) and 05 stands for the date of manufacture during the month. In case PUD material is used for canning, the letter U shall be embossed prior to the marking for size grade. For the purpose of denoting the size grade and the drained weight, the following nomenclature shall be followed:
TABLE 15.7.Size-Grade*:
________________________________________________________________ Nomenclature Count/100gms Abbreviation ________________________________________________________________ Colossal/Supreme Jumbo Below 8 C/SJ Jumbo 9 to 13 J Large 14 to 22 L Medium 23 to 36 M Small 37 to 63 S Tiny 64 to 102 T Cocktail/Mini/Sealed 103 to above CT/MI/SD Broken/Whole & Broken No limit B/WB ________________________________________________________________
*Pack having more than 10% broken pieces by weight irrespective of the total number of pieces in the can shall be treated as Broken grade. Any individual Shrimp piece showing less than 4 segments shall be treated as a broken piece. (B) Drained Weight:
Except in the case of 4.5 oz. pack, which being the standard pack, the actual drained weight shall be embossed in oz. on the cans.
221
(C)
The month of manufacture shall be designated as:
TABLE 15.8. ______________________________________________________________________ Month Abbreviation Month Abbreviation ______________________________________________________________________ January A July G February B August H March C September J April D Octomber K May E November L June F December M ______________________________________________________________________
15.3.2. Specifications for crab meat canned in brine or any other internationally approved medium
1. 1.1
Raw material: The meat used for canning shall be obtained from healthy, freshly caught, crabs of the species Scylla Serrata, Portunus Pelagicus, Neptunus Pelagicus and Neptunus Sanquinolentus. Cans: The material shall be packed in suitable internally and uniformly lacquered cans. The cans may also be lacquered externally. The lacquer used shall be such that it does not impart any foreign unpleasent taste to the contents of the can and does not peel off during processing and storage. The lacquer shall not be soluble in brine to any extant. The can interior shall be free from major dents, rust, perforations and seam distortions. The cans after sealing hermetically shall not show leaking, panelling or swell. The interior of the can on opening shall not show any visible black/bluish discolouration, rusting or pitting. The inside lacquer shall be in good condition.
2. 2.1
2.2
222
3. 3.1
Brine: Vaccum dried salt or common salt conforming to IS: 594 - 1962 shall be used be used for preparing brine. The sodium chloride content of the brine, if used shall not exceed 2% W/V, maximum. Acidity of brine as Citric acid (Anhydrous) shall be .20% W/V, maximum. Packing and Labelling: Crab meat shall be packed using parchment paper lining. The body meat and claw meat of the crab shall be packed according to the terms of contract agreed upon between the buyer and seller. In the absence of contractual specification, the claw meat shall be packe on the top and at the bottom in distinctly separate layers.
3.2 4. 4.1 4.2
4.3
Only the meat of one species of crab shall be packed in a particular can. The meat obtained from crabs caught from back waters and sea shall not be mixed or packed in a particular can. Drained Weight: The net water capacity of the can shall be as per the requirements of the importing country. The drained weight of the meat shall not be less than the declared weight. Requirements for Finished Products: The content of the can on opening shall present the characteristic colour and odour of crab meat and shall not give any foreign odour.
5. 5.1 5.2 6. 6.1
223
6.2 6.3
The material shall be free from scorched, bitter or any objectionable flavour. The material shall be free from stain, dirt, insect, hair or any other extraneous matter. It shall be free from veins, membrane, shell particles and pieces of appendages. The material shall be free bluish/black colour. The material shall be free from any poisonous and deleterious substance. Crab meat canned in brine should conform to the following requirements also:
6.4 6.5 6.6
TABLE 15.9. REQUIREMENTS FOR CRAB MEAT CANNED IN BRINE ______________________________________________________________________ Sl.No. Characteristic Method of test Ref: to Appendix of IS: 7143 - IS: 2236 1973* 1968** ______________________________________________________________________ (1) (2) (3) Vaccum in can in mm. Hg. Min: Sodium Chloride in brine per cent by weight, max: Acidity of brine as citric acid (anhydrous) per cent (W/V), max: 150 2% A C Limits
0.2%
(4)
Acid insoluble ash, per cent by weight max: 2% A _____________________________________________________________________ * ** Specifications for Crab Meat canned in brine. Specifications for Prawns/ Shrimps canned in brine (First revision).
224
TABLE 15.10. LIMITS OF METALLIC IMPURITIES IN CRAB MEAT CANNED IN BRINE ______________________________________________________________________ Method of test Ref: to Appendix in IS: 2168-1971* ______________________________________________________________________ (1) Arsenic, ppm. max: 1 B (2) Lead, ppm. max: 5 C (3) Copper, ppm. max: 10 D (4) Zinc, ppm. max: 50 E (5) Tin, ppm. max: 250 F ______________________________________________________________________ Sl.No. Characteristic Limits
*Specifications for Pomfret canned in oil (First revision) 7. Bacteriological requirements: The initial incubation of the sampled cans shall be done at 37 10 for seven days or at 35 10c for then days. After this initial incubation, the brine of the cans, on inoculation in to thioglycollate cystine broth and incubation at 37 0 10c for 40 hours, shall not show any sign of bacterial growth. 8. Coding
8.1 The cans shall be embossed with the markings of the drained weight, name of the manufacturer or his factory code and year, month and date of manufacture. An illustation for embossing the code in the abbreviated form is given below: CB5X 4 B05 In the above illustration, CB stands for Crab Meat canned in brine, 5 stands for drained weight and in this illustration, it signifiles 5 oz. drained weight, X stands for the name of the manufacture and in this illustration, it signifies the year 1994, B stands for the month of manufacture and, in
225
this illustration, it signifiles month of February and 05 stands for the date of manufacture during the month.
TABLE 15.11. The month of manufacture shall be designated as:
______________________________________________________________________ Month Abbreviation Month Abbreviation ______________________________________________________________________ January A July G February B August H March C September J April D October K May E November L June F December M ________________________________________________________________
8.2
Drained Weight:
Except in the case of 4.5 oz. pack, which being the standard pack, the actual drained weight shall be embossed in oz. on the cans. 15.3.4. General conditions of hygiene 1. 1.1 General conditions of hygiene applicable to premises and equipment: Floors, walls and partitions, ceilings or roof linings, equipment and instruments used for working on fishery products must be kept in a satisfactory state of cleanliness and repair, so that they do not constitute a source of contamination for the products. Rodents, insects and any other vermin must be systematically exterminated in the premises of in the equipments. Rodenticides, insecticides, disinfectents and any other potentially toxic substances must be stored in premises or cupboards which can be locked; their use must not presentany risk of contamination of the product. Working areas, instruments and working equipment must be used ony for work on fishey products. However, on authorization by the com-
1.2
1.3
226
petent authority authority they, may be used for work on other foodstuffs also. 1.4 Potable water or clean seawater must be used for all purposes. However, by way of an exception, non potable water may be used for steam production, fire-lighting and the cooling of refrigeration equipment, provided that the pipes installed for the purpose preclude the use of such water for other purposes and present no risk of contamination of the products. Detergents, disinfectants and similar substances must be approved by the competent authority and used in such a way that they do not have adverse effects on the machinery, equipment and products.
1.5
15.3.5. General conditions of hygiene applicable to staff:

2. 2.1. The highest possible standard of cleanliness is required of staff. More specifically Staff must wear suitable clean working clothes and headgear which completely encloses the hair. This applies particularly to persons handling exposed fishery products. Staff assigned to the handling and preparation of fishery products must be required to wash their hand atleast each time work is resumed. Wounds on the hands must be covered by a water proof dressing. Smoking, spitting, eating and drinking in work and storage premises of fishery products must be prohibited. The employer shall take the requisite measures to prevent persons liable to contaminate fishery products from working on and handing them, until there is evidence that such persons can do so without risk. When recruited, any person working on and handing fishery products shall be required to prove, by a medical certificate, that there is no impediment to such employment. The medical supervision of such a person shall be governed by the national legislation in force. 15.3.6. Special conditions for handling fishery products on shore
2.2.
2.3.
227
15.3.6.1. Conditions for fresh products.
1.
Where chilled, unpackaged products are not dispatched, prepared or processed immediately after reaching the establishment, they must be stored under ice in the establishment cold room, re-icing must be carried out as often as is necessary; the ice used, with or without salt must be made from potable water or clean seawater and be stored under hygienic conditions in receptacles provided for the purpose; such receptacles must be kept clean and in good state of repair. Prepacked fresh products must be chilled with ice or mechanical refrigeration plant creating similar temperature conditions. If they are not carried out on board, operations such as heading and gutting must be carried out hygienically. The products must be washed thoroughly with potable water or clean seawater immediately after such operations. Operations such as filleting and slicing must be carried out in such a way as to avoid the contamination or spoilage of fillets and in a place other than that used for heading and gutting operations. Fillets and slices must not remain on work tables any longer than is necessary for their preparation. Fillets and slices to be sold fresh must be chilled as quickly as possible after preparation. Guts and parts that may constitute a danger to public health must be separated from and removed from the vicinity of products intended for human consumption. Containers used for the despatch or storage of fresh products must be designed in such a way as to ensure both their protection from contamination and their preservation under hygienic conditions and more particularly they must provide adequate drainage of melt water. Unless special facilities are provided for the continuous disposal of waste, the latter must be placed in leakproof, covered containers which are easy to clean and disinfect.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
228
Waste must not be allowed, to accumulate in working areas. It must be removed either continuosly or as soon as the containers are full. At the end of each working day the waste containers shall be shitted to premises intended for storage of such containers. The containers, receptacles and/or premises set aside for waste must always be thoroughly cleaned and, if appropriate, disinfected after use. Waste stored there must not constitute a source of contamination for the establishment or of pollution of its surroundings. 15.3.6.2 Conditions for frozen products. 1. 1.1 Plants must have; freezing equipment sufficiently powerful to achieve a rapid reduction in the temperature so that the temperatures laid down in this notification can be obtained in the product. freezing equipment sufficiently powerful to keep products in storage rooms at a temperature not exceeding those laid down in this notification, whatever the ambient temperature may be. However, for technical reasons related to the method of freezing and to the handling of such products, for whole fish frozen in brine and intended for canning, higher temperatures than those laid down in this notification are acceptable although they may not exceed -90C. 2. 3. Fresh products to be frozen or quick frozen must comply with the requirement of Section-I of this Annexure. Storage rooms must have a temperature recording device in a place where it can easily be read. The temperature sensor of the recorder must be located in the area farthest away from the cold source, i.e. where the temperature in the storage room is the highest. Temperature charts must be available for inspection by the supervisory authorities atleast during the period in which the products are stored. Establishment that carry out thawing operations must comply with the following requirement:
1.2
15.3.6.3. Conditions for thawing products.
229
1.
Fishery products must be thawed under hygienic conditions; their contamination must be avoided and there must be adequate drainage for any melt water produced; During thawing, the temperature of the products must not increase excessively.
2.
After thawing, fishery products must be handled in accordance with the requirements of this notification. when they are prepared or processed, these operations must be carried out without delay.
15.3.6.4. Conditions for processed products. 1. 2. Fresh, frozen and thawed products used for processing must comply with the requirements of Sections I or II of this Annexure. Where the processing treatment is carried out to inhibit the development of pathogenic micro-organisms, or if it is a significant factor in the preservation of the product, the treatment must be scientifically recognised by the lawin force and/or approved by the competent authority. The person responsible for an establishment must keep a register of the processing carried out. Depending on the type of process employed, heating time and temperature, salt content, pH, water content etc. must be monitored and controlled. Records must be kept atleast for the expected storage life of the products and be available to the competent authority. 3. For products which are preserved for a limited period by a treatment such as salting, smoking, drying or marinating, the appropriate conditions for storage must be clearly marked on the packaging. Canning In the case of fishery products which have been subjected to sterilization in hermetically sealed containers.
4.
230
4.1 4.2
The waste used for the preparations of cans must be potable water; The process used for the heat treatment must be appropriate having regard to such major criteria as the heating time, temperature, filling, size of containers, etc., a record of which must be kept; the heat treatment must becapable of destroying or inactivating pathogenic organisms and the spores of pathogenic micro-organisms. The heating equipment must be fitted with devices for verifying whether the containers have in fact undergone appropriate heat treatment. Potable water must be used to cool containers after heat treatment, without prejudice to the presence of any chemical additives used in accordance with good technological practice to prevent corrosion of the equipment and containers; Further checks must be carried out at random by the manufaturer to ensure that the processed products have undergone appropriate heat treatment, viz; Incubation Test; incubation must be carried out at 37 10C for seven days or at 35 10C for ten days; Microbiological examination of contents and containers in the establishments laboratory or in another approved laboratory;
4.3
4.4
Samples must be taken of production each day at predetermined intervals, to ensure the efficiency of sealing. For that purpose appropriate equipment must be available for the examination of cross sections of the can-seams; Checks are carried out in order to ensure that containers are not damaged; All containers which have undergone heat treatment under practically identical conditions must be given a batch identification mark.
4.5 4.6
231
5.
Smoking Smoking must be carried out in separate premises or a special place equipped, if necessary, with a ventilation system to prevent the smoke and heat from the combusion from affecting other premises or places where fishery producs are prepared, processed or stored.
5.1
Materials used to produce smoke for the smoking of fish must be stored away from the place of smoking an\d must be used in such a way that they do not contaminate the products. Materials used to produce smoke by burning wood that has been painted, varnished, glued or has undergone any chemical preservation treatment must be prohibited. After smoking, products must be cooled rapidly to the temperature required for their preservation before being packaged. Salting: Salting operations must take place in different premises and sufficiently removed from the premises where the other operations are carried out. Salt used in the treatment of fishery products must be clean and stored in such a way as to preclude contamination. It must not be re-used. Any container used for salting or brining must be constructed in such a way as to preclude contamination during the salting or brining process. Containers or areas used for salting or brining must be cleaned before use. Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish products. Crustaceaus and molluscan shellfish must be cooked as follows:
5.2
5.3 6. 6.1
6.2 6.3
6.4 7.
232
7.1
Any cooking must be followed by rapid cooling; water used for this purpose must be potable water or clean sea water. If no other method of preservation is used, cooling must continue untill the temperature approaching that of melting ice is reached. Shelling or shucking must be carried out under hygienic conditions avoiding the contamination of the product. Where such operations are done by hand, workers mut pay particular attention to the washing of their hands and all working surfaces must be cleaned thoroughly. If machines are used, they must be cleaned at frequent intervals and disinfected after each working day. After shelling or shucking, cooked products must immediately be frozen or kept chilled at a temperature which will preclude the growth of pathogens and be stored in appropriate premises. Every manufacturer must carry out micro-biological checks on his production at regular intervals, complying with the standards. Mechanically recovered fish flesh. Mechanical recovery of gutted fish must take place without undue delay after filleting, using raw materials free of guts. Where whole fish are used, they must be gutted and washed before hand; The machinery must be cleaed at frequent intervals and atleast every two hours; After recovery, mechanically recovered flesh must be frozen as quickly as possible or incorporated in a product intended for freezing or establishing treatment.
7.2
7.3 8. 8.1
8.2 8.3
15.3.6.5. Conditions concerning parasites. 1. During production and before they are released for human consumption, fish and fishery products must be subject to a visual inpection for the purpose of detecting and removing any parasites that are visible. Fish or parts of fish which are obviously infested with parasites, and which are removed, must not be packed for human consumption.
233
2.
The fish and fishery products referred to in point 3 which are to be consumed as they are, must, in addition, be subjected to freezing at a temperature of not more than -200C in all parts of the product for not less than 24 hours. Products subjected to this freezing process must be either raw or finished. Fish and fishery products subject to the conditions in point 2; Fish to be consumed raw or almost raw, e.g. raw herring Maatje. The following species, if they are to undergo a cold smoking process at which the internal temperature of the fish is less than 600C - mackerel - sprat
3. 3.1 3.2
3.3
Marinated and/or salted herring where this process is insufficient to destroy the larvae of nematodes. Criteria shall be laid down which must enable the process which are deemed sufficient or insufficient to destroy nematodes to be defined.
4.
Manufacturers must ensure that fish and fishery products listed in point 3 or the raw materials for use in their manufacture are subjected to the treatment described in point 2, prior to their release for consumption.
15.3.7. Health control and monitoring of production conditions 15.3.7.1. General Monitoring: The competent authority shall make adequate arrangements for checking and monitoring in order to establish that the requirement laid down in these rules are complied with. Such arrangements shall include in particular:-
234
1. 2. 3. 4. (a)
a suitable check on the fishing vessels, on the understanding that such checks may be carried out during the stay of the vessel in port; a suitable check on the conditions of landing and fish sale; suitable checks on harvesting, transport, relaying and purification areas of bivalve molluses of pre processing and processing centres. an inspection, at regular intervals, of establishment to check in particular; whether pre processed material has been procured from pre processing premises having adequate hygienic conditions; and valid registration with MPEDA whether the conditions for approval are still fulfilled; whether the fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products are handled correctly; whether the cleanliness of the premises facilities and instruments and staff hygiene are maintained; whether identification marks are put on correctly. A check on storage and transport conditions.
(b) (c) (d) (e) 5.
15.3.7.2. Special checks: 1. Organoleptic checks The competent authority shall carry out inspection at the time of landing or before first sale and also during subsequent stages of processing, storage and transport to check whether the products are fit for human consumption. The inspection shall comprise of organoleptic checks carried out by sampling.
235
1.1
If the Organoleptic examination reveals that the fishery products are not fit for human consumption, measures shall be taken to withdraw them from sale and to dispose them off in such a way that the rejected material is not used for export. If the organoleptic examination reveals any doubt as to the freshness of the fishery products, use may be made of chemical checks or microbiological analysis. Parasite checks Before they are released for human consumption, fish and fishery products must be subjected to a visual inspection by way of sample, for the purpose of detecting any parasites that are visible. Fish or parts of fish which are obviously infested with parasites and which are removed shall be disposed of in such a way that such material is not used for export.
1.2
2.
3.
Histamine check Wherever necessary samples shall be drawn and tested for Histamine content. Nine samples must be taken from each batch. This must fulfil the following requirements:
The mean value must not exceed 100 ppm; Two samples may have a value of more than 100 ppm, but less than 200 ppm; No sample may have a value exceeding 200 ppm. These limits apply only to fish species of the follwoing families; Scombridae and Clupeidae. However, fish belonging to these families which have undergone enzyme ripening treatment in brine may have higher histamine levels but not more that twice the above value. Examinations must be carried out in accordance with reliable, scientifically recognised metheods such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
236
4.
Contaminants present in the aquatic environment Without prejudice to the rules concerning water protection and management and in particular those concerning pollution of the aquatic environment, the fishery products must not contain in their edible parts contaminants present in the aquatic environment such as heavy metals and organochlorinated substances at such a level that the calculated dietary intake exceeds the acceptable daily or weekly intake for humans. A monitoring system must be established by the competent authority to check the level of contamination of fishery products.
5.
Microbiological analysis Wherever necessary samples shall be drawn and tested for microbiological factors. Sampling plans, methods of analysis and acceptance criterias for this purpose shall be. (a) (b) As per the requirements of importing countries or As per the Manual of Analytical Methods for Fish and Fishery Products issued by the Quality Development centre, Madras.
15.3.8. Packaging 1. 2. Packaging must be carried out under satisfactory conditions of hygiene to preclude contamination of the fishery products. Packaging materials and products liable to enter into contact with fishery products must comply with all the rules of hygiene and in particular. They must not be such to impair the orgenoleptic charactaristic of the fishery products.
237
3.
They must not be capable of transmitting to the fishery product substances harmful to human health; They must be strong enough to protect the fishery products adequately. Boxes/Containers used for carring of raw materials to the processing plant shall not be used to store the accepted raw materials and also in subsequent processing, such Boxes/sontainers shall be identifiable by suitable colour or marks. With the exception of certain boxes/containers made of impervious, smooth and corrosion resistant material which are easy to clean and disinfect, which may be re-used after claening and disinfecting, packaging materials may not be re-used. Packaging materials used for fresh products held under ice must provide adequate drainage for melt water. Unused packaging materials must be stored in premises away from the production area and be protected from dust and contamination.
4.
5.
15.3.9. Storage and transport 1. Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products must, during storage and transport, be kept at the temperature laid down in this notification and in particular:Fresh or thawed fishery products and cooked and chilled crustacean and molluscan shellfish products must be kept at the temperature of melting ice; Frozen Fisheries Products with the exceptionof frozen fish in brine intended for the manufacture of canned foods, must be kept at an even temperature of -180C or less in all parts of the product, allowing for the possibility of brief upward fluctuations of not more than 30C, during transport;
238
2.
Processed products must be kept at the temperature speciied by the manufacturer, when the circumstances so require. Where frozen fishery products are transported from a cold storage/ plant to an approved establishement to be thawed on arrival for the purposes of preparation and/or processing and where the distance to be covered is short, not exceeding 50 km., or 1 hour journey the competent authority may grant a derogation from the conditions laid down in point 1 second para. Products may not be stored or transported with other products which may contaminate them or affect their hygiene, unless they are packaged in such a way as to provide satisfactory protection. Vehicles used for the transport of fishery products must be constructed and equipped in such a way that the temperature laid down in this notification can be maintained through out the period of transport. It ice is used to chill the products, adequate drainage must be provided in order to ensure that water from melted ice does not stay in contact with the products. The inside surfaces of the means of transport must be finished in such a way that they do not adversely affect the fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products. They must be smooth and easy to clean and disinfect. Means of transport used for fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products may not be used for transporting other products likely to impair or contaminate fishery products, except when fishery products can be guaranteed uncontaminated as a result of such transport being thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products may not be transported in a vehicle or container which is not clean or which should have been disinfected. The transport conditions of Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products to be exported shall be such that they do not adversely affect the products.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
239
15.3.10. General principles It is recommended that a model of a logical approach be followed, of which the following principles form the essential components: Identification of hazards, analysis of risks and determination of measures necessary to control them; Identification of critical points; Establishment of critical limits for each critical point; Establishment of corrective action to be taken when necessary; Establishment of monitoring and checking procedures; Establishment of verification and review procedures; Establishment of documentation concerning all procedures and records; Such a model, or the principles on which it is based, should be used with the flexibility appropriate to each situation. SUMMARY The diversified range of exports now cover canned shrimp/fish, several items in frozen form such as headless and head on shrimp, PUD and PD, and several value-added products such as peeled tail-on shrimp, peeled tail on stretched, butterfly tail-on shrimp, blanched/boiled peeled shrimp, breaded round shrimp, squid rings, squid tubes, stuffed tubes, peeled squids, cuttle fish fillets, dried squid, head-on squid whole fish, fish fillets surimi, shark fins, shark meat, live crabs, crab meat, fish maws, Becha-demer, dried fishes, particularly Bombay Duck, ribbon fish, masmeen, and quite a few other products. IQF and Accelerated/Freeze Dried products have also become an important part of exports. India got more than 600 crores by exporting 4,21,000 tonns of aquaproducts during 2000-01. QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. Give an account on export of aqua - products? Describe the characteristics of fish trade? Describe the quality control measures during the export? List out the employment opportunities in fisheries sector?
240
GLOSSARY
By Product A substance obtained during the manufacture of a main product. Canned Fish Fish packed in containers which have been hermetically sealed and sufficiently heated to destroy or inactive all micro-organisms that will grow at any temperature at which the product is likely to be held and that will cause spoilage or that might be harmful. 0 Chill Storage Storage at temperature of melting ice (0 C). Chilled Fish Fish kept at or close to the temperature of melting ice (0 0 C/32 F) but not frozen. Also called wet fish. 0
Cod Liver Meal Made on a very small scale in some areas by drying the residues from cod liver oil manufacuture. Used as animal feeding stuff, in Japan also made from other species than cold. Cod Liver Oil Oil extracted from livers of cod and sometimes other suitable gadoids such as heddock. Cod Liver Paste Edible paste made from cod livers with spices and other flavouring ingredients. Dressed Crab White and brown meat extracted from the cooked whole crab, seasoned and laid out attractively in the cleaned carapace shell, marketed fresh or frozen, also canned (in Norway for canned dressed crab minimum crab contect is 90% of weight). Dressed Fish Fish ready prepared for cooking or special preparation for good presentation, also called pan-ready, kitchen ready fish. Dried salted Fish Fish preserved by the combination of salting and drying, applies, mostly to non fatty fish particularly cod, ling coal fish, haddock, hake and tusk.
GLOSSARY
241
Fermented Fish Sauce Liquid made through fermenting of whole fish by their own enzymes (e.g. the gastric juices) and by certain microorganisms in presence of salt. Fish Flakes Product prepared by headed and gutted white fish such as cod and haddock washed, brined and steamed, the bones removed and the cooked flesh broken up into flakes and canned. Fish glue Fish glue is prepared from different wastes, e.g. bones, scales and fin etc. discarded during processing. These are washed, ground and cooked with acetic acid in stream, liquid is separated and condensed to form the fish glue, which is used as an adhesive for several purposes. Fish Kill The sudden mortality in a fish stock; usually caused by lack of oxygen or poisoning never by disease. Fish Meal Fish & Fish processing offal dried often after cooking and pressing (for fatty fish) and ground to give a dry, easily stored product that is a valuable ingredient of animal feeding stuffs. Fish Oils Oils of the drying and semidrying types extracted from all of the body of fish (Fish liver oils from liver only); They are extracted mainly from fatty fish e.g. Herring, the oil content is mainly in the body and not in the liver, may also be extracted from fish waste. Fish oils are used in the manufacture of edible fats, soaps, and paints for leather, dressing and Inoleum manufacture. Fish Paste/Fish Spread Fish mixed with or without spices or other flavouring ingredients, ground to the fine consistency of lowered moisture content often with added fat used as sandwich spread. Fish Pickles It is prepared by cutting the edible portion of the fish into small pieces, followed by deep frying in vegetable oil and are subsequently mixed with vinegar and salt for preservation, along with fried condiments and species for flavour development. The material is then generally kept for a minimum of 24 hrs for maturing before packing. This is a traditional product of the country and is now gaining popularity
242
in middle east countries. Fish Pie Fish often minced and sometimes mixed with vegetables particularly potato and baked may have pastry casing. Fish Portion A piece of fish cut to reasonable size for the individual for retail sale, may be all or part of a Fillet, Steak, may be fresh, fried or frozen. Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) Any stable fish preparation intented for human consumption in which the protein is more concentrated than in the original fish, marketed in granular, powdered or solvent extraction. Two type exist i.e. A and B of which type A is odouless and colourless while type B not principally due to different fat content (less than 1% in tyhpe A, less than 10% in type B). Fish Salad Cooked salted or marinated fish diced with spices, diced onions, cucumbers, and vegetables mentioned for the type of salad mixed with vinegar and edible oil or mayonnaise, minimum fish contents are fixed for various special types. Fish Sausage Fish flesh ground with a small amount of fat seasoning and sometimes a cereal filler, packed into sausage casing. Sometimes cooked, the contents may be smoked before filling the case, or the whole sausage smoked afterwards, may be sold skinless or with skin on. Tuna meat is much used for sausage manufacture. Fish Silage Liquefied fish or fish waste produced as a result of self digestion after the addition of acid or as a result of fermentation of the waste mixed with molasses and yeast. The liquid silage can be concentrated to bring the water content down from about 80% to 50% used for animal feeding usually in areas close to the point of manufacture. Fish Soup Soup made from fish or other marine seasoning added and eventually served with flavouring vegetables, sometimes containing pieces of fish.
GLOSSARY
243
Fish Stearin A solid produced by separating chilled fish oils, used mainly for manufacture of lubricants and low grade soaps. Fish Waste All parts of the fish discarded during processing for human consumption also called fish scrap, Fish offal. It is used for manufacture of fish meal and oil for the feeding to pets, fur-bearing animals and hatchery fish and for the manufacture of a variety of by products including, pearl essence, isinglass, gluee proteins, vitamins. Flake A soft form of ice used in processing delicate crustacean flesh. Isinglass Isinglass is obtained from the inner silvery layer of the air bladder of certain fishes. This layer is separated from the outer thick and fibrous layer of the bladder and treated to produce the isinglass. It is very similar to gelatin because it swells but does not dissolve in water. It is used in confectionary as a substitute of gelatin, in the preparation of adhsives and plasters and as an agent in beer and vinegar industries. Ivory Marine sources of ivory are the toothed whales and the walrus. Liquid Manure Animal waste from intensive animal husbandry units, where no bedding material is used. It is usually collected as a slurry. Salted Cured Fish Fish preserved or brine may or may not be dried afterwards. Sharp Frozen Fish Fish that has been frozen usually be laying it out in a low temperature cold store or on refrigerated shelves, has no precise definition and its use should be discouraged. Shell Fish Term embracing both aquatic molluscs and curstaceans. Shell On Processing term meaning with the outer skin (exoskeleton) left in place. Shell valve One of the parts of the myxosporean spore wall.
244
Shidal Butki Sundried fish immersed in water drained and packed with fish oil in containers which are buried in the ground for several months. Shiokara Fermented fish product made from squid or guts of skipjack, also other species brown salty viscous paste made by fermenting the raw material with salt in containers for upto a month, product packed in glass or plastic containers. (Japan). Surimi Mechanically de-boned washed and stabilized white fish flesh which is flavoured and extruded to form analogue products such as shrimp tails and crab sticks. Value Added Processing or presenting crustacean, fish flesh in a more attractive way to increase its market value.
245
BIBLOGRAPHY
1. Fisheries and Aquaculture
Ravi Shankar Piska
Lahari Publications, Hyderabad. 2. Concepts of Aquaculture Ravi Shankar Piska Lahari Publications, Hyderabad. The Wealth of India, Raw Materials Vol.IV Fish and Fisheries CSIR, New Delhi. Aquaculture development, progress and prospects Pillay, T.V.R. Fishing news books. Fish Processing and Preservation Charls L. Cutting Agro Botanical Publishers (India) Fish Processing in India M.N. Moorjani ICAR, New Delhi, Fish and Fish Products Winton and Winton Allied Scientific Publisher Postharvest Technology of Fish and Fish Products K.K. Balachandran Daya Publishing House Fish and Fisheries V.G. Jhingran Hindustan Publishing Company
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
CONTENTS
Page 1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Introduction for Capture fisheries and Post harvest technology Classification of Fisheries Capture fishery resources in India and A.P Riverine fisheries Cold water and sport fisheries Reservoir Fisheries, Management of Reservoir Fisheries Over fishing and effect of dams and barrages on fisheries and fish migration. Fishing craft and gear, gear material, fabrication of gear and gear preservation. Fishing methods Fish processing and preservation By products and value addition for fishery products Marketing and Marketing intermediaries Fishery Economics - Socio-Economic status of the fisher folk and co-operatives Government policies and programmes, employment generation Export and Quality Control Glossary 1-6 7-8 9-11 12-19 20-27 28-40 41-45 46-79 80-100 101-117 118-145 146-165 166-183 184-199 200-239
CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY (Fisheries)
AUTHOR
Dr. S. Jithender Kumar Naik
Associate professor of Zoology University College for Women Osmania University, Koti Hyderabad 500 195
Dr. Ravi Shankar Piska

Associate professor of Zoology University College of Science Osmania University Hyderabad 500 007
EDITOR
Dr. Ravi Shankar Piska

Associate professor of Zoology University College of Science Osmania University Hyderabad 500 007

Capture Fisheries and Post Harvest Technology

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1.

INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Fig. 1.1 Map of India

INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

3. CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Lagoons Wetlands (Bheries) Mangroves Coastal lands for aquaculture

140,000 ha 42,600 ha 356,000 ha 1.42, m ha

capture fisheries capture fisheries subsistence capture fisheries

CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Major River systems of India

Ganges River System:

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Godavari River System:

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Krishna river system:

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

vi) vii) viii) ix)

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

5. COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Tamil Nadu AP AP Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Gujarat

Bhavani Krishna Mowgina Tungabhadra (Krishna) Cauvery Neyyar -

Adilabad Karimnagar Nizamabad Warangal.

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

Suggestive model for management of reservoirs:

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

7. OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

8. FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

Fig. 8.3 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). purse seiner

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology

FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

Table. 8.1. Details of fishing crafts

4mtrs to 7mtrs 0.75 to 1mtr 1/2 ton

8 to 9mtrs 1mtr- 1.3mtr 0.5mtrs 1.0 to 1.5 ton

6- 9mtrs 1.5 to 1.75 mtrs 0.75mtrs 2.5 ton