Constructivism: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky Cognitive Psychology: learning is not concerned with behavioral responses (i.e.

dog eating meat when hears bell) but rather with what learners know and how they acquire it Behaviorism: learning is a change in the behavioral disposition of an organism. Learning behaviors can be shaped by selective reinforcement (skinner and dogs). Since learning is equated with behavioral outcomes, behavioral laws excluded the role of mental operations. Behaviorist are unwilling to acknowledge the existence of the mind or the act of knowing because these are not observable. Constructivism: We construct our own reality Constructivism: based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the knower based on mental activity ... Meaning making Constructivist teaching focuses on problem solving and critical thinking and higher order cognitive outcomes. Seeks to integrate emotion, affect, and engagement into disussions of learning and cognition. (Reiser and Dempsey Ch 5) Radical Constructivist, Goodman, von Flaserslfeld, Watzlawick believe that there is no real world, no objective reality that is independent of human mental activity. Less radical says the mind is instrumental and eessentual in interpreting events, objects, and perspectives on the real world. Those interpretations compruse a knowledge base that is personal and individualistic. cogito, ergo sum I think therefore I amDescartes epistemologically speaking, meaning is a function of how the individual creates meaning for his or her experiences. Applications of constructivism: Situated cognition: learning occurs most effectively in context, lcontext becomes an important part of the knowledge base associated with that learning. Isolated school environments decontextualize learning Cognitive flexible theory, conceptual model for instruction that facilitates advanced acquisition of knowledge in ill-structured (Situation in which its existing state and the desired state are unclear and, hence, methods of reaching the desired state cannot be found) knowledge domains. This avoids oversimplifying instruction by stressing conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on the content because there is no single schema (no objective reality), and emphasizing casebased instruction that provides multiple perspectives or themes inherent in the case.

Objectivism: believe that the goal of instruction is to map an external reality onto learners. transmission of knowledge prescribed by subject matter analysis. Objectivist accomplish this task analysis, whether it is behavioral or cognitive task analyis, by determining what reality should be learned and how it should be acquired. Jonassen Objectivism v Constructivism

Behavioral Learning Theory: Skinner. Learning can be understood, explained, and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events, namely the behavior of the learner along with its environmental antecedents (cues occurring in the environment that signal the appropriateness of a given behavior) and consequences. *Information processing theory differs from behavioral theory in its assumption of internal process within the learner that explain learning. It is empirically based, which means that behavior is observed both before and after an intervention such as instruction has been implemented, and the observed changes in performance are related to what occurred during the intervention. If there is no change in behavior, then the intervention cannot be considered effective. Information Processing: stimuli becomes input; behavior becomes outputs Sensory systems in learner: sensory, short-term, long-term are assumed to receive information from the environment and transform it for storage and use in memory and performances Sensory Memory learners perceive organized patterns in the environmentand begin the process of recognizing and coding these patters. Short Term/working memory permits the learner to hold information brieflyin mind to make further sense of it and to connect it with other information that is already in longterm memory. Long term memory enables the learner to remember and apply information long after it was originally learned Schema Theory: knowledge is represented in long term memory as packets of information called schemas. Schemas organize information in categories that are related in systematic and predictable ways. Learners use existing schema to interpret events and solve problems. They develop new and more complex schemas through experience and learning Situated Learning Theory: (situated cognition theory) work in progress relies more on social and cultural determinants of learning than it does on individual psychology. Knowledge is assume to accrue in meaningful actions, actions that have relations of meanings to one another in terms of some cultural system Learning from situated perspective occurs through learners participation in the practices of a community, practices that are mutually constituted by the members of the community. -integrating knowing with doing aka one learns a subject matter by doing what experts in that subject matter do CSILE, knowledge forum facilitates high-level collective cognitive responsibility and dynamic knowledge building among members of the learning community Anchored Instruction - The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help students become more actively engaged in learning by situating or anchoring instruction around an interesting topic. The learning environments are designed to provoke the kinds of

thoughtful engagement that helps students develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem solving and critical thinking. Learning and teaching activities should be designed around an "anchor" which is often a story, adventure, or situation that includes a problem or issue to be dealt with that is of interest to the students. Instructional materials should include rich resources students can explore as they try to decide how to solve a problem (e.g., interactive videodisc programs). Anchored instruction emphasizes the need to provide students with opportunities to think about and work on problems, which is an emphasis of cognitive constructivists. Anchored instruction also emphasizes group or collaborative problem solving, which is an emphasis of social constructivists. Anchored Instruction has been criticized for providing a simulation of a community of practice, casting the learners as observers rather than participants Gagns Theory of Instruction: 3 components, 1) a taxonomy of learning outcomes that defined the types of capabilities humans can learn 2) internal and external learning conditions associated with the acquisition of each category of learning outcome 3) nine events of instruction that each facilitate a specific cognitive process during learning Three taxonomies: Cognitive affected psychomotor There are 5 major categories of learning: verbal info ie knowing that or what Intellectual skills ie applying knowledge Cognitive strategies ie employing effective ways of thinking and learning Attitudes is feelings and beliefs that govern choices of personal action Motor skills ie executing precise, smooth and accurately timed movements Conditions of learning that help facilitate the process of learning in general: 1) gaining attention 2) informing the learner of the objective 3) stimulating recall of prior knowledge 4) presenting the stimulus 5) providing learner guidance 6) eliciting performance 7) assessing performance 8) enhancing retention and transfer

Reiser and Dempsey Ch 4 ZPD the cutting edge of learning is not what a student can do individually, but what he or she can accomplish with the help of a more able other.

Distributed intelligence technologies provided tools that changed thinking process in people. The transformative potential of new forms of technology that were emerging not only made activities easier, but actually changed how they were carried out Situated learning in order to promote skill transfer from the learning setting to the real world setting in which the skills are expected to be employed, the condition in the learning setting should be as similar as possible to those that the learner will encounter in the real world. Anchored Instruction in order for people to access knowledge, they need not only to experience it, but to experience it such that they can know when to use it. *helping middle schoolers develop skills in solving complex mathematics problems by presenting the problems to them in simulated real world contexts designed to be of interest to the students (Adventures of Jasper Woodbury) design-based research documenting what was going on in an applied setting and examining the impact of complex instructional implementations as they went through different phases of design and development. Vygotosky instead of being secondary, the importance of culture and the artifacts were primary. Both the learning of the individual and the adaptation of the species were tied to cultural artifacts and tools. Peoples cognitive processes are created in conjunction with the tool of the culture, and at the same time, the tool of the culture are enhanced but the thinking of people and societies. (ZPD) Learning science commitment to making learning happen in authentic contexts. Learning scientist are forced to consider methods that do not rely on tight experimental control. Hence, learning scientist have worked on developing design-based research methods. One element is the openness to multiple perspectives on learning. That oppenees is necessary because it takes multiple perspectives to understand the complex ecologies in which learning is situated. Can be broken down into 3 areas: research on thinking, learning, and process .Research on thinking: uncovering the architecture of the mind and its workings. i.e. Blooms taxonomy, which highlights the difference between shallow and deeper forms of knowledge. Theory of multiple intelligences reflects how different people may encode their understandings very differently based on sensory or learning preferences. Example, expert chess players see problems in a way that leads to more economical thinking about solutions, and allows them to better remember the positions of pieces on a board quickly shown to them. Experts have mental models which allow them to predict or simulate how things work in the world before attempting to solve problems .Research on Learning Process: constellations of memories, skills, perceptions, and ideas determined how people think and solve problems. Rather than starting as a blank slate, learners use their initial conceptions to think through problems. Learners who use representations socially will start to converge on a shared understanding that has not only formal meaning, but social meaning. Students who work on problems that 1) mean

something to then personally and b) are rich and complex enough to invoke real expertise, are far more likely to learn. *focus on relevant, authentic tasks for learners, and focusing on the difficult process of conceptual change. To foster conceptual change, learner need to deeply engage topics in ways that may radically shift their concepts, even while building on their existing conceptions. .Research on Learning Environments findings of learning sciences in the 1980s often had to do with ways of understanding teaching in the new perspective of constructivism either cognitive constructivism (focusing on the learner as performing a psychological learning process) or a social constructivism (focusing on the learner as a participant in a sociocultural process of learning. This term is learner-centered classroom or learnercentered learning environments Cognitive apprenticeship learners become apprentices to experts, who model how experts think, coach learners as they practice problems (in context) with feedback, and fade their support and feedback over time to help learners become more autonomous. Scaffolding like training wheels on a bike, the learner is supported in some way that provides room for exploration and self-directed learning while still constraining the possibilities so as to minimize unproductive floundering. Reiser and Dempsey Ch 6 Operant Conditioning has two types of reinforces, Positive reinforcement: a response is strengthen by the addition of something to the situation. The something that is added is called a positive reinforce. These are, respectively, food pellets, money, good grades, parent approval. Negative reinforcement: A response is strengthened by the removal of something from the situation. In such cases the something that is removed is referred to as a negative reinforce or aversive stimulus. This refers to a process whereby behavior is strengthened, not weakened. Negative reinforcement results in an increase in the probability of behavior, punishment typically acts to suppress behavior. Nagging, temper tantrums, headaches, are negative reinforcers or aversive stimulus. Their removal is reinforcing and therefore the behaviors that remove them tend to become conditioned. *in both types (negative ((electric shock, pin pricks))and positive reinforcers ((food, water, sex))) behavior is strengthened. Conditioned reinforcer stimulus that is originally neutral but gains the power to reinforce through its pairing with one or more primary reinforcers Generalized reinforcers conditioned reinforcers that are associated with more than one primary reinforce - A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Food, water, sex Punishment- typically suppresses behavior, whereas negative reinforcement strengthens behavior ex. child who is scolded for swearing, driver whois ticketed for illegal parking. Or when positive reinforcers are taken away ie allowance, pay, the right to drive. Aversive control do it or else

Generalizations situations with similar stimuli, make you respond in ways that have been used in the past. ready made response in a variety of settings. Ex if a pigeon is conditioned to peck at a red spot, he will peck (at lower rates) at an orange spot. Discrimination making different responses in various stimulus situations ex automatic vs manual transmission. When trying to move the stick in the same way for an auto as a manual, it wont work. Therefore the particular set of movements isnt reinforced, they eventually extinguish and are replaced by the appropriate manual transmission response Shaping ex, eating with utensils, using tools properly, playing sports skillfully, reading, writing Each bit of progress made toward the final behavioral goal is reinforced, but we have to keep moving toward that goal in order to keep the reinforcers coming. Schedules of reinforcement: continuous and intermittent. Regarding human behavior, the physical environment is much more likely to provide a schedule of continuous reinforcement than is the social. Physical environment ie turning water faucets, pushing doors, bike riding, have predicable outcomes. If these behaviors are performed in a particular way, reinforcement will occur each time. Social situations are less likely to provide continuous reinforcement, there are exceptions. An acquaintance may may always respond in a friendly wave, certain relatives might be there when you need them but there is less consistency than this in our interactions with other people, and our social behavior dont get reinforced every time. Continuous reinforcement - Continuous reinforcement (CRF) a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food. Real world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat Intermittent reinforcement ex, writers who continue to write even though they infrequently get published, fishermen who rarely catch fish but keep going fishing, moviegoers who rarely see good movies. Two types of schedules of intermittent reinforcement: interval schedules and ratio schedules. Interval schedules the first response made after an interval of time has passed is reinforced. Ex, you must wait an interval of time for water toboil before your response of pouring it on instant coffee will be reinforced or checking your mailbox will not be reinforced with letters unless you wait an interval of time since the last mail delivery. Reinforcement can be fixed or variable. With fixed reinforcement schedules we tend to wait until the time when reinforcement will occur and then begin our responses. If you always use the same pot, same amount of water, same heat you have created a fixed interval schedule. If you use diff pots, diff amount of water and turn the flame on carelessly you will have a variable interval. Fixed Ratio schedules yield reinforces on the basis of number of responses made. Time is not a factor. These schedules can be fixed or variable. Fixed ratio the worker gets paid a certain amount for each unit of work completed. Skinner says can work workers to exhaustion. Variable ratio schedules ex is pathological gamblers make bet after bet, only sometimes win.

Chaining - Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. What is B.F. Skinner Really Saying? Nye Instructional Theories: prescribe teaching methods, to creat the best conditions to help learners to acquire new knowledge and capabilites. Learning theories attempt to describe how humans learn
Robinson, Molenda, & Rezabek