MITIGATING NATURAL HAZARDS GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPMENT IN HIGH RISK AREAS

Mitigation Planning and Research Division OFFICE OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT Draft August 2004

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

CONTENTS Forward Introduction Purpose of the guidelines Purpose Objectives Principles National Hazard Mitigation Programme ODPEMS Disaster Management Function A Synopsis of the National, Regional and Local Disaster Management Framework Hazard Information Flooding Landslides Earthquakes Hurricanes Storm surges Tsunami The Guidelines Flooding Landslides Earthquakes Hurricanes Storm surges Tsunami Appendix A Guideline reference resource personnel Appendix B References Appendix C List of Hazard Maps for the Parishes List of Damage Assessment Reports for major events Vulnerability Assessment Reports Available for the Parishes

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

INTRODUCTION The occurrences of disasters are of concern to islands and small economies such as Jamaicas, as a single disaster is capable of interrupting the development process and entire economy. Disasters have the potential to retard economic development by destroying physical infrastructure, and the environment and invariably redirecting scarce resources to address recovery and rehabilitation. The vulnerability of Jamaica is increasing and a number of factors have led to this increase. These include Increased use of marginal (high risk) areas. Relaxing of efforts to mitigate the effects of hazards Increased occurrences of extreme events due to climate change The planning process is essential for mitigation success, both before and after natural disasters. According to Morentz et al. (1982), "Planning is a process of anticipating future needs and programming resource expenditures in light of expected hazardous conditions and human vulnerabilities." Planning for natural disasters therefore, must be a dynamic and flexible process, due to the unpredictable nature of natural disasters The ODPEM is part of a group of technical agencies that make recommendations on subdivisions in high risk or hazard prone areas. High-risk areas are those areas that fall within the following criteria, and are categorized as follows: Areas of high population density. Areas with a history of disasters Contribution of the area to GNP Hydrology and geology of the area Present disaster potential in the area.
Source: Jamaicas National Hazard Management Programme - A review of work in progress by F. McDonald and K. Ford

Development within such areas is considered special depending on the land use and the potential impact from the hazard. Figure 2 highlights the high-risk map for Jamaica. And figure 3 Hazard vulnerability matrix for the country. These two maps aid in guiding the areas that will require special standards for development. Several maps within these areas will require special permission for development and will also have to adhere to specific standards.

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Purpose of the Guidelines Developers of land located within Disaster prone areas are faced with additional issues of disaster management that must be taken into account in their project planning and design, and in the approval processes. Decisions must be taken in relation to the degree of related risk to owners, occupiers and the community in general. These guidelines for development in high-risk areas are intended to assist in the planning and design of development proposals. These guidelines set out key factors which need to be considered in assessing the degree of risk, and the management of the risks through appropriate disaster management, planning and design measures. Scope of Guidelines The guideline document is intended to apply to all developments and subdivision of land. Under the Town and Country Planning Act (1958), development means the carrying out of any building, engineering, mining and other operations in, on, over or under land and the making of any material change in the use of any buildings or other land. Limitations Of Guidelines The techniques included in the document in some cases represent some of the more popular techniques used to mitigate the impacts of natural hazard. The list of mitigation techniques outlined for each hazard is by no means exhaustive as there are several other techniques that may not have been included. The diagrams included are not intended to be engineered diagrams but mere illustration of the anatomy of the structures. Therefore it is expected that there must be engineering input into the design of the structures before they are constructed and the relevant approval agencies including the local planning authority must give permission for the erection of these structures. It is to be further noted that these measures are to be applied only after careful analysis of site conditions to determine which technique is more appropriate. Aims And Objectives Aim The main aim of the guidelines contained in the document is to promote sustainable development through the integration of mitigation techniques in the development of land in order to minimize the effects of hazards on lives, property and the environment.

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

The objectives of the guidelines are to: Highlight the major hazards to which the island is vulnerable; Provide a set of mitigation techniques to minimize the hazards identified in order to assist in the planning, design and subsequent implementation of development proposals Principles The following principles1 apply: The impact of natural hazards can be reduced. The information and methods exist to minimize the effects of even the most sudden and forceful of hazardous events and therefore prevent them from causing a disaster. While in some cases the event itself cannot be avoided, construction methods and location decisions can save lives and minimize damage. In cases such as flooding, the integration of hazard mitigation measures into development planning and investment projects may make it possible to avoid the event altogether. Hazard mitigation pays high social and economic dividends in a region with a history of natural disasters. Mitigation measures are seen as a basic investment, fundamental to all development projects in high-risk areas, and not as a luxury that may or may not be affordable. Hazard Management is most effective in the context of integrated development planning. The focus should not just be on the sector that is being developed but on all who share the same physical defined space Natural Hazard considerations should be introduced at the earliest possible stage in the development process. If a site lies in a fault zone it may be subject to earthquakes and that information should be known beforehand so that it is planned for in the development. When natural hazards are identified earlier in the planning it can influence the original formulation of the project. Projects can be restricted based on the level of risk involved. Use Common Sense. People know the kinds of hazards that occur in their neighbourhoods. They may not know how to quantify these hazards or the best ways to mitigate them, but they understand something must be done about them.

Legal And Policy Framework For Disaster Mitigation Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management Act, 1993 The main aim of the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management under this Act is to advance disaster preparedness and emergency management measures in Jamaica by facilitating and co-coordinating the development and implementation of integrated disaster management systems.
1

The principles have been adopted from Disaster, Planning and Development: Managing Natural Hazards to reduce loss. Organization of American States (OAS), 1990.

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

The functions of the Office includes: 1. Enhancing public awareness of disaster related issues 2. Encouraging and supporting disaster preparedness and mitigation measures in all parishes in collaboration with local government authorities, community based organizations and the private and voluntary agencies respectively. 3. Developing and enhancing policies and programmes aimed at achieving a high level of preparedness to cope with emergency situations. The office also has a duty to encourage measures for mitigating the effects of hazards and to reduce losses from disaster. Hazard Mitigation Policy (Draft 2002) Currently the ODPEM has a draft Hazard mitigation Policy, which was adopted at a workshop, sponsored and facilitated by CDB/DMFC, NEPA, PIOJ, ODPEM and USAID. The purpose of the policy is to provide a framework for integrating hazard mitigation into all policies programmes and plans at the national and community levels. It sets out the broad goals and guiding principles for hazard risk reduction, and thus informs the development of any national hazard mitigation plans. The policy specifically addresses the mitigation aspect of disaster management. The policy recognizes some of the sources of vulnerability as inappropriate land use and construction on marginal lands such as flood plains. It further recognizes that vulnerability can be reduced by the avoidance of hazard prone areas and carrying out proper design, construction and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure. In this regard the guidelines is intended to provide the public, especially local authorities and those involved in development with a set of guidelines that will act to mitigate the hazards identified. A Synopsis of the National Disaster Management Framework The disaster management framework can be broken down into 3 broad categories; 1. Pre disaster mitigation measures 2. Disaster preparedness and response measures 3. Post disaster recovery and reconstruction measures

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

PART 1
Hazard Identification The natural hazards to which the island is vulnerable are as follows: Hurricane Storm Surges Flooding Tsunami Earthquake Landslide Bush Fire

HURRICANES
HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hurricanes are tropical cyclones with wind speeds of 75 miles per hour (m.p.h), or greater which develop into severe storms characterized by winds directed inward in a spiraling pattern toward the center. They are generated over warm ocean water at low latitudes and are particularly dangerous due to their destructive potential, large zone of influence, spontaneous generation, and erratic movement. The phenomena that are associated with hurricanes are: Winds exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/hr or 118 km/hr). This wind speed defines hurricane force winds. Damage usually results from the winds direct impact on fixed structures and from wind-borne objects. Heavy rainfall, which commonly precedes and follows hurricanes for up to several days. The quantity of rainfall is dependent on the amount of moisture in the air, the speed of the hurricanes movement, and its size. On land, heavy rainfall can saturate soils and cause flooding because of excess runoff (land-borne flooding); it can cause landslides because of added weight and lubrication of surface material; and/or it can damage crops by weakening support for the roots. Storm surge, especially when combined with high tides, can easily flood low-lying areas that are not protected.

Effects of Hurricane Air moving at high speed becomes a very destructive agent mainly because of the force extended by the wind. Increased rainfall which becomes an agent of destruction by causing flooding Damage to small buildings Damage to glass in windows and lightweight walls Damage to power supply

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Diagram 1: The Effects of Hurricanes

Vulnerability Analysis It is very important that hazards be evaluated in order that project engineers can determine the most appropriate design criteria for each development. The most destructive elements of a low-pressure system are wind and water force. Therefore, the vulnerability of existing or proposed structures must be assessed. Construction Weight. Lightweight structures are more vulnerable to hurricanes as they can be easily blown away or can sustain severe damage. Stability Construction should be able to resist horizontal force due to strong winds. Diagonal bracing therefore becomes very important in construction practice, especially in lightweight structures. Connections between Structural Elements Connection between the various structural elements of a building can affect the vulnerability of a building. If joints are improper, the roof will be blown off. It is also essential that the walls be appropriately connected to its foundation in order to prevent the structure being displaced.

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Mitigation Measures For Hurricane Standard for Hurricane Protection After Hurricane Gilbert, which affected Jamaica in 1988, the national building codes/standards were reviewed. A minimum standard for retrofitting and reconstruction of structures to withstand hurricane winds up to 130 MPH or a category 3 hurricane. The use of hurricane straps is mandatory. Hurricane Protection Measures A new development in an area prone to effect of a hurricane can be carried out providing: a. Selection of good foundation for soil, which will not loose its bearing capacity when inundated. Porches b. Reinforce porches as they are a major source of weakness in a building c. Avoid half porches, as wind trapped underneath an open or half porch will increase high uplift forced on the roof. Diagram 2: Appropriate Design for Porches

d. Buildings should be well anchored and connected together. e. The use of bracing for stability is crucial (important in Hall Type Buildings such as schools) f. Window frames should be well anchored in wall. g. Use timber or metal louvers if possible as they have been proven to have the highest resistance to damage. Glass is prone to shattering from flying debris. h. Separate doors from windows if possible. 9

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

i. j.

Buildings can be protected by planting trees no less than 15m from the buildings and there should be no unnecessary felling of trees which will act as windbreaks especially on coastal areas. Provide shutters for windows and doors, especially glass which has very little resistance to wind.

Roofs k. Minimize the use of flat or low-pitched roofs. Hip roofs are best and roofs should not be pitched less than 150C. l. Section 4.1.2 of the National Building Code provides the basis of design for wind pressures and stresses due to wind loading. Diagram : Design of a House for Hurricane

m. Avoid verges, eaves and overhangs longer than 18. n. Rafter should be attached to wall plates with twisted metal straps o. Pockets under eaves should be minimized by boarding or sheeting to the underside. Detail at ends of eaves should protect open edges of sheet of sheet covering to avoid uplift. p. Fascia boards must be installed Specifications for Galvanized Shingle Roof Hurricane twisted straps to every rafter 26 Gauge Alusteel or Galvalume Sheeting should be used. Wall plates to hold down bolts at 1050 mm centers. Maximum specification of timber purling 900 mm. Use more fixings to secure sheeting that are thin. Putting the laths at closer centers and the nails closer together can do this. See table below:

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Gauge Of Sheeting 28 26 24

Spacing Of Lath 18 ins 2ft. 2ft. 2ft. 6ins 2ft for nails 3ft. for screws

Flooding and Landslide from hurricanes (see parts 2&4)

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

PART 2
FLOODING
Three (3) types of flooding can be distinguished: 1) River flooding, caused by a river basin exceeding its drainage potential, 2) sea-borne floods, or coastal flooding, caused by storm surges, often exacerbated by storm run-off from the upper watershed. Tsunamis are a special type of sea-borne flood. 3) Urban floods Flooding caused by poor drain construction or storm water exceeding the capacity of the drains. STORM SURGE Water height is controlled by wind, atmospheric pressure bathymetry and the storm proximity to the coast (OAS, 1991). Storm surges are an abnormal rise in sea water level associated with hurricanes and other storms at sea. Surges result from strong on-shore winds and/or intense low-pressure cells and ocean storms. Water level is controlled by wind, atmospheric pressure, existing astronomical tide, waves and swell, local coastal topography and bathymetry, and the storms proximity to the coast. The table below indicates storm surge levels of various categories of hurricanes Category 1 2 3 4 5 Wind Speed Storm Surge 4 to 5 feet 6 to 8 feet 9 to 12 feet 13 to 18 feet 19 feet+

74 - 95 mph 96 - 110 mph 111 - 130 mph 131 - 155 mph 156 mph+

Source: http://www.fmbeach.org/flood_protection/ Most often, destruction by storm surge is attributable to: a. Wave impact and the physical shock on objects associated with the passing of the wave front. b. Hydrostatic/dynamic forces and the effects of water lifting and carrying objects. c. Wave destruction (surges flooding of the land from sea waves) The most significant damage often results from the direct impact of waves on fixed structures. Indirect impacts include flooding and undermining of major infrastructure such as highways and railroads. Flooding of deltas and other low-lying coastal areas is exacerbated by the influence of tidal action, storm waves, and frequent channel shifts. 12

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

STORM SURGE PROTECTION MEASURES Guidelines for development in Flood Prone Coastal Areas A new development in an area prone to flooding or storm surges can be permitted providing: a. Developments be set back appropriately from the coastal high water mark according to the distances specified in the manual for development. The line of permanent vegetation can also be used as a base for setbacks. For areas where storm surge maps exist, the maximum-recorded surge distance and surge height can be used as a guide (see appendix showing storm surge maps for the north coast) for offsetting developments from the coastline. b. Buildings should be constructed at higher elevations, with timber piles or poles on concrete piles or columns embedded in grain so that the first floor structure is at the high water level. Care must be taken in using this strategy as it must be ensured that the design takes into consideration water, wind, waves, velocity and erosion. c. On Limestone Cliffs development should be set back at a minimum 30m after the natural vegetative line. d. Critical facilities should not be located in areas susceptible to storm surges.(see appendix showing list of critical facilities e. No development will be permitted seaward of the baseline of permanent vegetation, except for jetting and docking facilities For Existing Development Located in Storm Surges Areas. a. Retrofitting of structures may be required. b. An evacuation plan will be required. TECHNIQUES FOR MITIGATING COASTAL FLOODING The following mitigation strategies have been adopted from the Alabama Hazard Mitigation Strategies. The information is available at the web site www.csc.noaa.gov. These techniques are methods of shoreline stabilization, which is part of the set of mitigation measures for ocean flooding. It should be noted that these strategies should not be employed without the requisite approval from the relevant approval agencies or without the requisite Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) if required.

Beach Fill

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Beaches are a first line of defense against erosion damage, protecting the area behind them. In normal weather, gently sloping beaches cause incoming waves to break and use up their energy before reaching inland areas. A beach that is relatively stable or growing provides natural protection to the land behind it. When there is loss of beach material, which results in the beach area shrinking, there is increased danger of damage as the water line advances inland. Adding fill to a beach, either to replace the lost beach materials or to increase the size of an existing beach, is often both economical and effective. As shown above, addition of fill Increases the width of the backshore, moving the high water line farther offshore. Should resemble the original beach material: coarser fill will erode more slowly, finer fill, more quickly, than the native beach. Should also match the natural slope as closely as possible. Beach fill is often used in combination with construction of a perched beach or groin field.

Breakwaters
Breakwaters are structures placed offshore to dissipate the energy of incoming waves. Large breakwaters suitable for protecting deep harbors are generally beyond the resources of the individual property owner. The breakwaters may be small structures, placed one to three hundred feet offshore in relatively shallow water, designed to protect a gently sloping beach. As shown above, the dissipation of wave energy allows drift material to be deposited behind the breakwater. This accretion protects the shore and may also extend the beach. The amount of deposition depends on the site characteristics and the design of the breakwater. Breakwaters may be either fixed or floating: the choice depends on normal water depth and tidal range. These structures can be designed to mitigate against waves of various heights.

Groins
Groins are structures that extend, fingerlike, perpendicularly from the shore. Usually constructed in groups called groin fields, their primary purpose is to trap and retain sand, nourishing the beach compartments between them. Groins initially interrupt the longshore transport of littoral drift. They are most effective where longshore transport is predominantly in 14

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

one direction, and where their action will not cause unacceptable erosion of the down drift shore. When a well-designed groin field fills to capacity with sand, longshore transport continues at about the same rate as before the groins were built, and a stable beach is maintained.

Revetments
Revetments are structures placed on banks or bluffs in such a way as to absorb the energy of incoming waves. They are usually built to preserve the existing uses of the shoreline and to protect the slope. Like seawalls, revetments armor and protect the land behind them. They may be either watertight, covering the slope completely, or porous, to allow water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated. Most revetments: Do not significantly interfere with transport of littoral drift. Do not redirect wave energy to vulnerable unprotected areas, although beaches in front of steep revetments are prone to erosion. Materials eroded from the slope before construction of a revetment may have nourished a neighboring area, however. Accelerated erosion there after the revetment is built can be controlled with a beach-building or beach-protecting structure such as a groin or a breakwater.

Vegetation
Vegetation is an effective and inexpensive way to stabilize dunes and protect marshes. In undisturbed environments, vegetation is often one of the most important elements in the natural protection of the land. Roots and stems tend to trap fine sand and soil particles, forming an erosion-resistant layer once the plants are well established. In marshes, vegetation also absorbs some of the water's energy, slowing down potentially erosive currents. It should be noted that other mitigation strategies may need to be used along with those mentioned above. 15

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Sea Walls
A seawall is a vertical, sloping, or stepped wall which protects a shoreline from erosion and other wave action. Seawalls are normally constructed of concrete or stone masonry. However, engineers have had some success with designs using steel, timber, and rubble. Types of Sea Walls 1. Masonry seawalls. Seawalls resist the full force of waves. They are designed as massive gravity-type retaining walls, with additional stability to resist wave and storm action. A curved-face seawall and a combination stepped and curved-face seawalls are shown in the diagram. Engineers build these structures to resist high wave action and to reduce scour. Both seawalls have sheet pile cutoff walls at each end. These prevent loss of foundation material by wave scour or storm drainage beneath the wall. The curvedface seawall has an armoring of large rocks at the seaward toe to reduce wave scour. 2. Cast-in-place concrete. Concrete is deposited underwater for leveling old footings, stabilizing rock fills, or setting new footings or walls. Bottom-dump buckets with closed tops or tremies make the deposits. During placement, the lower end of the tremie is kept below the surface of the fresh concrete. Footing forms are usually light sheet piling. Wall forms are prefabricated and sunk in place. 3. Precast concrete blocks. First, engineers cast in place concrete footings with level tops; then they set precast blocks in place. These blocks are provided with rings for crane slings. Blocks are set in contact without mortar below low water. Joints are filled with mortar above low water. Divers may position the blocks underwater. The end joints of the blocks may be battered to improve the contact. 4. Stone masonry. Stone is sometimes a suitable alternative to concrete masonry. 5. Rubble-mound seawalls. The rubble-mound seawall may be a cheaper, more easily designed seawall.. Despite scour of the fronting beach, rock comprising the seawall can settle without causing structural failure. The diagram shows a 16
Source: www.globalsecurity.org/.../ army/fm/5-

y/fm/5-

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

rubble-mound seawall using bank material to reduce the stone required.

TECHNIQUES FOR MITIGATING RIVERINE FLOODING

Land-borne floods occur when the capacity of stream channels to conduct water is exceeded and water overflows banks. Floods are natural phenomena, and may be expected to occur at irregular intervals on all stream and rivers. Settlement of floodplain areas is a major cause of flood damage. General Guidelines A new development in an area prone to Riverine Flooding can be permitted providing: a. Developments are designed to minimize the extent to which waterways are altered or relocated. If this is unavoidable, proper structural mitigation measures are to be put in place. b. As far as possible subdivision bridges must be clear span to prevent the accumulation of debris. c. Flood protection structures are incorporated in the development. d. Proper drainage and sewage that take flood waters capacities into account are included e. Proper drainage and sewage that take floodwaters capacities into account are included f. In areas of high water table the land should be raised before construction and a suitable foundation should be selected to suit the soil condition, raft foundations are an option. g. Roads within the sub-division should be constructed as high as is economically possible to reduce the risk of inundation. h. Only building material, which does not loose strength under conditions of high water, should be used. i. Developments within flood zones of a rivers flood plain should be selective. As a general rule the following uses should be prohibited: (Mr Herbert Thomas
document)

Gas stations Schools Hospitals Fire Stations Police Stations Infirmaries Cemeteries Industries that use or generate hazardous materials Livestock/Animal husbandry Any construction that will affect the floodway of tributaries, ditch or drainage facilities.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

The following table can be used as a guide for Permissible uses within the flood plain of a river. Single Zone2 Permitted Use
Agricultural uses such as farming, pasture, outdoor plant nurseries, horticulture. Industrial uses such as loading areas, parking, and airport landing strip. Recreational uses such as parks, golf courses, picnic grounds etc. Residential uses such as lawns, gardens, parking areas.

Two- Zone3 Floodway

All uses permitted in the Single-zone

Floodway Fringe
All uses permitted in the flood way. Structures constructed on stilts or fill so first floors are above regulatory flood elevation.

For-structures - a technical Special Exceptions assessment is required of the actual

**Structures not Usage permitted in the designed for human flood way. habitation, have low flood level. Increases that may be damage potential and caused by proposed developments needs to be assessed so that minimal obstruction to flood flows. regulatory standards for its approval Transient amusement can be applied. Consideration of the effects shall be based on the enterprises: circus, assumption of equal degree of carnivals. Drive-in theatres, car encroachment over an extended parks reach of both banks. Sand and gravel mining Storage for material and equipment **Structure acting alone or in combination with existing or future use should not increase the flood heights above some threshold level. NB. This requires that a hydraulic assessment be done.

The two-zone approach should be use din urban areas and other areas subject to development pressure and every effort should be made to obtain the necessary data for hydrologic and hydraulic studies to demarcate flood boundaries.

In the single-zone approach a single zone is demarcated as the regulatory flood boundary. This zone can be base don technical studies or from historical floods or high water marks. This approach is most appropriate for rural areas undergoing scattered developments and is likely to attract large sub-divisions. Areas with steep valley slopes, unstable banks and poor soils and areas with frequent flooding occurrences are also suitable for this approach. 3 This approach divides the regulatory flood boundary into a floodway and a floodway fringe. The former is the area of the channel which is kept open to carry flood water, no building or fill is allowed. In the latter zone, use is permitted if it is protected by fill, flood proofed or otherwise protected.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

FLOOD MITIGATION MEASURES The figure below highlights some techniques to prevent flood losses.
Purpose Protection of Existing Development Techniques Flood Control Works: Reservoirs Channel Improvements Diversions Flood Warning and Evacuation Flood Proofing Public Acquisition Urban Redevelopment Public-nuisance abatement Non-Conforming uses Conversion of Use or Occupancy Public-facility Reconstruction Public Information Warning Signs Publicizing Hazards Tax-assessment Practices Financing Policies Public-facility Extensions Flood Insurance Costs Zoning Ordinance Districts Special Floodplain Regulations Subdivision Ordinances Building Ordinances

Removal or Conversion of Existing Development

Discouragement of Development

Regulation of Flood Plain Uses

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

FLOOD PROOFING MEASURES

Elevation Posts or Columns

Floodwalls and Levees

Floodwalls and Levees with Closures Dry Flood Proofing N/A N/A N/A N/A
1

Elevation Piles

Elevation on Foundation Walls Elevation on Piers

Relocation

Flood Depth Shallow (less than 3 feet) Moderate (3 to 6 feet) Deep (greater than 6 feet) Flood Velocity Slow (less than 3 fps) Moderate (3 to 5 fps) Fast (greater than 5 fps) Flash Flooding Yes (less than 1 hour) No Site Location Coastal Floodplain Riverine Floodplain Soil Type Permeable Impermeable Building Foundation Slab on Grade Crawl Space Basement Building Construction Concrete or Masonry Wood and Others Building Condition Excellent to Good Fair to Poor

Flooding Characteristics

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A N/A

N/A N/A

N/A1

N/A2

N/A2 N/A2

Site Characteristics

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A3 N/A3

N/A

Building Characteristics

N/A

N/A

N/A N/A5 N/A5

N/A

N/A4 N/A4

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

www.louisianafloods.org/ fpdocs/Flood%20Proofing%20Matrix.doc

Based on FEMAs Flood Proofing/Retrofitting Decision Matrix From: Flood Proofing How to Evaluate Your Options, US Army Corps of Engineers, National Flood Proofing Committee, July 1993
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Wet Flood Proofing

FLOOD PROOFING MATRIX

Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Mitigation Techniques For Flood Prone Areas There are a variety of techniques available to the developer to minimize the impact of flooding on a development. Individuals who are constructing their own units can also utilize some of these methods. Flood Proofing Flood proofing has been defined as "any combination of structural or non-structural changes or adjustments incorporated in the design, construction, or alteration of individual buildings or properties that will reduce flood damages." More simply put, it is anything you do to reduce flood damage to your building or its contents. Flood proofing is personal flood mitigation; it may be supported by community mitigation programs. As a property owner, you benefit from floodproofing in several ways:

Spend less on repair and cleanup after a flood; Reduce hours away from work while recovering from flood damage; Avoid other inconveniences caused by flooding; Preserve the integrity of the building; Reduce the risk of deteriorating indoor air quality and other health hazards often experienced in flood-damaged homes; and Possibly enhance the value of your property.

Floodproofing can create peace of mind and reduced anxiety. By floodproofing a shop, warehouse or office building you may avoid lost wages, reduced profits and other costly business interruptions A. Elevation This technique involves raising an entire structure above flood hazard. The height of the elevation is dependent on the Base Flood Level (BFL). If there are no regulatory base flood levels, then the known flood levels should be used as a guide. In using this method the following must be noted however: Avoid supporting structures on spread footing, as they cannot accommodate much scouring without collapsing. Piles should be adequately designed to prevent failure. Make sure that exterior walls have been designed to withstand the velocity flows of flood water or wave action. All structural elements should be tied together to resist positive and negative loads.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Figure 1. House Elevated over Garage House Elevated over Garage Source: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/NFPC/fplfpp/ace7-02.htm

The photographs below show how a house can be constructed so that it is elevated above flood levels, without losing its aesthetic appearance.

B. Levees These are embankments of compacted soil that can keep shallow to moderate flood waters from reaching a site. In this technique there is no water pressure in the house itself. These should be used only with the approval of the respective authority as they can impede the natural flow of water in a flood plain, possibly resulting in increased flooding of adjacent property. A suitable fill material for the levee is necessary.
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

C. Floodwalls These are barriers of man-made materials that can be used to protect a structure from flooding. A floodwall can be constructed using a variety of designs and materials and can be used to protect practically any type of structure. Floodwalls also have an added function that of enhancing the appearance of the structure.

D. Closures Many of the flood protection measures require special treatment for openings such as doors, windows, driveways etc. These closures act as shields to cover the gap to prevent water from entering and can be a variety of shapes, sizes and materials. E. Dry Flood proofing (Sealants) This method involves completely sealing the structure against the entry of water. This method can only be employed for buildings that are in good structural conditions.

Storm Water Management In Urban Areas

Overland/surface flooding with urban areas has become a significant problem in many of the towns. Localized flooding from rainfall can adversely affect many communities and
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

surrounding areas in land areas such as low lying areas. Localized flooding from strong thunderstorms is also common. Flooding by poor drainage construction. To prevent developments from creating a flood problem for surrounding properties, the following guidelines should be adhered to: 1. Drainage systems need to cater for flood events in Urban Areas within a 1-5 years return period. 2. Ensure that flooding problems are not made worse or that other properties are not affected by: Avoiding re-direction of surface flow. Minimizing the number of areas on a site that contains hard surfaces in order to minimize storm water run-off. All new developments should as far as possible incorporate sustainable drainage measures to avoid adding to flood risks elsewhere and to encourage developers to promote building designs that are better able to withstand flooding, and which, when flooded can recover faster.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Recommendations for Floor Level Requirements for New Development and Refurbishments/Redevelopments Criteria All new residential dwellings to provide floors elevated to a minimum height of 18. This height can be exceeded especially in areas where there is risk of overland floods Industrial/Commercial buildings (e.g. warehouses/factories) floor levels to be a minimum above the 100-year flood level. Basement car parks with finished floor levels below the 100 year flood level may be constructed provided; (The entry/exit driveway incorporates a minimum of 300 mm above flood level); The drainage system is constructed so that external flooding is unable to penetrate the basement area; and Vents, staircases, lift voids, etc do not act as floodwater inlets to floor levels below the flood level.

Site Specific Requirements Where a property is affected by an over land flood plain the design and siting of any development must meet the performance criteria set out below: Driveways may be used as over land flood way to channel storm water provided safety criteria are satisfied. Development should be designed to avoid debris build up, which may increase flood levels and divert flows. Where fencing is required across the flow path, open fences, break away panels, or gaps under fences should be implemented. Preserve flood storage capacity areas below the 100 year ARI flood level by matching any filled area with an excavated area of equal volume, also below the 100 year ARI flood level and in the immediate vicinity

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

PART 3
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of slowly accumulated strain energy along a fault in the earths crust. Earthquakes and volcanoes occur most commonly at the collision zone between tectonic plates. Earthquakes represent a particularly severe threat due to the irregular time intervals between events, lack of adequate forecasting, and the hazards associated with these: Ground shaking is a direct hazard to any structure located near the earthquakes center. Structural failure takes many human lives in densely populated areas. Faulting, or breaches of the surface material, occurs as the separation of bedrock along lines of weakness. Landslides occur because of ground shaking in areas having relatively steep topography and poor slope stability. Ground shaking can trigger liquefaction of gently sloping unconsolidated material. Flows and lateral spreads (liquefaction phenomena) are among the most destructive geologic hazards. Subsidence or surface depressions result from the settling of loose or unconsolidated sediment. Subsidence occurs in waterlogged soils, fill, alluvium, and other materials that are prone to settle. Tsunamis or seismic sea waves, usually generated by seismic activity under the ocean floor, cause flooding in coastal areas and can affect areas thousands of kilometers from the earthquake center.

Tsunamis Tsunamis are long-period waves generated by disturbances such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, and undersea landslides. The crests of these waves can exceed heights of 25 metres on reaching shallow water. The unique characteristics of tsunamis (wave lengths commonly exceeding 100 km, deep-ocean velocities of up to 700 km/hour, and small crest heights in deep water) make their detection and monitoring difficult. Characteristics of coastal flooding caused by tsunamis are the same as those of storm surges. Earthquake Protection Measures A level two (2) earthquake and ground motions correspond to levels of shaking that have a more remote probability of occurrence during a life of a structure. This level of exposure corresponds to the exposure times specified for building design in the Caribbean Uniform Building Code (CUBiC) and other national building codes. This level is also designated the contingency level earthquake for any ports and harbour facilities (Werner, 1998) See map showing epicenters from 1998 2003.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Guidelines for development in Seismic prone areas. For development in seismic prone regions, special building codes should be prepared. These codes should include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Techniques for constructing resistant construction using various building material. Building should be built to the required safety factor. Effects of local geological conditions on the intensity. Buildings should be designed two (2) seismic locals for type of use.

NB The National Building Code of Jamaica, 2nd Edition, contains guidelines for building construction, that is, general requirements, public safety requirements, material and construction standards, service requirements and miscellaneous requirements. For earthquake loads, section 4.1.3.1 speaks to the basis for design: Every building and structure and every portion thereof shall be designed and constructed in accordance with the latest edition of Recommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commentary by the seismology Committee of the Structural Engineers Association of California. The ODPEM recommends that all developments MUST be submitted to the Local Planning authority for approval prior to construction. That way, conformity with the Building Code can be ensured. Tsunami Protection Measures Developments may be permitted in areas prone to tsunamis provided that certain precautions are observed. Criteria for development in the above areas (see also mitigation measures for coastal flooding): a. Precautions for the quick drying of immersed houses are similar to those in the case of inundation. b. The protection of settlements on the coast against tsunami by the construction of embankments and flood walls is very expensive and can be justified economically only in special cases. c. The most efficient way of protecting buildings in the tsunami areas is the construction of new settlements, if possible above the locally acceptable risk level. d. Buildings and houses in tsunami areas should be built of solid material (brick, concrete) to be able to resist the horizontal drag exerted on them, while submerged. e. If the coast topography is flat, the protection of structures against tidal waves can be provided by supporting structures on timber piles and poles or concrete piles and columns to provide a sufficient clearance of the structure above high water level.
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

PART 4
LANDSLIDES
The term landslide includes slides, falls, and flows of unconsolidated and weathered materials. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, soils saturated by heavy rain or groundwater rise, and river undercutting, can trigger landslides. Earthquake shaking of saturated soils creates particularly dangerous conditions. Although landslides are highly localized, they can be particularly hazardous due to their frequency of occurrence; especially during hurricanes. Classes of landslide include: i. ii. iii. Rock falls, which are characterized by free falling rocks from overlying cliffs. These often collect at the cliff base in the form of talus slopes which may pose an additional risk. Slides and avalanches, a displacement of overburden due to shear failure along a structural feature. If the displacement occurs in surface material without total deformation it is called a slump. Flows and lateral spreads, which occur in recent unconsolidated material associated with a shallow water table. Although associated with gentle topography, these liquefaction phenomena can travel significant distances from their origin.

The impact of these events depends on the specific nature of the landslide. Rock falls are obvious dangers to life and property but, in general, they pose only a localized threat due to their limited aerial influence. In contrast, slides, avalanches, flows, and lateral spreads (sediment water flows), often having great aerial extent, can result in massive loss of lives and property table x. Mudflows (lahars), associated with volcanic eruptions, can travel at great speed from their point of origin and are one of the most destructive volcanic hazards.

Table X: Magnitude rating and range of landslide

However within the Jamaican context, are the ill effects of sediment water flows: channelised down slope flow of saturated and weathered material (colluvium).
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

With this consideration it is necessary to develop a nation wide strategy for managing landslides in high-risk areas. The initiation of a landslide risk management project will cover Risk analysis and Risk assessment. Risk analysis involves the preliminary analysis and risk estimation. It includes the systematic use of information to identify hazards and to estimate the chance for, and severity of, injury or loss to individuals or populations, the environment or other things of value. Risk Assessment involves a combination of risk analysis and the step of risk evaluation to determine if the risk is acceptable or tolerable. It does not include considering options for risk control, nor does it includes actions to control risk or monitor performance of site works over time. Collectively Risk management as illustrated by figure x is a complete process involving all six steps in the decision making frame work and communicating about risk issues see figure x.

Figure x: The Risk Management process (source: Doug VanDine Landslide Risk Case Studies In Forest Development Planning & Operations 2004)

Landslide Mitigation Measures (from an administrative perspective) Proposed development should be in harmony with the environment and development should not cause slopes to be unstable or increase the rate of soil erosion greater than X per year:
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

With reference to slopes Prohibition of development on slopes with a gradient greater than X Stabilization of slope toe to obtain stable angle of repose in slope Buildings If buildings are to be erected in landslide areas, structures of statistically determined type are recommended. In areas that are heavily faulted and have steep slopes the construction of any building in landslide prone areas should be forbidden. Landslide mitigation Methods Landslide mitigation methods incorporate the specific strategies utilized to reduce loss from the hazards of landslides/sediment water flows. This methodology as indicated by Table x, categorizes the mitigation plan that can be utilized for all high-risk areas of the island.

MITIGATION METHODOLOGY Passive

Usually involves no direct engineering

Active
Usually involves engineering Methods that reduce driving forces Methods that increase resisting forces

Avoidance

Prevention Relocation Regulation

eg. Sub-division applications including

Removing Detritus from Talus slopes

Maintenance Stabilization

Warning systems
eg. Trip wires, stream water level, soil changes

Education

Protection of downstream/downslope resources

Table X: Landslide mitigation Methodology Bio-technical Slope Protection In such work, vegetation is used as surface protection and to augment the strength of the soil in which it grows, usually combined with naturally occurring or recycled inert materials such as timber, burlap, aggregate and rocks. This methodology is particularly commendable on farms in high-risk areas such as coffee farmers in the Blue and John crow mountains, farmers in the Cockpit country and road cut areas adjacent to steep slopes.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Reinforced Earth Technically the methodology entails the combined approach using vegetated geogrids to provide the much-needed surficial stability and to support long-term vegetative growth with almost no maintenance requirements. The geogrid is a hybrid design that incorporates brushlayers in the frontal, wrapped portion of the Reinforced Soil Slopes. Over time the live branches take root and increase the internal stability of the reinforced slope. Figure x. Cross section of remedial slope design Source: http://www.sotir.com/pubs/publist/slope_failure/slope_failure.html Live Facines (figure x) are constructed on the crest of slopes to prevent surface erosion and rapid re-vegetation of slopes. The remedial design as demonstrated in figure x reduces surface failures and even deep seated landslides in areas as high as 150 m; this entails: Stabilize slopes to 4V:1H ratio Creating an aesthetically pleasing landscape Excavate failed slope back to 6m. Allow drainage panel through crushed stone borrows Figure x: Cross-Section of the Live Facines. Source: http://www.sotir.com/pubs/publist/slope_failure/slope_failure.html

Other Types of Bio-technical Slope Protection Retaining Walls Log and Timber Cribs Rock Breast Walls Contour Farming/Landuse
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Slope Stability Hazard Mitigation Slopes that possess factors of safety less than required by the governing agency, or with unacceptably large seismic slope displacements, require avoidance or mitigation to prove their stability. Even if a slope is found from analyses to be stable, it might require protection in order to avoid degradation of shear strengths from weathering, to remain stable under future increased loading conditions, to prevent toe erosion, or to remain stable under future, potentially higher groundwater conditions than assumed in the analyses. Protection for adjacent pad areas may also be required to minimize hazard from erosion and falling debris. The most common methods of mitigation are (1) hazard avoidance, (2) grading to improve slope stability, (3) reinforcement of the slope or improvement of the soil within the slope, and (4) reinforcement of the structure built on the slope to tolerate the anticipated displacement. The mitigation measures chosen for a given slope must be analyzed recognizing that different mitigation measures require analyses for different modes of failure. Some methods (for example, slope reinforcement) require consideration of strain compatibility and soil/structure and/or soil material interaction issues. The following sections describe both stabilization and mitigation measures, and the potential modes of failure that should be analyzed. Avoidance The simplest method of mitigation may be to avoid construction on or adjacent to a potentially unstable slope. A setback distance for structures or other improvements/uses can be established from the slope such that failure of that slope would not pose a danger to site improvements. The setback distance is based on the slope configuration, probable mode of slope failure, factor of safety, and potential consequences of failure. Where feasible, an estimate of the "runout" that would occur in the event of a slope failure should be made. The required setback cannot generally be accurately calculated; therefore a large degree of engineering/geologic judgment is required. Grading Grading can often be performed to entirely or partially remove potentially unstable soil to create a finished slope with the required factor of safety. The available grading methods range from reconfiguration of the slope surface to a stable gradient, to removal and recompaction of a soil that is preferentially weak in an unfavorable direction and its replacement with a more homogeneous soil with a higher strength. Reconfiguration The stability of a slope can be improved by reducing the driving forces as a result of flattening the slope and/or decreasing its height. The reconfigured slope must be
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

analyzed and must have at least the minimum required factor of safety or less than the maximum allowable seismic displacement. Removal and Replacement It may, in some cases, be feasible to completely excavate (remove) earth materials that contribute to the instability of a slope and replace the excavated soil with higher-strength materials that result in a slope with the minimum required factor of safety. Materials that typically contribute to slope instability, and can often be completely removed, include slopewash (colluvium) and landslide debris. Complete removal of an active landslide does not preclude the possibility of deeper seated sliding, which also should be checked in the analysis. The slope created should be analyzed for internal stability (within the replaced soil mass) and external stability (through the remaining native soil) Often, the excavated material is reused as fill, although, in some instances, new soil must be imported, if the strength of the existing soil when recompacted is inadequate. Stability Fills A stability fill is used where a slope has an adequate factor of safety for gross stability, but an insufficient factor of safety for surficial stability or where the materials exposed at the slope surface are prone to erosion, sloughing, rock falls, or other surficial conditions that require remediation. Stability fills are relatively narrow, typically about 10 to 15 feet wide. Stability fills should be keyed into firm underlying soil or competent bedrock. The key should be at least as wide as the stability fill and should extend at least 3 feet below the toe of the slope. Both the gross and surficial stability of the stability fill should meet the minimum stability requirements set by the governing agency. Buttress Fills A buttress fill provides the features of a stability fill, but is used where a slope does not have a sufficient factor of safety for gross or deep-seated stability and additional resistive forces are required. For example, buttress fills can be used to support upslope landslides or slopes in sedimentary rock where the bedding is adversely dipping out of the slope. The base of a buttress fill is typically wide, usually ranging from about one third to almost the full height of the slope being buttressed. The actual width of the buttress must be determined by slope stability analysis. Soil placed in the buttress fill should be compacted to minimum requirement. Water content also should be controlled. Buttress fills should be keyed into competent underlying
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

materials. The key should be at least as wide as the base of the buttress fill and should extend at least 3 feet below the toe of the slope. The required depth of the keyway must be evaluated by slope stability analysis. A typical buttress is illustrated in Figure (9.1f). Shear Keys In some cases, the shear resistance of soil along a deep potential failure plane can be significantly increased by excavating a keyway into competent material below the potential failure surface and backfilling the keyway with compacted fill, slurry, or concrete. Stability analyses for slopes with a shear key should be performed using an appropriate shear strength for the keyway backfill material. Potential failure surfaces passing through and beneath the shear key should be considered. Sub drains Two types of subdrains can be used to maintain low water pressures within engineered slopes: backdrains and chimney drains. Backdrains are generally used behind stability fills, buttress fills, and beneath zones of total removal and replacement to maintain low waterpressures. Backdrains can consist of a 4-inch-diameter perforated or slotted pipe for small slopes or slopes where frequent outlets can be provided. Larger-diameter pipes may be required where significant quantities of water are anticipated or where the distance to an outlet point exceeds 200 feet. The purpose of a chimney drain is to collect subsurface water from multiple bedding planes. The use of chimney drains is particularly important for buttress fills that will support bedded rock with considerably different permeability between layers. Conventional near-horizontal subdrains often will not collect water from the permeable layers because they do not intersect or cross the permeable beds. The chimney drains should be continuous between lateral backdrains and should be a minimum of 2 feet in width. Chimney drains may be created by stacking gravel-filled burlap (not woven plastic) bags, placement of a continuous gravel column surrounded by non-woven filter fabric, or placement of a drainage composite. Drain locations and outlet pipes should be surveyed in the field at the time of installation. ENGINEERED STABILIZATION DEVICES AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT A grading solution to a slope stability problem is not always feasible due to physical constraints such as property-line location, location of existing structures, the presence of steep slopes, and/or the presence of very low-strength soil. In such cases, it may be feasible to mechanically stabilize the slide mass or to improve the soil with admixture stabilization. The resulting slope should be analyzed to meet the same requirements as other slopes. Mechanical stabilization of slopes can be accomplished using retaining walls, deep foundations (i.e., piles or drilled shafts), soil reinforcement with geosynthetics, tieback anchors, and soil nails. Common admixture stabilization measures include cement and lime treatment as well as GeofibersTM.
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Deep Foundations The factor of safety of a slope can be increased by installing soldier piles/drilled shafts through the unstable soil into competent underlying materials. The piles/drilled shafts are sized and spaced so as to provide the required additional resisting force to achieve adequate slope stability. Soldier piles/drilled shafts used to stabilize a slope may also be used to support other structures, provided the structures can tolerate the deflection that can be reasonably expected to occur. If the location of piles/drilled shafts relative to other engineered improvements is such that deflections of the deep foundations are of concern, deflections can be calculated based on soil properties evaluated.. Soldier piles/drilled shafts used to stabilize the slope and provide support for a structure should be tied in two lateral directions such that the potential for lateral separation is minimized. Tieback Anchors The loads on the soldier piles/drilled shafts are, in some cases, higher than these elements can support in cantilever action alone. Tieback anchors can be incorporated in those cases to provide additional resistance. Tieback anchors also can be used without soldier piles/drilled shafts by anchoring them against a wall or reinforced face element. Tieback anchors consist of steel rods or cables that are installed in a drilled, angled holes. The rods/cables are grouted in place within the reaction zone and extend through a frictionless sleeve in the unstable mass. The anchors are post-tensioned after the grout reaches its design strength. Anchors are often tested to a load that is higher than the design load. The anchors must be long enough to extend into stable earth materials. Temporary anchors generally do not need to be protected from corrosion. Permanent anchors should be protected from corrosion for the design life of the project. Soil Nails Soil nailing involves earth reinforcement by placing and grouting reinforcing rods in holes drilled in the ground. The reinforcing rods are not prestressed or post-tensioned. Soil nailing should not be used in relatively fines-free gravel and sandy soil. Soil nailing for permanent slope stabilization has
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

been widely used in some areas of the USA in Public Works projects. The application of this technique for general use is currently being studied. Retaining Structures A retaining wall can be constructed through an unstable slope to provide additional resistance and raise the factor of safety for material behind the wall to an acceptable level. Retaining structures should be founded in stable earth materials. The retaining structure should be evaluated for possible sliding, overturning, and bearing failures using standard techniques. Failure surfaces that extend below the wall foundation and above the top of the wall also should be analyzed. Consideration must be given to whether material in front of the wall that is assumed to provide passive resistance could be removed or excavated in the future. In some cases, the retaining wall system may consist of tiebacks and soldier piles/drilled shafts. Strengthened or Reinforced Soil The strength characteristics of compacted fill can be improved by mixing the soil with cement or lime during compaction or by mechanically reinforcing the soil. In the case of admixture stabilization, testing is required to determine the type and amount of admixture necessary to achieve the required strength. Soil with more than 50 percent fines (passing the #200 sieve) is not well suited for mixing with cement. Moist fine-grained soil is often suitable (amenable to) for lime treatment. Soil reinforcement is commonly accomplished with geosynthetics such as woven geotextiles, geogrids, or steel strips. The reinforcement should extend beyond the failure surface that has a minimum factor of safety of 1.5 and the allowable seismic displacement.

Dewatering The presence of water in a slope can reduce the shear strength of the soil, reduce the shear resistance through buoyancy effects, and impose seepage forces. Those effects reduce the factor of safety of the slope and can cause failure of the slope. Dewatering a slope (removing subsurface water) and/or providing drainage control to prevent future subsurface water build-up can increase the factor of safety. Both passive and active dewatering/subsurface-water-control systems can be used. Many dewatering systems
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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

require periodic maintenance to remain effective. In addition, monitoring programs may be required to document or verify the effectiveness of the system. Installing slightly inclined gravity dewatering wells into the slope can passively dewater a slope. Those "horizontal" drains (also known as hydraugers) should be sloped toward an outlet and extended sufficiently into the slope to dewater the earth materials that affect the stability of the slope. Vertical pumped-wells also can be utilized to lower subsurface water levels within a potentially unstable mass. The effectiveness of dewatering wells is dependent on the permeability of the soil. In some cases, the soil is not sufficiently permeable, or other conditions exist that preclude effective dewatering of the slope.

Containment Loose materials, such as colluvium, slope wash, slide debris, and broken rock, on the slope that could pose a hazard can be collected by a containment structure capable of holding the volume of material that is expected to fail and reach the containment device over a given period of time. The containment structure type, size, and configuration will depend on the anticipated volume to be retained and the configuration of the site. Debris basins, graded berms, graded ditches, debris walls, and slough walls can be used. In some cases, debris fences may be permitted, although those structures often fail upon high-velocity impact. Access should be provided to debris containment devices for maintenance. The type of access required is dependent on the anticipated volume of debris requiring removal. Wheelbarrow access will be sufficient in some cases, whereas heavy equipment access may be required in other areas.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Open Debris Basins

Closed Debris Basins

Source: D. VanDine 1996

Source: D. VanDine 1996

Deflection Walls or berms that are constructed at an angle to the expected path of a debris flow can be used to deflect and transport debris around a structure. The channel gradient behind those walls or berms must be sufficient to cause the debris to flow rather than collect. Required channel gradients may range from 10 to 40 percent depending on the expected viscosity of the debris and whether the channel is earthen or paved. An area for debris collection should be provided at the terminus of the deflection device. Deflection Berm Terminal Berms

Source: D. VanDine 1996

Source: D. VanDine 1996

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Divergent V Walls

Source: D. VanDine 1996

Slope Protection For Rock Slopes Woven wire mesh and wire mesh have been used to mitigate rock fall hazards. The mesh is hung from anchors drilled into stable rock and is placed over the slope face to help keep dislodged rocks from bouncing as they fall. The bottom of the mesh is generally left open so that dislodged rocks do not accumulate behind the mesh and cause it to fail. Usually a ditch is provided at the toe of the slope to collect fallen rock. Wire mesh systems can contain large rocks (3 feet in diameter) traveling at fast speeds. It is also possible to hold rocks in position with cables, rock bolts, or gunite slope covering. Resistant Structures Structures can sometimes be designed to resist damage during the anticipated slope movement. Examples of structural systems that can resist damage include mat foundations and very stiff, widely spaced piles. Mat foundations are designed to resist or minimize deflection or distortion of the structure resting on the mat as a result of permanent displacement of the underlying ground. The mat foundation itself may move or settle differentially, but the mat is sufficiently stiff to reduce bending in the structure to a tolerable level. Mat foundations can be particularly useful when compacted fill slopes are expected to experience greater than 5 cm of seismic displacement in the area of a habitable structure. It must be recognized, however, that permanent vertical differential settlement may be undesirable and reveling may be required after the design event. Another instance where a building can be designed to resist damage to earth movement involves structures built over landslides experiencing plastic flow. Landslides that do not move as a rigid block can be penetrated with a series of widely spaced stiff piles. These piles are designed to resist loading imposed by material acting on some tributary area to the piles (generally wider than the pile). The remaining material is designed to flow between the piles. The access and utilities leading to the building must be designed assuming that the ground surface will move vertically and laterally relative to the structure.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

General Guidelines For High Risk Areas Any building having high occupancy content must have an evacuation/contingency plan. The Chief fire prevention unit must certify all buildings over two storeys. As far as is possible electricity supply should be underground to minimize damage to infrastructure by wind. Development over a 100 lots should have an evacuation plan in place. A zonal committee should also be formed. Upon handing over all new units in a development, the developer must also be hand over to homeowners, the relevant disaster related information. This can be obtained from the ODPEM. All agricultural, commercial and industrial units must have a contingency plan. Drills must be conducted at least once per year with significant input from the ODPEM. Developments of 50 lots and under will require a hazard impact assessment to be submitted with the development application. Documentation required for subdivision application All Applications are received By NEPA and the Local Authority. They are then disseminated to the various technical agencies for comments before a final decision is made to approve or not approve a subdivision. The following information is relevant for processing application within the ODPEM. a. Physio-graphic features Topography, contours, slope analysis report, geo-hazard assessment and features such as lakes streams and ponds are all factors that can affect the development. Designs should be planned with these in mind. b. Site location information Accurate property boundaries The Procedures: The procedure followed by the ODPEM is shown in figure 1 overleaf. The size and nature of the proposed development is always taken into account, the history of disasters in the area and the history of the performance of other developments in the area. The vulnerability of elements at risk to the hazards is also assessed and the potential for disasters is also pointed out. The organizations comments on both small developments (those including 9 lots and under) and large developments 10 lots and over and to include resort and large-scale subdivisions for housing 400 lots and over in some cases). A site inspection is required for all subdivision applications that come to the organization. However, depending on the size of the lots for small subdivisions and their location and request for example titles a site investigation may not always be required.

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Figure: 1 SHOWING procedures for subdivision Approval /Refusal

ODPEM receives subdivision From NEPA /PC Background research and data gathering

Draft letter of receipt

Conduct site investigation

Architectural Research

Preparation of report

Comments for Approval with conditions

Subdivision fully approved

Comments for Refusal

Follow up with NEPA agency

Recommendation for best land use

Note final comments for records

Submit comments to NEPA/PC

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Figure3 Hazard Vulnerability Matrix for the Country Hazard Probability Significance Frequency Vulnerable areas Potential Economic impact.

Bush, Wild fires and Forest Fires Civil disturbances Coastal oil Spill Disease and outbreaks Drought Flooding Hazardous material Spill Hurricane tropical storms Infrastructure disruption Nuclear power plant Sinkhole and subsidence Terrorism Sever thunderstorm Transportation incident

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Draft Guidelines For Development in Disaster Prone/High Risk Areas

Site investigations The purpose of the site investigation is to supplement in house data on the area carried out in the desk study as to the extent to which to area is vulnerable. The desk study involves analysis of topographic maps of 12, 500 scale or greater and cross referencing with aerial photographic interpretation to develop the hazard map for the area. The site investigations take into account: The type of application The kind of development Identification of potential hazards Assessing vulnerability Assessing vulnerability of surrounding areas Recommendations for mitigation measures Applications reviewed by ODPEM include all sites located along river courses or within the floodplain of the river, on gully banks, on hillsides, at coastal areas or near to active faults, or located in areas exposed to high winds like hilltops or plateau would require special guidelines or standards before they are developed. These sites include residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural and institutional land uses. Reports on these sites usually cover the following areas; Identification of hazard The likelihood of occurrence of that hazard Location of community most vulnerable/second nearest The impact of the hazard The hazard index for each hazard Loss reduction strategies for the hazards identified. Assessing vulnerability This is calculated by combining the probability of various hazards in each area and the amount of value of development in the area. An inventory of the costs of damage to critical facilities. Public facilities and other land uses should also be assessed. Recommendation for mitigation measures The appropriate mitigation measure should be implemented only after the necessary hazard and engineering analyses have been carried out. IDENTIFYING RISKS A prudent first step is to list geographic and climatic hazards and other risks that could jeopardize the structures. These might include the developments susceptibility to hurricanes, tornadoes, flash flooding, earthquakes, or forest fires, and even the possibility of unusual hazards such as volcanic eruptions. Hazard maps should be used to identify risks and vulnerability. Man-made disasters such as fuel or water supply failures, chemical spills, arson, bombing, or other such problems should be accounted for.

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Take note of the environmental risks in the surroundings. Chemical industries, shipping routes for hazardous materials, and adjacent construction projects all expose a development to damage. Any event that is a real possibility should be covered under an emergency plan. A risk-assessment checklist should be developed for internal members of buildings that require fire protection systems, electrical systems, plumbing, and environmental systems. It is also important to determine the vulnerability of the objects.

RISK REDUCTION Once the hazards are specified, a program with concrete goals, identifiable resources, and a schedule of activities for eliminating as many risks as possible. Some of the areas for risk reduction include: Control settlement of marginal lands in plains, combined with fragile and insecure living conditions, infrastructure and social services; Public education and training to reduce hazard levels due to severe processes of environmental degradation owing to poor land use Strengthening capacities for disaster risk management in critical institutions. Reducing human vulnerability resulting from poverty and inequality Monitor Rapid population growth Develop elevation requirements Change zoning regulations and building codes Create a hazard disclosure requirement for real estate sale Prepare local environmental/hazard impact orders

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