THE ARTS OF KO R E A

A Re s o u rce for Educat o rs

T H E M E T RO P O L I TA N M U S E U M O F A RT
These educational materials are made possible by The Korea Foundation.
We are very grateful for the assistance of and review ofall or parts
ofthe text by Pak Youngsook, Lecturer in Korean Art History and
Chair, Centre for Korean Studies, School of Oriental and African
S t u d i e s, U n i ve rsity of London and Visiting Professor, Unive rsity of
H e idelberg; Yi Sng-mi, Professor of Art History, The Academy
of Korean Studies, Sngnam; Sren Edgren, Editorial Director,
Chinese Rare Book Project, Princeton University; and Soyoung
Lee, Ph.D. candidate, Columbia University.
At The Metropolitan Museum of Art, we extend our gratitude
to James C. Y. Watt, Brook Russell Astor Chairman, Department
of Asian Art, and J. Kenneth Moore, Frederick P. Rose Curator in
Charge, Department of Musical Instruments. For their support
and encouragement we acknowledge the following colleagues in
Education: Kent Lydecker, Nicholas Ruocco, Stella Paul, Deborah
Howes, Catherine Fukushima, and Karen Ohland.
Special thanks to Damien Auerbach, Joyce Denney, Denise P.
Leidy, Alyson Moss, Beatrice Pinto, Michael Rendina, Suzanne G.
Valenstein, Denise Vargas, and Hwai-ling Yeh-Lewis in the
Department of Asian Art; to Felicia Blum, Paul Caro, Tara Dia-
mond, Vincent Falivene, Lena Howansky, Esther Morales, Naomi
Niles, Michael Norris, Kevin Park, Emily Roth, Teresa Russo,
Alice Schwarz, Edith Watts, and Vivian Wick in Education; and
to Barbara Bridgers of the Photograph Studio.
We also wish to thank Benyonne Lee Schwortz and Gwen
Johnson, high school teachers who reviewed a draft of the
text and offered invaluable suggestions, and Arthur and Mary
Park, who provided valuable information about Korean ceramic
production.
For their assistance, we extend our thanks to Anne McIlvaine,
Nawon Anastasia Ahn, Eun Ju Bae, and Hongkyung Anna Suh, as
well as to editors Margaret Donovan and Philomena Mariani.
Wa rm thanks also go to Mrs. Yong-Jin Choi of The Korea Society
and Professor Mark Peterson of Brigham Young University.
Part of this resource was excerpted or adapted from the
following Metropolitan Museum publications: Judith G. Smith,
coord. ed., Arts of Korea (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1998) and Itoh Ikutaro, Korean Ceramics from the Museum of
Oriental Ceramics, Osaka (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 2000). The former, which features essays by leading Korean
art historians, Chung Yang-mo, Ahn Hwi-joon, Yi Sng-mi, Kim
Lena, Kim Hongnam, Pak Youngsook, and Jonathan W. Best,
served as the primary resource for this publication.
Copyright 2001 by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Published by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
These educational materials are made possible by The Korea Foundation.
The establishment of and program for the Arts of Korea Gallery have
been made possible by The Korea Foundation and The Kun-Hee Lee
Fund for Korean Art.
Written and compiled by Elizabeth Hammer
Edited by Judith G. Smith
Managing Editor: Merantine Hens
Creative and Production Manager: Masha Turchinsky
Design by Binocular, New York
Lesson Plans and Activities by Rebecca Arkenberg
Color separations by Professional Graphics, Rockford, Illinois. Printed by
Elwood Packaging, Chicago, Illinois, and Galvanic Printing, Moonachie,
New Jersey.
Photographs of works in the Museums collections are by the Photograph
Studio of The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Figs. 1 (Buddhist corporeal iconography), 10 by Lisa Evancavich; Fig. 1
(Buddhist symbolic hand gestures) by Laurel Colvin-Garcia; Figs. 2, 5, 6,
8, 12 by Han Seok-Hong, Hans Photo Studio, Seoul; Fig. 3 courtesy of
the National Museum of Korea, Seoul; Figs. 4, 9 by Eun Ju Bae; Fig. 7
after Kukpo, vol. 4, Seoul: Yekyong Publications Co., 1984, pl. 45.
Maps by Christine Hiebert and adapted by Lisa Evancavich
Front and back cover: Maebyng, Kory dynasty (9181392), late 13th
early 14th century. Stoneware with inlaid design of cranes and clouds
under celadon glaze; H. 11 in. (29.2 cm). The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27.119.11)
ISBN 0-58839-009-8 (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
ISBN 0-300-09375-6 (Yale University Press)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2001097284
Acknowledgments
3
Fo r ew o r d
Koreas rich artistic heritage has been formed by a remarkable blend
of native tradition, foreign inuence, sophisticated technical skill, and
ex u b e rant human spirit. Yet, of all the cultural and artistic traditions of
East Asia, those of Korea have, until recently, received the least atten-
tion in the West. With the establishment of its permanent Arts of Ko r e a
gallery in June 1998, The Metropolitan Museum of Art undertook
to present the best examples of Korean art and bring to the Western
audience an awareness and understanding of the important role that
Korea has played in the development of East Asian culture and art.
The Arts of Korea: A Resource for Educators is designed to assist
educators in presenting Koreas distinctive artistic legacy to students
of all ages, both in the classroom and in visits to the Museums Arts of
Korea gallery. The core of this publication is the discussion of works
that illustrate the diversity and beauty of Korean art. Drawn from the
Museums permanent collection, they include elegant celadon wares
and white porcelain vessels, exquisite Buddhist paintings, landscapes,
inlaid lacquerwares, and traditional musical instru m e n t s. These works
together with a full complement of orientation materialswill enable
a rewarding exploration of Korean art and culture.
We are deep ly grateful to The Korea Fo u n d ation, and Dr. Lee In-ho,
President, for its generous grant in support of this teacher resource.
We also wish to acknowledge The Korea Foundation and the Samsung
Fo u n d ation of C u l t u r e, in particular Madame Ra Hee Hong Lee, Director
General, for their support in the establishment of the Museums Arts
of Korea gallery and the Korean art program.
At the Metropolitan Museum, we extend our thanks to Elizabeth
H a m m e r, associate museum educat o r, and Judith G. Smith, administrat o r
o f the Dep a rtment of Asian Art, for their work in preparing this resource,
as well as to Merantine Hens, managing editor for educational media, and
Masha Turchinsky, creative and production manager, for coordinating
the production of the publication.
Philippe de Montebello, Director
Kent Lydecker, Associate Director for Education
Contents
Introduction
Introduction to Korean Art
How to Use these Materials
Quick Guide to the Arts of Korea Gallery
Key Themes in Korean Culture and Art
Orientation Material
A Timeline of Korean History and Art
Dynastic Chronology of Korea, China, and Japan
Maps (East Asia, Korea in the Three Kingdoms Period, The Korean Peninsula)
Overview of Korean History
Korean Religions and Systems of Thought
The Arts of Korea
Overview of Korean Art History
Artists and Materials
Korean Traditional Music
Image Descriptions
Classroom Applications8
Lesson Plans and Activities
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Works of Art
Glossary
Appendices
Korean Language and Literature
Symbols in Korean Art and Culture
Resources
Korean Cultural Resources in the New York Metropolitan Area
Selected American Museums with Collections of Korean Art
Film and Video Resources
Selected Web Sites
Selected Bibliography for Educators
Selected Bibliography for Students
Images
List of Images
Slides
7
9
13
15
19
21
22
25
35
51
64
75
77
119
129
141
147
151
153
154
155
156
157
160
161
167
Introduction to Korean Art
Korea a mountainous peninsula in northeast Asia tied to the conti-
nental mainland in the north, facing China to the west across the Ye l l ow
Sea, and extending southward toward the Japanese archipelago has
a lw ays occupied a pivotal position in East Asian regional affairs. Ko r e a s
relations with its larger neighbors, China and Japan, and its role in
cultural and technical exchange within East Asia, are a crucial part
of the countrys history. Yet, it is also important to understand and
appreciate the separate and distinct character of Koreas cultural and
artistic heritage.
The beginnings of Koreas artistic heritage may be traced back
nearly 9,000 years, to the Neolithic period and the earliest known
examples of pottery produced on the peninsula. Over the centuries,
Korean potters distinguished themselves in the manufacture of
celadon, punchng ware, white porcelain, and underglaze-painted
porcelain. Korean artisans have produced objects in a variety of other
materialsincluding metal, lacquer, silk, and woodthat, as in the
case of ceramics, were initially meant for practical or ceremonial use
but came to be appreciated as works of art. In ancient times, articles
such as gold jewelry and bronze vessels, weapons, and horse trappings
were placed in the tombs of royalty and the aristocracy to serve the
deceased in the afterlife.
The introduction of Buddhism in the fourth century brought strik-
ingly different kinds of images and artistic styles to Korea. The impact
of this religion on Korean art can be seen in the temple complexes,
stone and bronze statues, paintings, and illustrated manuscripts pro-
duced on the peninsula from the fth century onward. Buddhism
reached the peak of its inuence under the Unied Silla (668935) and
Kory (9181392) dynasties, as evidenced by the exceptionally elegant
and rened works of art dating from those periods.
In the late fourteenth century, with the adoption of Neo-Confucian-
ism by the Chosn dynasty (13921910) as the new state ideology and
dominant social philosophy, the artistic tastes of the elite shifted dra-
matically in favor of simpler and more austere objects for everyday use.
These included plain white porcelain wares and desk utensils made of
7
natural materials. During the same period, Korean artisans also crafted
personal ornaments and domestic articles, especially for women, the
nobility, and commoners that are less restrained and more exuberant
in style. The weakening inuence of Confucian teachings on the arts
and the growing impact of foreign (including Western) inuences, led
in the mid-eighteenth century to a variety of new shapes, decorative
techniques, and designs in the production of ceramic ware. This period
also saw a new trend in Korean painting with the development of true-
view landscapes, the practitioners of which advocated the depiction of
actual Korean scenery as an alternative to the classical themes of Chi-
nese painting.
Westerners rst became aware of Korean art in the late nineteenth
century, largely by collecting Korean ceramics. During the rst
decades of the twentieth century, when Korea was occupied by Japan
(191045), Japanese archaeologists and connoisseurs helped to shape
Western understanding and appreciation of Korean art. The founder
of the early-twentieth-century mingei (folk art) movement in Japan,
Yanagi Setsu (18891961), was particularly inuential in inspiring
interest at home and abroad in Chosn ceramics and decorative arts.
World War II marked a turning point in Koreas intern ational visibility,
and subsequently, more Western collectors began acquiring Korean
p a i n t i n g s, sculpture, cera m i c s, and metalw a r e. Howeve r, compared with
the attention given Chinese and Japanese art, which survives in much
larger quantities and has been more widely studied, knowledge and
appreciation of Korean art in the West is still in its formative stage.
8
H ow to Use These Mat e r i a l s
This resource is designed to introduce the Arts of Korea ga l l e ry in
The Metropolitan Museum of A rt to teachers and their students, and to
p r ovide them with a general understanding of Korean culture. A wide
range of m aterials is included to give readily accessible info rm ation to
t e a c h e rs of many disciplines instructing students of different ag e s. It is
hoped that this publ i c ation will encourage educat o rs to use the Arts of
Korea ga l l e ry as an important part of their teaching activities.
Quick Guide to the Arts of Korea Gallery pp. 1314
For those who require quick information to prepare for classroom
work, this concise summary provides basic information about the Arts
of Korea gallery as well as a few questioning strategies.
Introduction to Korean Art and
Key Themes in Korean Culture and Art pp. 78, 1518
These two sections provide a brief summary of the development of
Korean art history and some of the most important factors that have
inuenced Korean culture and art. The Key Themes section presents
possible topics that might form the basis of a gallery tour or class on
Korean art.
Orientation Material pp. 1950
This section consists of background information for easy reference.
The Timeline of Korean History and Ar t (pp. 1920) provides a
convenient list of important historical events and a chronological
arrangement of most of the works of art illustrated in this publication.
The Dynastic Chronology of Korea, China, and Japan (p. 21) and the
three Maps (pp. 2224) are useful references.
Because English-language resources about Korea are still limited in
number, this publication contains a substantial amount of background
material. The Overview of Korean Histor y (pp. 2534) and Korean
Religions and Systems of Thought (pp. 3550) outline the context
in which Korean works of art were created and used.
9
The Arts of Korea pp. 5176
The Overview of Korean Art Histor y is a synopsis of the develop-
ment of Koreas artistic tradition. Works of art loaned to the Metro-
politan Museum for the inaugural exhibition from several signicant
collections in Korea are illustrated in this section to supplement the
Museums own Korean art holdings. The section A rtists and Ma t e r i a l s
gives general technical information about important types of art and
identies some of the major developments in each area. The Korean
Traditional Music section is a brief discussion of key aspects of the
subject and describes several examples of traditional musical instru-
ments in the Metropolitan Museums collection, some of which are
illustrated in this publication.
Image Descriptions pp. 77117
The images in this publication (also provided in digital format on the
CD-ROM as well as in slide format, and two of which are reproduced
as posters) illustrate the highlights of the Metropolitan Museums
Korean art collection. The objects were chosen to represent the
development of Korean art as fully as possible and to meet the needs
of a wide range of educators. Each Image Description includes infor-
mation about the individual work of art (or site) and some points to
consider in classroom discussion. It is highly recommended that you
show your students the slides and discuss the fundamental aspects of
Korean culture before visiting the museum in order to encourage a
more careful and critical response to the works of art on view.
Classroom Applications pp. 11939
This resource contains a variety of aids for classroom work, including
Lesson Plans and Acti v i t i e s and suggested C ro s s - C u l t u ra l C o m p a r i -
sons of Wo rks of A rt in the Metropolitan Museums collection. B o t h
sections include activities and questioning strat egies to focus students
attention on the works of a rt and help them understand the cultures
t h at they rep r e s e n t .
Glossary pp. 14146
The G l o s s a r y provides brief denitions for important terms in Korean
art history, along with their pronunciation and references to where
they are mentioned in this publication.
10
Appendixes pp. 14752
Korean Language and Literature
Symbols in Korean Art and Culture
Resources pp. 15360
Korean Cultural Resources in the New York Metropolitan Area
Selected American Museums with Collections of Korean Art
Film and Video Resources
Selected Web Sites
Selected Bibliography for Educators
Selected Bibliography for Students
The CD-ROM included in this publication provides all the text and
images in the Resource in an electronic form that can be downloaded
and printed. The brochure The Wild Ones in Korean Art is suitable
for younger students, from grades four to eight. (The other sections of
the resource are meant for the use of educators and are not intended
for most secondary school students without adaptation.)
Note to the Reader
Throughout the text, unless otherwise indicated, non-English words
given in parenthesis are Korean. The abbreviations for other languages
are Skt. for Sanskrit, Chn. for Chinese, and Jpn. for Japanese. Unless
stated otherwise, the works of art illustrated are part of the Metropoli-
tan Museums permanent collection. Footnotes provide supplementary
information and sources for additional research. Publications listed in
the Bibliography for Educators are referenced in an abbreviated form
in the footnotes.
11
13
Quick Guide to the Arts of Korea Gallery
Korea, a mountainous peninsula in northeast Asia, possesses an artistic
t radition reaching back to the Neolithic period about 9,000 ye a rs ago.
Through the centuries, Korean artists and craftsmen produced cera m-
i c s, lacquerware, metalw a r e, sculpture, paintings, and tex t i l e s, for eve ry-
d ay and ceremonial uses by the imperial court and the we a l t hy, or to
s e rve religious purposes at all levels of s o c i e t y. The objects they creat e d
were inuenced by the aesthetic preferences of the time (compare, fo r
ex a m p l e, the elegance and renement of Ko ry period art with the pref-
erence for spontaneity that characterizes works from the succeeding
Chosn period), as well as the materials and technology then ava i l abl e.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art has a diverse collection of
Korean art, a selection of which is on permanent display in the Arts of
Korea gallery in the north wing. Opened in 1998, the gallery embodies
traditional Korean aesthetics in its pristine white walls, diffused nat-
ural light, and wood oor patterned on that of a traditional temple
design. In keeping with the East Asian tradition of displaying works of
art for limited periods of time, and for purposes of conservation, most
of the works on view are rotated twice a year. The Musical Instru-
ments galleries display a diverse selection of Korean instruments,
including drums, utes, ddles, and zithers.
When you bring students to the Arts of Korea gallery, encourage
them to take a few moments on their own to examine the works of art
and to formulate their own responses. Some fundamental themes of
Korean art and culture are described below, along with related illustra-
tive images provided in this resource. These topics can be used to
organize tours of the gallery and classroom discussion.
Cultural Exchange in East Asia
Koreas geographical location at the crossroads of East Asia b e t we e n
its two larger neighbors, China and Japanhas had an enormous
impact on its history and culture (see Map 1, p. 22). Throughout
the millennia, many important cultural developments, including the
Chinese writing system, Confucianism, Buddhism, and some ceramic
production techniques, were imported from China into Korea, where
they were quickly adapted to native Korean needs and preferences.
This process continued eastward with the transmission of these prac-
tices and concepts from Korea to Japan.
Green-glazed ceramic wares (known as celadon in Western litera-
ture) and landscape paintings in ink are two examples of artistic tradi-
tions that originated in China and were transported to Korea, where
they underwent innovative changes (for Korean examples, see images
1014, 25, 26 ).
The Metropolitan Museum has the most comprehensive collection
of Asian art in the world. It is therefore possible for you to compare
related works of art, such as celadon wares, ink landscape paintings, or
grave furnishings, made in Korea, China, and Japan during a single
visit to the museum. Comparisons with Chinese and Japanese works of
art with similar themes and materials can provide insights into what
makes Korean art distinctive. For more suggestions, see the section on
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Works of Art (pp. 12939).
Materials
Korean artists and craftsmen worked in many media, including clay,
bronze, gold, lacquer, and ink on silk or paper. Artisans frequently bor-
rowed design techniques and decorative motifs from other media. For
example, both lacquermakers and celadon potters used the technique
of inlay to create designs (see images 9, 11, 13, 14, 20 ). The same
decorative motifs, such as scrolling vines (see images 15 [the base of
the altar], 20), stylized clouds (see images 8, 14, 17, 31, 32 ), and
birds (see images 2, 10, 35 ), can be found on objects made of different
materials.
Nature
Images from the natural world mountains, plants, animals, birds,
and waterfowl are found throughout Korean art. Younger students
might enjoy looking at different animals and learning about the stories
and symbolic meanings associated with them (see images 2, 7A, 10,
14, 26, 31, 32, 35 , and the brochure The Wild Ones in Korean Art).
Landscape paintings not only suggest the appearance and mood of a
certain place, but are also generally imbued with philosophical ideas
about nature (see images 25, 26 ). Works of art that convey a sense of
spontaneity are said to express the freedom and spirit of nature (see
images 6, 21, 23, 24, 28 ).
14
Images 1014, 25, 26
Images 9, 11, 13, 14, 20
Images 15, 20
Images 8, 14, 17, 31, 32
Images 2, 10, 35
Images 2, 7A, 10,
14, 26, 31, 32, 35
Images 25, 26
Images 6, 21, 23, 24, 28
15
Key Themes in Korean Culture and Art
Discussed below are some of the major factors that have exerted a
profound impact on Korean culture, including the production of art.
These factors may be used to construct generalized themes for visits
to the Metropolitan Museums Arts of Korea gallery or for classroom
discussion. Specic suggestions for the illustration of key themes with
images provided in this resource are given in the Quick Guide to the
Arts of Korea Gallery (pp. 1314).
Geography
The Korean peninsula lies at the easternmost end of the Eurasian land
mass (see Map 1, p. 22). During the last Ice Age, which occurred
approximately 15,000 to 18,000 years ago, neither the Korean penin-
sula nor the central islands of Japan existed as separate topographic
entities. At that time, the area of the present Yellow Sea formed a wide,
unbroken plain stretching between what are now the western shores of
Korea and the eastern shores of Chinas Shandong peninsula. Similarly,
to the south, the present Japanese islands of Honsh, Kysh, and
Shikoku comprised a continuous landmass with the then undifferenti-
ated Korean peninsula. With the melting of the great glaciers, the sea
level rose and the map of northeast Asia as we know it was formed.
Korea emerged as a mountainous peninsula tied to Manchuria in the
north, facing China to the west across the narrow Yellow Sea, and
extending southward toward the Japanese archipelago. More than 70
percent of the Korean peninsulas total area, which is approximately
the same as that of England and Scotland combined, consists of moun-
tains. The rocky backbone of Korea is fashioned from a long chain of
mountains that dominates the eastern half of the peninsula from its
northern borders on the Amnok and Tuman rivers almost to its south-
ern extremity. Two notable lateral mountain ranges project westward
from this great granite wall. One forms a protective barrier around the
fertile Naktong River valley in the center of Koreas southern coast,
while the other stretches most of the way across the peninsulas width
to north of the Han River valley. Koreas climate is temperate, with
cold, dry winters and hot summers subject to monsoon rains. The land
is fertile, and natural resources are abundant.
East Asian Cultural Interaction
The peninsulas geographical location has exercised a critical role in
shaping the history of the Korean people (see Map 1, p. 22). Archae-
ological nds reveal that Manchuria and lands to the north played a
primal role in the formation of Korean culture, while China began to
exe rt an enormous inuence after the start of the rst millennium B.C.,
i f not earlier. Archaeology also indicates the steady gr owth of i n t e ra c-
tion between the inhabitants of Korea and the Japanese archipelago,
which is a mere 130 miles aw ay at the closest point. Because of its geo-
graphical position, Korea frequently functioned as a conduit betwe e n
China and Japan for ideas and beliefs, material culture and technolog i e s.
Koreas part i c i p ation in the interaction of East Asian cultures has often
been mistake n ly viewed as being entirely passive, with little recog n i t i o n
o f the innovat i ve role that Koreans have played throughout their his-
t o ry in the nat i ve adaptation and further transmission of such inu-
ences as the Chinese written languag e, Buddhism, ceramic production
t e c h n i q u e s, and ink-monochrome landscape paintings.
Nature
In Korea, as in other East Asian cultures, the natural world and mans
relation to it have inspired the creation of works of art as well as the
development of philosophies and religions. Images from nature ani-
mals and birds, plants and trees, mountains and rivers are pervasive
artistic themes, whether expressed in the form of a painting, a ceramic
vessel, or a scholar-ofcials garden retreat.
This emphasis on nature also inspired the creation of artworks that
convey an impression of accident and spontaneity, objects that capture
the liveliness and spirit found in the natural world. A clay pot with an
asymmetrical prole and an uneven glaze was appreciated for its sense
of vitality and its unique beauty (see image 24 ). Similarly, in the depic-
tion of a grapevine blown by the wind, the painter sought to go
beyond mere representation to convey through line and form a certain
mood and sense of rhythmic movement (see image 28 ). This under-
standing of what is natural differs from the art-historical concept
of naturalism in Western art, in which images are often created to
16
Image 24
Image 28
reproduce as closely as possible the actual appearance of the subject in
nature. The Korean word for landscape, sansu, exemplies the holistic
attitude toward the natural world. Sansu combines the words for
mountain and water to represent landscapes and, by extension, en-
compass all the physical properties of the natural world. Drawing
upon the ancient idea that everything in the universe is made up of
interrelated opposites (m-yang; Chn. yin-yang), the characteristics of
mountains and water represent natures diversity mountains are
unmoving, hard, and solid, while water is uid, soft, cool, and dark.
Religious Traditions
During the course of the countrys history, Koreans have adopted and
practiced different religions and systems of thought: shamanism,
Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and, in recent centuries, Christian-
ity (see Korean Religions and Systems of Thought , pp. 3550).
Although the inuence of each of these belief systems has waxed and
waned through the centuries, all have played an ongoing role in
Korean culture. As is true throughout East Asia, the different systems
are neither exclusive nor strictly separated many tenets and
practices overlap, and people traditionally have followed more than one
system. Most Buddhist temple complexes, for example, include a small
shrine dedicated to Sansin, the native god of the mountains associated
with shamanism.
Homogeneity and Continuity
The Korean peninsulas regional partition by the major mountain
ranges led to the development of distinctive cultures in the southeast
and the southwest, along the central southern coast, and in the
north. Cultural diversity among these regions engendered feelings
of regional uniqueness, and at times even animosity, that still color
intrapeninsular relations today. Yet concurrent with this divisive
awareness of regional differences has been a countervailing conscious-
ness of peninsular solidarity. The Korean peninsula has long been
viewed by both its occupants and its neighboring societies as a discrete
geographical unit inhabited by a population sharing an essentially
common cultural identity.
Korean history has been marked by unusually long-lived dynasties,
a factor that has enhanced the perception of unity. Having controlled
17
the southeastern part of the peninsula for at least 700 years, the Silla
kingdom (57 B.C.668 A.D.) succeeded by the year 676 in unifying the
peninsula under a single government, the Unied Silla dynasty (668
935), which ruled for nearly three centuries. The subsequent Kory
(9181392) and Chosn (13921910) dynasties each ruled for about
500 years. This dynastic longevity imparted stability and long periods
of peace, as well as conservative tendencies among the ruling elite.
Foreign Intrusions
Chinese, Mongol, Manchu, and Japanese armies have attacked and
looted Korea at various times in the countrys history. In 1910, Japan
formally annexed the peninsula, initiating a period of colonial rule that
lasted until 1945. That so few historical records, artworks, or architec-
tural monuments survive from before the late sixteenth century is
largely a result of the destruction wrought by these incursions (see
Overview of Korean Histor y, pp. 2534).
Dynamic Art Style
Korean art is often described as vibrant, energetic, spontaneous, and
sometimes whimsical. Certainly, such characteristics apply to many of
the most distinctive works of art produced in Korea, especially the
sculpted pottery vessels of the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668
A.D.; see image 2 ) and the punchng wares (see image 21 ), late under-
glaze painted porcelains (see image 23 ), genre paintings, and folk art
of the Chosn period. Yet, the breadth of Korean culture and the ver-
satile skills of Korean artists and artisans are equally manifest in the
Buddhist paintings and illustrated sutras, metalwork, lacquerware,
exquisite gold ornaments, and celadon wares produced for the court,
aristocracy, and religious establishments during the Three Kingdoms,
Unied Silla, and Kory periods, all of which reect the renement
and sophistication that are characteristic of the highest-quality East
Asian art (see, for example, images 4, 9, 10, 12, 1518 ).
18
Images 2, 21, 23
Images 4, 9, 10, 12, 1518
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UNIFIED SILLA DYNASTY
668 935
IRON AGE FROM CA. 300 B.C. NEOLITHIC PERIOD CA. 7000 CA. 10TH CENTURY B.C.
Ca. 40003000 B.C.
Comb-Pattern Vessel
Fig. 2
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Jar
Image 1
Ca. late 2nd3rd century
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Image 2
5th6th century
Stand
Image 3
6th century
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Image 4
8th century
Standing Buddha
Image 5
BRONZE AGE
B.C. A.D.
CA. 10TH CENTURY
3RD CENTURY B.C.
SILLA KINGDOM 57 B.C. 668 A.D.
KOGURY KINGDOM 37 B.C. 668 A.D.
PAEKCHE KINGDOM 18 B.C. 660 A.D.
KAYA FEDERATION 42 562 A.D.
19
A Timeline of Korean History and Art
(See also the Museums online Timeline of Art History
at www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm)
CHOSN DYNASTY 1392 1910
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
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Second half of the 8th
century
Seated Buddha,
Skkuram Cave-Temple
Fig. 7
10th century
Rafter Finial in the
Shape of a Dragon Head
Image 7A
Early 12th century
Wine Ewer
Image 10
Ca. 13th century
Unidentied artist
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Image 15
Late 13thearly
14th century
Maebyng
Image 14
Ca. 1340
Unidentied artist
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script of the Lotus
Sutra (detail)
Image 17
15th century
Flask-Shaped
Bottle
Image 21
15th century
Unidentied artist
Landscape in the
Style of An Kyn:
Autumn Moon over
Lake Dongting
Image 25B
First half of the
18th century
Chng Sn (16761759)
Three Dragon Water-
fall at Mount Naeyn
Fig. 8
18th19th century
Large Jar
Image 24
20
UNIFIED SILLA DYNASTY
668 935
Dynastic Chronology of Korea, China, and Ja p a n
Note to the reader
Dates for the Three Kingdoms are traditional, and do not necessarily reect the opinions of all scholars.
21
B.C.
8000
2000
1000
500
0
500
1000
1500
1900
A.D.
Neolithic period,
ca. 7000 ca. 10th century B.C.
Bronze Age,
ca. 10th ca. 3rd century B.C.
Iron Age, from ca. 300 B.C.
Three Kingdoms period, 57 B.C. 6 68 A.D.
Silla kingdom, 57 B.C.668 A.D.
Kogury kingdom, 37 B.C.668 A.D.
Paekche kingdom, 18 B.C.660 A.D.
Kaya Federation, 42562 A.D.
Unied Silla dynasty, 668935
Kory dynasty, 9181392
Chosn dynasty, 13921910
Shang dynasty,
c a .1 6 0 0 c a. 1050 B.C.
Zhou dynasty,
c a . 1046256 B.C.
Qin dynasty, 221206 B.C.
Han dy n a s t y, 206 B.C.220 A.D.
Six Dynasties, 220589
Sui dynasty, 581618
Tang dynasty, 618907
Five Dynasties, 90760
Liao dynasty, 9161125
Song dynasty, 9601279
Jin dynasty, 11151234
Yuan dynasty, 12721368
Ming dynasty, 13681644
Qing dynasty, 16441911
Jmon period,
ca. 10,500 B.C. ca. 300 B.C.
Yayoi period,
ca. 4th century B.C. ca. third
century A.D.
Kofun period,
ca. 3rd century538
Asuka period, 538710
Nara period, 710794
Heian period, 7941185
Kamakura period, 11851333
Nanbokuch period, 13361392
Muromachi period, 13921573
Momoyama period, 15731615
Edo period, 16151868
Meiji period, 18681911
io n r . c n i . . r.
22
Map 1: Korea in East Asia
23
Map 2: The Three Kingdoms at the Height of Kogury Expansion (late fifth century)
24
Map 3: The Korean Peninsula
O ve rv i ew of Korean History
Traditional Korean sources present two contrasting accounts of the
origins of civilization on the peninsula.
1
One credits the achievement
to an indigenous demigod, Tangun, whose birth more than 4,000
years ago is attributed to the union of a sky deity and a bear-woman
(for a synopsis of this legend, see Lesson Plan 3: I l l u s t rated Manuscript,
p. 126). The second account credits a Chinese noble and court minister,
Jizi (Kr. Kija), who is believed to have emigrated to Korea with a large
group of followers at the start of the Chinese Zhou dynasty (ca. 1046
256 B.C.). The contrast between these two traditions reveals a tension
that long conditioned premodern Korean perceptions of their own cul-
ture. On the one hand, there was proud awareness of cultural distinc-
tiveness and, on the other hand, recognition of the extensive inuence
of Chinese civilization.
Paleolithic and Neolithic (ca. 7000ca. 10th century B.C.) periods
Modern archaeology has shed much light on the origins and civiliza-
tion of the Korean people. Humans have inhabited the Korean penin-
sula from as early as the Pleistocene epoch, about 500,000 B.C.
Although few Paleolithic sites have been unearthed, archaeological evi-
dence suggests that the inhabitants made stone and bone tools, relied
on hunting, shing, and gathering of fruit, and moved frequently.
2
While Neolithic inhabitants of the Korean peninsula relied primar-
ily on game, sh, and foraged vegetation, the rst efforts at farming
probably began during this time. These people lived in small settle-
ments of semi-subterranean, circular dwellings near rivers or coastal
areas, and fashioned tools of stone and bone.
Pottery is one of the dening features of all Neolithic cultures.
Koreas Neolithic period is generally associated with the production of
chlmun (comb-pattern) and mumun (undecorated) pottery. The earliest
known Neolithic pottery in Korea has been dated to about 7000 B.C.
The variety of shapes and decorative techniques of excavated wares
reects the diversity of material cultures during this period and
points to contacts between populations living in different areas of the
peninsula as well as with those on the continental mainland and the
islands that constitute modern Japan.
25
Bronze Age (ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.)
Migration into the Korean peninsula from regions in Manchuria and
Siberia to the north intensied in the Bronze Age. Additional waves
of immigrant farmers moving onto the peninsula from China during
the late Shang (ca. 16001050 B.C.) and Zhou dynasties most likely
resulted in the introduction of bronze technology and rice cultivation.
Continuing earlier practices, they also cultivated other grains and
foodstuffs, such as millet, barley, and vegetables. Bones of domesticated
pigs found at sites dating to the Bronze Age are evidence of a growing
reliance on animal husbandry. Although clusters of homes built
partially underground were still the norm, Bronze Age settlements
often included a larger number of families and were located on hill-
sides and inland. Stone tools and weapons, pottery vessels, weaving
implements, and shing equipment are among the artifacts of daily
life most often found at domestic sites dating to this period.
Advances in metallurgy and agriculture encouraged the develop-
ment of a more complex social hierarchy. Beginning in about 1000 B.C.,
the existence of an elite social stratum is indicated by increasingly
elaborate burial practices. Dolmen tombs, most often formed of
upright stones supporting a horizontal slab, are more numerous in
Korea, where approximately 200,000 have been found, than in any
other country in East Asia (see g. 3, p. 52). Other forms of burial
include cists (burial chambers lined with stone) and earthenware jar
cofns (large pottery containers in which the deceased were interred).
Furnishings found in these tombs indicate that the men, women, and
children who occupied them enjoyed wealth and an elevated status, and
were presumably members of the ruling class. Ritualistic bronze
implements, including mirrors and rattles, suggest that some of the
deceased were shamans or priests.
Iron Age (beginning ca. 300 B.C.)
It is not yet clear when iron technology rst appeared in Korea, but it
seems to have been widespread by about 300 B.C. Presumably iron was
imported from China, where it appears to have been cast since at least
the sixth century B.C. Excavations of Chinese coins and mirrors at
Korean sites, as well as observations of Korean political conditions and
social practices in Chinese historical records of the time, conrm direct
links between the peninsula and northeastern China. Locally mined
and smelted iron in Korea was used in part to fashion utilitarian tools
for farming and carpentry.
26
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.)
From the early Iron Age until the emergence of confederated king-
doms in the rst to third centuries A.D., the Korean peninsula under-
went further important changes. The most developed Korean state at
the time, which was probably a tribal alliance, was Old Chosn, situ-
ated northeast of present-day Manchuria. Archaeological evidence
suggests that this polity emerged around the fourth century B.C. One
of the last rulers of this state, Wiman, seized power in the second
century B.C.
Less than a century after Wimans rise to power, Korea was for the
rst time subjected to Chinese aggression and direct political control.
After the Han dynasty (206 B.C.220 A.D.) conquered Wiman Chosn
in 108 B.C., Chinese ofcials established four military commanderies in
the northern part of the peninsula, the largest of which was Nangnang
(Chn. Lelang), near modern Pyngyang, which was to remain a Chi-
nese colonial bastion for over four hundred years. The other three
commanderies were abolished within thirty years of their establish-
ment owing to the resistance of the local Korean population. In addition
to administering the commandery, Han ofcials stationed at Lelang
had responsibility for overseeing most of Chinas diplomatic and com-
mercial contacts with the peoples of northeastern Asia. Over time,
these contacts had manifold cultural and political effects upon native
populations as far north as the Sungari River in upper Manchuria and
as far south as the Japanese archipelago. The Chinese colonial ofcials
were also responsible for recording the earliest extant data about the
peoples of these far-ung lands.
In the rst century B.C., powerful tribal clans on the Korean penin-
sula began to consolidate their authority over contending neighboring
clans. While the Kogury kingdom (37 B.C.668 A.D.) secured control
in the north, three new tribal federations, known as the Mahan, the
Chinhan, and the Pynhan, were established in the area south of the
Han River, roughly along the lines dictated by the primary mountain
ranges. By the middle of the fourth century A.D., the rst two of these
independent polities had evolved into centralized aristocratic states,
the Paekche kingdom (18 B.C.660 A.D.) in the southwest and the Silla
kingdom (57 B.C.668 A.D.) in the southeast (see Map 2, p. 23). The
third evolved into a federation of semi-independent principalities
known as the Kaya Federation (42562 A.D.), which occupied land in
the south central area of the Naktong River basin between Paekche
and Silla. During the next 350 years, Kogury, Silla, and Paekche vied
27
for territory and supremacy through political maneuvers and violent
clashes. These hostilities did not, however, preclude cultural inter-
change, and there are many examples of shared customs.
Kogury, the largest of the three kingdoms, had succeeded in driv-
ing out the Chinese by overtaking Lelang in 313 B.C., and expanded
its territory northeast into Manchuria. At the height of its power in
the fth century, Kogury controlled over two-thirds of the Korean
peninsula. There were frequent border clashes between Kogury and
China. Indeed, only Kogurys tenacious resistance against the expan-
sionist campaigns of the Sui (581618) and Tang (618907) dynasties
prevented Chinese conquest of Korea. However, not all encounters
with the Chinese were militant: the three Korean kingdoms actively
traded with the mainland and sought to strengthen their own political
positions by cultivating alliances with Chinese rulers. As a byproduct
of these contacts, Koreans willingly embraced elements of Chinese
statecraft and Confucianism, which, with its emphasis on loyalty to the
sovereign and deference to elders and superiors, was adopted to bolster
royal authority. Chinese writing, which had been introduced to Korea
at about the same time as iron technology, was adapted to the Korean
language. Kogury exported gold, silver, pearls, furs, ginseng, and tex-
tiles, among other items, to China, and imported weapons, silk, books,
and paper.
Buddhism also came to Korea from China, transmitted by Chinese
monks to Kogury, in 372, and then to Paekche, in 384. Silla, whose
relative geographical isolation in the southwestern part of the penin-
sula generally slowed the penetration of Chinese culture, did not of-
cially recognize Buddhism until 528. Like Confucianism, Buddhism
was used by the royal houses as a means of consolidating their power
and unifying their subjects. Buddhist deities were construed as protec-
tors of the state, and the Buddhist clergy closely allied themselves
with state institutions, sometimes serving as political advisors. The
inuence of Buddhism on the artistic developments of this time is evi-
dent in the surviving architecture and sculpture. Korea played a crucial
role in the subsequent transmission of Buddhism and its accompany-
ing architecture and art to Japan. In 538, the reigning monarch of the
kingdom of Paekche sent the ofcial diplomatic mission that intro-
duced the religion to the Japanese court.
28
Unied Silla dynasty (668935)
Through a series of military and political moves, Silla achieved domi-
nance over most of the Korean peninsula by the end of the seventh
century. Its campaign of unication began with the defeat of the Kaya
Federation in 562, after which an alliance with the Chinese Tang court
helped Silla to conquer the kingdoms of Paekche in 660 and Kogury
in 668. By 676, Silla succeeded in forcing the Chinese troops to with-
draw into Manchuria, and for the rst time in history the peninsula
came under the sway of a single Korean government. In the succeeding
Unied Silla dynasty, Korean culture ourished, creating a political
and cultural legacy that was handed down to subsequent rulers of the
country. Meanwhile, remnants of the Kogury ruling family moved
north into Manchuria and in 698 established the state of Parhae,
whose territory included the northernmost part of the Korean penin-
sula. Parhae survived until 926, when it came under the control of
northern nomadic tribes. Although the kingdom of Parhae is an
important part of the history of Korea, its impact on the countrys
later cultural history is considered minor in comparison with that of
Unied Silla.
Consolidation of the three kingdoms under a single absolute ruler
led to an increase in the wealth of the aristocracy, whose status was
secured by a rigid hereditary class system. Kyngju, the capital of Uni-
ed Silla, was a prosperous and wealthy metropolis with magnicent
palaces, imposing temples, and richly furnished tombs. The new gov-
ernment supported Buddhism as the state religion. The religions
inuence on the arts intensied during this period as the number of
Buddhist adherents increased and the religion began to permeate all
layers of society. In fact, some of the most rened and sophisticated
Buddhist art and architecture in East Asia was produced in Korea
during this time.
The Unied Silla court maintained close relations with Tang China
through trade and diplomatic and scholarly exchanges. The constant
ow of Korean travelers to China, and the occasional intrepid pilgrim
to India, contributed to a growing receptivity to foreign ideas. For
example, Confucian philosophy, administrative systems, and education
ourished under the rulers of Unied Silla, who established a state
university (kukhak) and implemented an examination system to select
c a n d i d ates for ofcial posts from members of the aristocra c y. Through-
o u t this period, Korea continued to play a crucial role in the transmis-
sion of technology and ideas to Japan.
29
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Beset by power struggles between the court and the aristocracy, Uni-
ed Silla declined in the late eighth century. The rise of local military
garrisons and landed gentry in the countryside, along with increasing
unrest among the peasants, led to a steady deterioration of the social
fabric. Rebel movements gradually encroached upon government
authority and inspired two provincial leaders to establish competing
regional states, Later Paekche in the southwest and Later Kogury in
the north, in 892 and 901, respectively. Together with the declining
Unied Silla, the two states formed what is known as the Later Three
Kingdoms period. In 918, Wang Kn (877943), a high-ranking mili-
tary ofcial, seized control of Later Kogury and established the King-
dom of Kory with the capital at Songak (modern Kaesng). In 936,
having subjugated Later Paekche, Wong Kn reunited the country
under the new Kory dynasty. (The name of this dynasty is the source
of the English name Korea.)
As in the Unied Silla period, Buddhism, especially the meditat i ve
Sn (Chn. Chan; Jpn. Zen) sect, was the dominant religion during the
Ko ry period and continued to ourish under the municent pat r o n ag e
o f the court and aristocra c y. Temples increased in number and amassed
ever more land, wealth, and political inuence during the course of t h e
dy n a s t y. The spread of Confucianism during the Unied Silla period
also continued unab ated under the new gove rnment. A civil serv i c e
ex a m i n ation system, established in 958 and based on the Chinese
model, required a thorough knowledge of the Confucian classics and
functioned to identify men capable of s e rving as gove rnment ofc i a l s.
The vogue for Chinese culture permeated every aspect of Kory
court life, even though relations with the mainland were not always
friendly. In the northern part of the peninsula, Kory engaged in
border stru ggles with nort h e rn Chinas conquerors, the Khitan and
Jurchen tribes of skillful mounted warr i o rs.
3
Kory suffered three inva-
sions by the Khitan between 993 and 1018. Although these incursions
were eventually unsuccessful, the Koreans were inspired to build a
thousand-li Long Wall (a li equals approximately one-third of a mile)
to the south of the Amnok River. Kory avoided invasion by the Jin
only by becoming a vassal of the powerful state, at the same time still
delicately maintaining relations with the Chinese court, now relocated
in the south.
A little more than a century later, devastating assaults by Mongol
forces overthrew rst the Jin dynasty in 1234 and then the Southern
30
Song in 1279. The Mongol rulers thereupon established themselves
as the emperors of China and designated their new regime the Yuan
dynasty (12721368). Korea, too, was ravaged by Mongol armies,
suffering six invasions between 1231 and 1257. In 1231 the Kory
court ed the capital and took refuge on Kanghwa Island, less than
two kilometers offshore in the Yellow Sea. Eventually, by 1270, a peace
was negotiated with the Mongol invaders, and the Kory court entered
an era of very close relations including royal intermarriage with
the Mongol Yuan emperors.
By the mid-fo u rteenth century, the Yuan dynasty had begun to dete-
r i o rat e, gra d u a l ly losing control in China as well as in its vassal state
o f Korea. In 1368, the Chinese rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu
e m p e r o r, r. 136898) successfully ousted the Yuan and established the
Ming dynasty (13681644). In Korea, King Kongmin (r. 135174), the
last authoritat i ve ruler of the Ko ry dy n a s t y, adopted a pro-Ming policy
and took action to suppress the powerful families who had benet e d
from cooperation with the Mongo l s. Although his refo rms were broadly
p o p u l a r, they were not entirely effective. Kongmin was ultimat e ly assas-
s i n ated and succeeded by a series of puppet kings.
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
In 1388, a weakened and divided Kory court sent a military expedi-
tion to invade Manchuria, in response to a declaration by the Chinese
Ming government of its intention to claim Korys northeastern terri-
tory. One of the expedition commanders, Yi Sng-gye (13351408),
renowned for expelling Japanese pirates who had terrorized Koreas
coastline, favored a pro-Ming policy and opposed the idea of the expe-
dition. Leading his troops back to the capital, he seized control of the
government. Yi Sng-gye then instituted sweeping land reforms that
in effect destroyed the power of the aristocratic families who had been
the target of the earlier unsuccessful reforms of King Kongmin. With
the support of the yangban, the educated elite who dominated both the
civil and the military branches of government, he also set out to
undermine the authority and privilege of the Buddhist clergy, who
were seen as inextricably bound to the corrupt and decadent Kory
court. In 1392, having consolidated his power and eliminated his rivals,
Yi founded a new dynasty, which he named Chosn, after the ancient
Korean kingdom that had ourished in the fourth century B.C.
The royal house of Yi ruled Korea until the end of dynastic control
in the early twentieth century. This new dynasty, with its capital at
31
Hanyang (modern Seoul), strove to distance itself from the former
Kory court. The practice of Buddhism was discouraged, and Neo-
Confucianism was embraced by the court and aristocracy as the ofcial
state ideology and dominant social system. With Chosn government
support, Neo-Confucianisms inuence came to permeate elite Korean
society and culture. Through observance of textually prescribed cere-
monies and rites, all social interactionsfrom the public arena to the
intimate circle of the family were affected by Confucianisms ideals
and hierarchical values.
The fortunes of the yangban improved markedly during the early
years of Chosn rule, as they assumed the duties formerly fullled
by the upper ranks of the aristocracy and landowning families of the
Kory. In theory, the yangban owed their position to their performance
in the civil service examinations that had been formally established
by the Kory court and were ostensibly open to all educated free males.
In fact, by restricting access to education and the examination system,
the yangban maintained control over the bureaucracy.
The reign of King Sejong (r. 141850) was the cultural high point
of the early Chosn dynasty. One of Sejongs most noteworthy accom-
plishments was the introduction in 1446 of an indigenous writing sys-
tem, known today as hangl. This phonetic writing system was
devised for thoseprimarily women and non-yangban menwho had
no opportunity to learn classical Chinese, an arduous system to master
and one that ill matched the Korean language.
For much of the mid-Chosn period, Korea was in political and
intellectual turmoil. The country was ravaged by two devastating mili-
tary campaigns, in 1592 and 1597, waged by the Japanese warlord
Toyotomi Hideyoshi (15361598). In 1636, Manchu armies, taking
advantage of the weakened and disorganized Ming court in China, also
launched an invasion of Korea, but with less damaging results than the
war with Japan. The indecision and ineffectiveness of Ming troops
during the Japanese invasions, and the rise of the Manchus as a new
regional power, intensied the debate at the Chosn court about the
role of Chinese culture in Korea. Some ofcials supported continued
political and cultural loyalty to the Ming, whereas others advised that
the country abandon what was perceived as a slavish imitation of Chi-
nese culture and concentrate instead on the development of indigenous
institutions and traditions. Following the defeat in 1644 of the Ming
dynasty and the subsequent establishment of the Qing dynasty (1644
1911) by the Manchus, the debate grew even more heated. Pro-Chinese
32
factions argued for the support of Ming loyalist movements, while
anti-Chinese cliques pointed to the fall of the Ming as a vindication of
their position. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, promoters
of an independent Korean culture prevailed at court and instigated the
enactment of political, economic, and social policies that encouraged
distinctive native traditions in the ne arts, literature, and the decora-
tive arts.
The positive political and economic developments of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries notwithstanding, many causes of gov-
ernmental instability and social unrest remained unaddressed within
Korea. The enervating effects of these problems were aggravated in
the nineteenth century, rst by the protracted domination of the cen-
tral government by avaricious royal in-law families, and second by the
disruptive pressures exerted on the government by foreign imperialist
powers. Motivated by regional strategic concerns, China, Russia, and
Japan brazenly sought concessions and inuence on the peninsula. The
major European powers and the United States also pursued advanta-
geous concessions, sometimes arguing that such arrangements also
beneted the Koreans. The Chosn government proved to be too weak
and ill prepared to resist the rising tide of foreign domination. After
its victory in 1905 in the Russo-Japanese War, Japan formally annexed
the peninsula in 1910, beginning a period of colonial rule that lasted
until 1945.
Korea and the West
Reports made by Arab traders in the ninth century provide the rst
known accounts about Korea circulated west of India.
4
The traveler
Ibn Khordhbeh, who served the Abbassid Caliph Ahmed al-Mutamid
alallah (r. 87092) of Syria, mentioned the high mountains, abundant
gold, and presence of such uncommon materials as ginseng, lacquer,
porcelain, and cinnamon in his descriptions of Korea. The thirteenth-
century merchant Marco Polo, who claimed to have journeyed from
Italy to China, briey noted the existence of Korea in his travel mem-
oirs, referring to it as the land east of China that had been annexed by
Khubilai Khan (r. 126094).
More extensive (although still vague) reports about Korea were
sent by Jesuit missionaries working in China and Japan in the seven-
teenth century. These priests also made the rst attempts to introduce
Christianity into Korea, although these efforts proved futile. During
the next two centuries, a few European priests tried to establish an
33
ofcial presence in Korea but were martyred as part of the Chosn
governments strict determination to suppress the spread of Christian-
ity in the peninsula. The most complete written account circulated in
Europe in this era was the seaman Hendrik Hamels record of his thir-
teen years spent in captivity in Korea after his ship was stranded off
Cheju Island, off the southwest coast of the peninsula. Hamel offered
one of the rst eyewitness accounts of the country made by a Euro-
pean and, in particular, noted the Korean enthusiasm for education
and literacy and the differences between the homes of the nobles and
commoners.
Under duress, Korea signed the Treaty of Kanghwa with Japan in
1876. This agreement succeeded in opening Korea to the outside world
and was followed by other unequal treaties with the United States,
Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia, France, and the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. The Korean-French Treaty of 1886 allowed the propagation
of Christianity in Korea, thereby initiating a ood of Roman Catholic
and Protestant missionaries from the West into the peninsula.
Notes
1. For a more detailed discussion of Korean history, see Jonathan W. Best, Prole
of the Korean Past, in Arts of Korea, pp. 1438. On the subject of Korean state-
formation theories, see Hyung Il Pai, Constructing Korean Origins: A Critical Review
of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in Korean State-Formation Theories
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center and Harvard University Press,
2000).
2. It should be noted that many scholars consider the terms Paleolithic and
Neolithic inaccurate descriptions of Koreas earliest developmental stages. Some
prefer to identify various periods by the dominant pottery type of the time, while
others emphasize the stage of economic or social development.
3. The Khitan were semi-nomadic people from the Mongolian steppes. After consol-
i d ating control over the other tribes in the terr i t o ry north of China, they establ i s h e d
the Liao dynasty (9161125) and occupied part of northern China. The Jurchen,
another semi-nomadic people from Manchuria, who founded the Jin dynasty
(11151234), defeated the Khitan Liao and in 1126 attacked Kaifeng, the capital of
the Northern Song dynasty (9601127), bringing the Northern Song to an end.
4. Beginning in the Three Kingdoms period, Indian and Central Asian monks were
known to have traveled to Korea to promote Buddhism, while Koreans traveled
westward to study the religion at its source.
34
Korean Religions and Systems of T h o u g h t
In the course of its long history, Korea has developed and assimilated a
number of diverse religious and philosophical traditions. Although
their inuence on Korean society has varied over time, these traditions,
once established, became a xed part of Korean life. Not only have
these traditions coexisted but they have also inuenced each other,
exchanging and sharing ideas, practices, and sacred gures. This ten-
dency to accommodate diverse religions and systems of thought is
found throughout East Asian cultures.
Shamanism is Koreas earliest belief system and forms an enduring
part of its cultural foundation, affecting the other religions that fol-
lowed. Knowledge of Chinese Confucianism and Daoism reached
Korea between 108 B.C. and 313 A.D., when Chinas rulers maintained
military commanderies in the northern part of the peninsula. However,
neither exerted a strong impact on Korean society for several cen-
turies. Buddhism was imported from China into the peninsula in the
fourth century and dominated religious, cultural, and artistic life from
the latter part of the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.)
through the Unied Silla (668935) and Kory (9181392) dynasties.
During the subsequent Chosn period (13921910), Confucianism,
which had been used to a limited extent by the Unied Silla and Kory
monarchies for its political, social, and educational benets, gained pri-
macy and became the dominant social system. Koreans learned of
Christianity in the seventeenth century, primarily from European
Jesuits and Chinese converts in China. Despite the Chosn courts
strenuous efforts to eradicate Christianity in Korea, the country today
has the largest Christian following in East Asia (although Buddhism
remains the dominant religion).
Shamanism
Shamanism (musok), according to a narrow denition, originated
in the Ural-Altaic regions northwest of Korea. This collection of
customs and practices, brought to the peninsula in ancient times by
migrants from the north, centers on the powers of a priest to act as
35
an intermediary between the human and spirit realms. In Korea, a
supreme deity, Hanunim, presides over a world in which the sun, moon,
stars, earth, mountains, trees, and various parts of the household are
imbued with a divine spirit, often manifested in the form of folk deities.
Since at least the Kory period, most shamans have been women,
usually from the lower classes. Shamanisms relationship with Koreas
rulers and the state has vacillated over the centuries. Ancient tribal
chieftains are thought to have been shamans, and during the early
Three Kingdoms period, shamans exerted considerable inuence in
political and military affairs. In later times, especially during the
Chosn period, Confucian bureaucrats often attempted to suppress
shamanistic practices. Throughout Korean history, however, members
of all levels of society have from time to time sought the assistance of
shamans to cure illness, appease the dead, learn about the future, and
secure good fortune, among other concerns.
Kut. This ritual performance, the most important ceremony in sha-
manism, marks the occasion when a spirit is invited to take possession
of a shaman in order to communicate with the supplicant. A kut may
be conducted to dispel evil spirits, summon rain, give thanks for a
bountiful harvest, cure illness, or ensure good fortune. During a kut,
Korean shamans typically dress in costumes and dance to music and
drumming, display pictures of folk gods, and make offerings of food,
money, or paper reproductions of valuable objects.
Mudang. This term refers to Korean female shamans, who are more
numerous than male shamans. Their primary work is to communicate
the wishes of a spirit or deity (benevolent or evil) who takes possession
of them during a ritual trance. It is thought that these women, who are
usually the daughters or adopted daughters of other mudang, assume
their profession in response to a call from the spirits. If this summons
is ignored, sickness, especially in the form of dreams or hallucinations,
is said to afict the individual. A woman becomes a mudang in an initi-
ation ritual during which she learns the identity of her personal deity
and receives the cult objects that she will use. Mudang are not part of
an organized clergy and do not use an established liturgy.
36
Shamanism and Art
The objects and ornaments used in ceremonies and for communicat i o n
with the spirits are the most direct expression of shamanism in art. Rit-
ual implements such as bronze rat t l e s, and decorat i ve accessories such
as gold crowns and belts with antler-shaped appendages and curved jade
pendants (kog o k), found in tombs of the Bronze Age (ca. 10thca. 3rd
c e n t u ry B.C.) to the Silla period (57 B.C.668 A.D.), suggest that in ancient
times the role of shaman was perfo rmed by members of the ruling class.
In later periods, paintings and sculptures of folk deities were produced
for use during k u t and related rituals. The concept of r ep r e s e n t i n g
sacred beings in anthropomorphic fo rm was rst inspired by Buddhism.
The ideas, pra c t i c e s, and imag e ry associated with shamanism have
s t r o n g ly inuenced Korean nat i ve my t h s, literat u r e, and the visual art s,
e s p e c i a l ly folk art. Symbolic images of a n i m a l s, plants, and deities
d e r i ved from shamanism can be found in a variety of sacred and secular
o b j e c t s. For ex a m p l e, images of Sansin, folk god of the mountain spirits,
are used in shamanistic rituals and are also placed in shrines dedicat e d
to him in Korean Buddhist temples. Sansin is often shown accompanied
by a tiger, a symbol of p ower and courage and one of the most popular
i m ages in Korean decorat i ve painting and Chosn cera m i c s.
Although the connection is less obvious, the directness and famil-
iarity that characterize much of Korean art are reminiscent of the
energy and vitality of the kut, which serves to connect humans with
the realms of nature and the spirits.
Buddhism
Buddhism (pulgyo), founded by the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama
(d. ca. 400 B.C.; traditional dates ca. 556483 B.C.), revered today as the
Buddha or Buddha Shakyamuni, is one of the great world religions.
The basic tenets of Buddhism are that life is impermanent, illusory,
and lled with suffering, which is caused by desire and ignorance and
gives rise to a continuous cycle of death and rebirth. The cessation of
suffering (Skt. nirvana) is achieved when desire and ignorance are
extinguished, which is possible through a life of moderation, moral
conduct, and meditative practice.
The early form of Buddhism, known as Theravada (also called
Hinayana), focuses on personal salvation, possible only for those who
join a monastic order. The later form of Buddhism, Mahayana (the
Great or Universal Vehicle), offers salvation for all sentient beings. In
37
their pursuit of this goal, followers of Mahayana seek the assistance of
saviors and guides known as bodhisattvas. Mahayana was the branch
of Buddhism most widely disseminated across northeast Asia. The
Esoteric sects, which evolved somewhat later and offered immediate
salvation through elaborate rituals and powerful deities, were espe-
cially appealing to the ruling classes of China, Korea, and Japan.
Buddhism was transmitted throughout Asia along sea and land
routes by traders, monks, and travelers. The religion spread eastward
across Central Asia, reaching China in about the rst century A.D. It
was transmitted to Korea in the fourth century by Buddhist monks
sent from China, and subsequently became the ofcial religion of the
kingdoms of Kogury (37 B.C.668 A.D.), Paekche (18 B.C.660 A.D.),
and eventually Silla. It was through Korea that Buddhism was formally
introduced to Japan in the sixth century, initially by ofcial envoys
from the Paekche court.
Buddhism in Korea found greatest favor among the court and
aristocracy, who looked to the religion to assist in the development and
protection of their emerging centralized stat e s. The ru l e rs attempted to
legitimize their authority and garner support by likening themselves
and their kingdoms to the enlightened buddhas and paradise realms
described in Buddhist scriptures. The close relationship between early
Korean Buddhism and the welfare of the state is echoed in the Five
Precepts for Lay People, an inuential code of conduct formulated by
the famous monk Wngwang (d. ca. 630) especially for young male
aristocrats: Serve the king with loyalty; Serve ones parents with devo-
tion; Treat ones friends with trust; Do not avoid combat; and Do not
kill indiscriminately. These rules also reveal a strong Confucian inu-
ence, and thus exemplify the Korean tendency to merge aspects of
different belief systems.
Many schools of Buddhism were imported during the Unied Silla
and Kory periods. During the latter dynasty, these sects were divided
into two broad groups: the textual sect, Kyo, which stressed mastery
of the scriptures, and the contemplative sect, Sn (Chn. Chan; Jpn.
Zen), which emphasized meditation and a more individual approach to
spiritual understanding. The principal schools in the Kyo tradition
were the philosophical Avatamsaka (Hwam) school and the devotional
Pure Land sect, which focused on the worship of Amitabha (Amita),
the Buddha of the Western Paradise. From the twelfth century on,
however, Sn was the primary form of Buddhism practiced in Korea.
1
38
The Unied Silla and Kory royal courts and aristocracy actively
patronized Buddhism, donating large amounts of money and land to
support the construction of Buddhist temples and monasteries and the
production of exquisite works of art. By the end of the Kory period,
however, the wealth and political power amassed by the Buddhist
establishment, the reported corruption of the clergy, and the expense
of publicly funded Buddhist rituals generated increasing criticism.
While several Chosn monarchs and female members of the royal fam-
ily remained devout Buddhists, the establishment of the Chosn
dynasty, which suppressed Buddhism and embraced Neo-Confucianism
as the new state ideology, marked the end of Buddhisms golden period
in Korean history.
2
In the following section, the names of Buddhist deities are given in
Sanskrit, the ancient Indic language that is the sacred and classical lan-
guage of Hinduism and Buddhism. The Korean equivalent is given in
parentheses.
Amitabha (Amita). The principle deity of Mahayana Pure Land Bud-
dhism, the Buddha Amitabha, whose name means Innite Light, pre-
sides over the Western Paradise, one of many Buddhist pure lands
where one may blissfully reside until nirvana is achieved. Motivated by
compassion and wisdom, Amitabha leads devotees after their death to
his realm, regardless of their past deeds, if they call out his name with
sincerity. Amitabha is often shown as a meditating buddha, as the cen-
tral gure of the Western Paradise, or descending from above to lead
souls to his paradise (see image 15 ).
Avalokiteshvara (Kwanm). This bodhisattva is one of the most
important and popular gures in Mahayana Buddhism. Revered for
his great compassion and wisdom, Avalokiteshvara is the manifestation
of the power of Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise.
Avalokiteshvaras association with Amitabha is often indicated by a
small, seated representation of the buddha in the crown of his head-
dress. Although he has a variety of attributes, he is most commonly
shown holding a ask of holy water, a willow branch, or a lotus blos-
som. Avalokiteshvara can assume many guises, both male and female,
human and suprahuman, depending on the intended function and set-
ting of the image (see image 16 ).
39
Image 15
Image 16
Avatamsaka (Hwam). After three decades of study in China, the emi-
nent Silla monk isang (625701) returned to Korea and established
the Avatamsaka school, the principle school of Mahayana Buddhism.
Known in Korea as Hwam, it became the dominant philosophical
Buddhist sect and appealed in particular to intellectuals among the
Unied Silla and Kory aristocracy. Followers of this powerful school
stressed that all things were part of a single, higher whole, comparable
to the waves that make up the sea. During its period of orescence,
the Hwam school inspired not only a rich body of intellectual and
theological interpretations but also numerous visual representations
of the scriptures.
B o d h i s at t va (p o s al). A bodhisat t va is an enlightened being who, despite
h aving accumulated sufcient wisdom and merit to achieve nirvana, re-
nounces complete freedom from the world of suffering until all sentient
beings can be saved. Motivated by compassion, bodhisat t vas active ly
assist those in need and therefore are common objects of d evotion and
s u p p l i c ation. Their engagement with this world is often expressed in
their depiction as bejeweled and richly ornamented g u r e s.
Buddha (pul or puch). A buddha, or enlightened one, is a being who,
having realized the truths espoused in Buddhism, has freed himself
from the attachments and desires that bind one to the painful cycle of
death and rebirth. Having achieved full liberation (nirvana) from the
cycle of reincarnation, a buddha is no longer inuenced by sensations,
emotions, and events. While the name Buddha customarily refers to
the founder of the religion, the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, there
are numerous buddhas. They are often depicted as monks dressed in
simple robes and bearing the physical markings (Skt. lakshana) of
enlightenment (see g. 1, p. 43), but in certain manifestations they are
shown as richly ornamented regal gures (see images 5, 15, 17 ).
Esoteric Buddhism. This version of Buddhist practice, which is also
known as Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana, represents the last major
phase of the religion in India. Developed between the fourth and sixth
centuries, Esoteric Buddhism was transmitted to East and Southeast
Asia, and reached its greatest level of inuence in Tibet. Generally
taught to initiates by a highly revered teacher, Esoteric Buddhist prac-
tices include rites that use magic, incantations, and ritualized actions to
achieve enlightenment in ones lifetime. This form of Buddhism also
40
Images 5, 15, 17
incorporates a diverse pantheon of male and female deities that can
assume many different manifestations and forms.
Kshitigarbha (Chijang). Kshitigarbha (literally, womb of the earth)
is a bodhisattva who is dedicated to the rescue of beings in hell. Depic-
tions of this deity typically show him dressed as a monk, carrying a
six-ringed staff in one hand and a wish-granting jewel in the other
(see image 18 ).
Mahayana. Mahayana, or the Great Vehicle, so named because it is
meant to deliver all beings from the cycle of suffering to salvation,
developed out of the older Theravada, or Hinayana, tradition around
the rst century A.D. Mahayana offers the assistance of compassionate
buddhas and bodhisattvas, who are able to alleviate the suffering of
supplicants and assist them in their quest for enlightenment. This
branch of Buddhism, which gained prominence in East Asia, teaches
that all sentient beings possess the potential for enlightenment and
attainment of buddhahood.
Maitreya (Mirk). Maitreya (meaning benevolence) is the all-
compassionate buddha, who, after the conclusion of the current period
dominated by the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, will come to earth as
the last earthly buddha. Until the time of his appearance as a buddha,
Maitreya resides in the Tushita Heaven as a bodhisattva. He is there-
fore depicted as either an unornamented buddha or a bejeweled bodhi-
sattva. He occasionally wears a miniature stupa in his headdress, and
may hold a vase or a wheel representing Buddhist teaching. A cult ded-
icated to Maitreya was popular during the Three Kingdoms, especially
among the young male aristocrats known as hwarang (ower youth)
who honored the ve injunctions laid down by the monk Wngwang,
and in the Unied Silla period.
Meditation. This term encompasses a variety of techniques and
types of religious practices derived from ancient yogic teachings that
are designed to calm and concentrate the mind, making possible the
ultimate goal of developing the practitioners consciousness to the
point of inner enlightenment.
Nirvana. Considered by Buddhists to be beyond description and deni-
tion, nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice. It refers to the
41
Image 18
state of bliss attained when one is no longer deluded by ignorance,
inuenced by attachments and desires generated by the ego, or subject
to the cycle of rebirth, the nature of which is conditioned by the deeds
(Skt. karma) of former lives. In Mahayana Buddhism, nirvana also
includes the awareness of ones unity with the absolute.
Pure Land school. This school of Buddhism, which had reached Korea
by the seventh century, emphasizes faith in Amitabha, expressed pri-
marily through recitation of his name and the desire to be reborn into
his Western Paradise. Because it offers a simple and direct route to sal-
vation, Pure Land Buddhism became very popular among the common
people in Korea.
S h a kya m u n i (Skkamoni or Ska-bul). The name Shakya m u n i , m e a n-
ing Sage of the Shakya clan, r e f e rs to Prince Siddhartha (d. ca. 400 B.C.;
traditional dates ca. 556483 B.C.) of the royal Gautama family, the
founder of Buddhism. Born in northeastern India, as a young adult
Shakyamuni became distressed over the human condition of suffering
and death. He abandoned worldly life to seek the cause of pain and
discover a means of attaining release. After achieving enlightenment,
Shakyamuni spent the remaining decades of his life traveling and
teaching his doctrine of meditation and moderate living. He is most
often shown as a monk with physical marks that signify his enlight-
ened status, such as a cranial protuberance, tuft of hair in the middle
of his forehead, and elongated earlobes (see image 5 and g. 1).
Sn (Chn. Chan; Jpn. Zen). Sn is the Korean version of the Chan
school of Mahayana Buddhism, which developed in China between the
sixth and seventh centuries. The origins of this school are traced to
the legendary Indian monk Bodhidharma, who is said to have traveled
to China in the early sixth century and guided his followers in their
search for a direct, intuitive approach to enlightenment through
meditation. A form of Chan Buddhism was transmitted to Korea
perhaps as early as the seventh century, reportedly by a Korean monk
who journeyed to China and studied with the fourth patriarch Daoxin
(580 651). Sn developed in nine independent mountain centers
(kusan sonmun) and, after the twelfth century, became the dominant
form of Buddhist practice in Korea.
42
Image 5
Buddhism and Art
Buddhism, which had deeply permeated Korean elite culture long
before the political unication of the country in the seventh century
and served as the national religion until the end of the fourteenth cen-
tury, had an enormous impact on the arts of Korea. The majority of
Koreas most important surviving art treasures were inspired by the
practice of this religion. According to Buddhist teachings, devotees
attain religious merit through the commissioning and production of
images and texts. This belief motivated the creation of enormous num-
bers of votive gures, ritual implements, paintings, and illuminated
manuscripts of Buddhist scriptures. Many of these objects were made
for the numerous temples built by the Three Kingdoms and Unied
Silla kings as well as the Kory monarchs and nobles. Because mem-
bers of the upper classes were for centuries the primary proponents
of Buddhism in Korea, huge sums were lavished on the production of
exquisite devotional objects.
Religious texts, or sutras, provide the foundation of Buddhist belief.
Sutras were copied and often illustrated by hand or produced in multi-
ple copies with the technique of woodblock printing. Highly skilled
calligraphers and painters were employed by the royal court and aris-
tocracy to produce these sacred works using the nest materials.
The representation of deities and spiritually perfected people is a
fundamental artistic expression of Buddhist thought. The enlightened
status of these gures is visually conveyed in part through their
appearance as idealized beings. Specic attributes and distinguishing
marks such as a protuberance on top of the head and a tuft of hair
in the middle of the forehead (generally represented by a dot between
43
allaying gesture
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
teaching
bestowing teaching the law or
turning the wheel
of the law
calling the earth to witness
(signifying the Buddhas
right to enlightenment)
discussing
Figure 1. Buddhist corporeal iconography and symbolic hand gestures, or mudras
1. skull protuberance wisdom
2. tuft of hair or gem enlightenment
3. extended earlobes princely
wealth, rejection of materialism
4. three neck folds auspiciousness
5. monks robes ascetic life of
the Buddha
6. mudra symbolic hand gesture
(here indicating meditation)
7. seated in lotus position
8. lotus platform purity
prayer meditation
the eyebrows)as well as hand gestures (Skt. mudra) communicate
information to the viewer about the identity of the gure or convey a
m e s s age (see g. 1). Buddhist deities are frequently depicted with a halo
or nimbus surrounding their heads and/or an aureole, or mandorla,
around their entire bodies. As in the West, these representations of
emanating light indicate the gures spiritual radiance. The magical
abilities and power of deities in the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon are
often represented by such suprahuman characteristics as multiple arms
and heads. The setting in which a gure is depicted can also reveal
clues to the deitys identity. For example, the Buddha Amitabha is
often shown presiding over his Western Paradise anked by the bod-
hisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta (see image 15 ).
Ideas about physical perfection and beauty are closely connected
with the culture in which they prevail. Modern viewers, therefore,
must keep in mind that their own concepts of physical beauty may dif-
fer from beliefs held by people in other places and times. Specically,
the soft, rounded physiques and gentle expressions of Buddhist
images, especially bodhisattvas, often look feminine to modern West-
ern viewers. The makers of these images were responding to a number
of impulses, including their own ideas about physical perfection and a
desire to depict deities that transcend the limitations of age, gender,
and human physical features.
Confucianism
Confucianism (yugyo) is the philosophical, social, and political doctrine
developed in China based on the teachings of Confucius (ca. 551
479 B.C.) and his principal followers. This ideology was developed in
response to the need for a new system that could provide the social
cohesion and moral imperat i ves demanded by the shift during the Zhou
dynasty (ca. 1046256 B.C.) from a society dictated by the belief in
the power of ancestral spirits to one in which man assumed the central
position. Through the writings attributed to Confucius and his follow-
ers, Confucianism offered a code of proper social conduct motivated
by virtue and tempered by humanism. During his lifetime, Confucius
had little success in convincing rulers to adopt his system, and his
precepts did not become guiding principles in China until the Han
period (206 B.C.220 A.D.).
Confucius exhorted rulers to govern by example. He believed that
if a king behaved properly and observed the necessary rituals, society
44
Image 15
would be stable and harmonious. Rituals held a central position in
Confucian ethics because their performance was thought to encourage
the best aspects of human nature and to correct character aws. Con-
fucianism emphasizes ve fundamental relationships, which if properly
maintained will result in a harmonious, virtuous society: ruler and
minister, father and son (lial piety), husband and wife, elder brother
and younger brother, and friend and friend. Filial piety, for example,
requires that a son defer to and care for his parents while they are alive
and after their deaths honor them with a suitable funeral, a properly
observed mourning period, and timely acts of veneration through the
presentation of offerings. Because Confucius also advocated the
appointment of learned and capable administrators to government
posts rather than dependence on a hereditary system, Confucianism
became closely associated with education and an examination system
whereby the government could identify talented men.
Confucius expressed little interest in metaphysical matters, and
limited his comments on the spiritual realm to general references to an
impersonal Heaven. Although shrines dedicated to Confucius and wor-
thy dignitaries and heroes were established in later times, Confucian-
ism is not, strictly speaking, a religion. It never developed a formal
clergy, and the most important rituals associated with its practice are
ancestral rites.
Introduced into Korea with the establishment of the Chinese Han
military commanderies in the northern part of the peninsula at the
end of the second century B.C., Confucianism was utilized by the rulers
of the Three Kingdoms, Unied Silla, and Kory to enhance their
political authority. They embraced the Confucian virtues of loyalty,
social harmony, and class stratication, established academies in which
Confucian classics were taught to the sons of the aristocracy, instituted
civil service ex a m i n ations for members of the upper classes, and adopted
Chinese-style rites.
In the nal decades of the Kory dynasty, bureaucrats steeped in
Confucian learning increasingly opposed the political and economic
power of the Buddhist clergy, whom they considered to be a corrupt
and enervating inuence. With the establishment of the Chosn
dynasty, Confucianism emerged as the dominant ideology in Korean
society, with a strict emphasis on the proper observance of ancestral
rites and interpersonal relationships. This expansion of Confucian-
isms reach coincided with the growing inuence in Korea of Neo-
Confucianism, called sngri-hak (philosophy of mind and principle) or
45
chuja-hak (philosophy of Master Zhu, or Zhu Xi [11301200], the
great Neo-Confucian scholar of the Chinese Song dynasty). Incorpo-
rating concepts from Daoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism
shifted attention to the cultivation of the self through the study of
metaphysical and cosmological ideas.
After the devastating Japanese invasions of the peninsula in the
late sixteenth century, followed a few decades later by the fall of the
Ming dynasty (13681644) in China, which had been viewed as
Koreas role model, many Korean intellectuals recognized a need for
reform. The faction known as Sirhak-pa (School of Practical Learning)
became a formidable intellectual force in the late seventeenth century.
The Sirhak scholars, who advocated political, economic, social, and
educational reforms, took practical affairs as their point of departure,
emphasizing not only the traditional humanistic disciplines but also
the study of science, natural science, and technology. Their interest in
promoting a new understanding of the countrys history and culture
led to a surge of publications on various aspects of Korean history,
literature, language, and geography.
Neo-Confucianism. Based on the writings of the twelfth-century
Chinese scholar Zhu Xi, Neo-Confucianism represented a major intel-
lectual breakthrough in Chinese philosophy. It grew out of a revival
of the ancient moral philosophy of Confucianism combined with
metaphysical concepts borrowed from Daoism and Buddhism. Neo-
Confucian philosophers developed a metaphysical system of heavenly
principles, which embraced both a transcendent reality and the
cultivation of the self.
Yangban. Members of the educated elite, the yangban dominated soci-
ety in the Chosn period. They were typically educated in the Confu-
cian classics, which prepared them for the ofcial civil and military
service examinations and positions in the government bureaucracy.
While not all yangban were wealthy, their status as ofcials and land-
holders allowed many to become afuent. Although, theoretically, all
educated men were eligible to take the exams necessary for entry into
the ranks of the bureaucracy, in practice, membership in the yangban
class was largely restricted to established upper-class families: access
to education was restricted, land and property were inherited by the
eldest son, and endogamous marriages were preferred. Beginning in
the seventeenth century, attitudinal changes caused an expansion in
46
yangban ranks, weakening class exclusivity. Eventually, the term
became a polite reference for any gentleman.
Zhu Xi (11301200). Zhu Xi was one of Chinas most inuential
philosophers and the founder of the Neo-Confucian orthodox School
of Principle, which taught that the mind is disciplined and morality is
learned through the investigation of thingsan objective study of
the many aspects of the material world.
Confucianism and Art
Confucius is said to have advised gentlemen to cultivate their moral
character in part through the appreciation of music and the study of
literature and history. Confucianism exerted its strongest impact on
the ne arts through the aesthetics it espoused. Restraint, modesty,
and naturalness were encouraged in the form of muted colors, subtle
decoration, and a preference for organic materials. White-bodied
porcelains, scholars utensils made of bamboo, wood, or stone, and sim-
ple white silk robes epitomized Confucian sensibilities.
Confucian veneration of ancestors and teachers prompted the rise
of private Confucian academies (swn) and the production of portraits
of ancestors as well as those of renowned Confucian masters. Domes-
tic rites, the most important of which were coming-of-age ceremonies,
weddings, funerals, and veneration of the ancestors, constituted the
most essential aspects of private Confucian practice during the Chosn
period. Ancestral rites were typically carried out by men of the upper
class in family shrines, which were usually located within the domestic
compound of the eldest male. Offerings of wine, food, and tea were
presented to the ancestors, represented by inscribed name plaques
placed on an altar. While food was usually presented on wood or
metal plates and bowls, wine was offered in small cups made of white
porcelain or metal (see image 22 ). After the service, the relatives of
the deceased would consume the food and drink in a family meal.
Confucian scholars were usually active practitioners and patrons
of calligraphy and literati painting. Ideally, these arts were enjoyed
as a means of personal expression, either alone or among like-minded
friends. Ink paintings of bamboo, orchids, and landscapes rendered
with little or no color and employing calligraphic brushwork are typi-
cal examples of literati art (see image 28 and Artists and Materials ,
pp. 7072).
47
Image 22
Image 28
Daoism
Daoism (sometimes romanized as Taoism) is native to China, and
encompasses various ancient practices and schools of thought ignored
or rejected by Confucianism. The older form of Daoism, philosophical
Daoism (toga), consists of concepts credited to Laozi (5th century B.C.)
and Zhuangzi (ca. 369ca. 286 B.C.), who advocated a passive acquies-
cence to the Dao (The Way of the Universe) and a close relationship
with nature. Around the second century A.D., Daoism absorbed compo-
nents of shamanism, alchemy, medicine, and various primitive cults
and developed into religious Daoism (togyo).
Chinese inhabitants of the Han military commanderies in northern
Korea are presumed to have introduced Daoist texts and beliefs into
the peninsula as part of the transmission of Chinese culture. Members
of the Kogury aristocracy, for example, are known to have requested
information about Daoist practices from China. Although many
Daoist ideas were absorbed into Korean society, Daoism never became
established in an organized form but was an important feature of the
cultural background.
Because of the many similarities between religious Daoism and
shamanism, practices not associated with Buddhism or Confucianism
such as the use of c h a rms and certain symbols are sometimes incor-
r e c t ly identied as being Daoist. Moreove r, some concep t s, such as the
two altern ating principles of the unive rs e, y i n and ya n g (m and ya n g) ,
and geomancy, are commonly at t r i buted to Daoism, although they actu-
a l ly predate it. In general, conceptions of the immortals and their
realms and the pursuit of i m m o rtality through alchemical means are
the most authentic expressions of religious Daoism.
Dao. The Dao (or The Way of the Universe) is a fundamental term in
Chinese philosophy for the unchangeable, transcendent source of all
existence. This principle, which is vast and indescribable, encompass-
ing action and nonaction, void and matter, knowledge and ignorance,
remains constant as all else changes.
Laozi (5th century B.C.). The semilegendary founder of Daoism and
author of the classic Daodejing, Laozi is said to have been a govern-
ment ofcial until he grew dissatised with political conditions in
China and left the country to travel westward. He is thought to have
been an acquaintance of Confucius, and his followers claim that he
taught the Buddha Shakyamuni.
48
Zhuangzi (ca. 369ca. 286 B.C.). Zhuangzi was one of the most impor-
tant early developers of Daoist philosophy. He is credited with a book
of poems, parables, and fantasies describing the importance of passiv-
ity and the maintenance of a close connection with nature, as well as
criticizing government service.
Daoism and Art
As mentioned above, it is often difcult to separate Daoist ideas from
those of shamanism. While gures such as the God of Longevity
known as Shoulao in Chinese and frequently pictured as a wizened old
man carrying a large peachhave Daoist origins, over time they have
been conated with Korean folk deities associated with shamanism.
In this case, Shoulao has been combined with the popular deities
Namguksong (the Southern Star spirit) and Chilsong (Seven Stars).
Similarly, symbols of longevity, including the pine tree, crane, and fun-
gus of immortality, are found in both Daoist and shamanist contexts.
Philosophical Daoism emphasizes the maintenance of a strong
connection with the natural world, which is seen as necessary to the
proper development of human character. In part resulting from Dao-
isms inuence, nature holds a critical position in East Asian culture
and thought. This attitude bolstered the development of landscape
painting, which by denition in East Asia consists of mountains and
water elements made up of opposite physical characteristics (see
Key Themes, Na t u re, p. 16). Up until modern times, whenever humans
are included in landscape compositions, they typically reect the
Daoist ideal of man in harmony with nature.
Christianity
Korean art from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries and objects
associated with Christianity are not represented in the Metropolitan
Museums collection, thus the religion is only briey discussed here.
In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, European
missionaries attempted but failed to establish a foothold in Korea as
part of their proselytizing efforts in other parts of Asia. After encoun-
tering Jesuit priests in Beijing in the second half of the seventeenth
century, Korean emissaries were the rst to introduce Christian texts
and ideas to Korea successfully. Initially, Roman Catholicisms most
receptive audience were upper-class intellectuals, especially those of
49
the Sirhak (Practical Learning) movement, which advocated using
Western scientic knowledge to reform Korean commerce and agri-
culture. These men met secretly and their numbers, which came to
include many commoners, swelled to approximately 10,000 in the early
years of the nineteenth century. They sent requests to the Europeans
to send priests, many of whom were eventually martyred. During the
nineteenth century, the Korean government, fearing Western incur-
sions, the prevalence of political opposition among Christian ranks,
and Catholicisms ban on ancestor worship, enacted a number of brutal
persecutions that killed tens of thousands of people and drove the
Christian church underground until the 1870s.
Protestantism was established in Korea in the last decades of the
nineteenth century. In addition to their evangelical efforts, Protestant
missionaries, the majority of whom came from the United States,
Canada, and Au s t ralia, instituted important changes in the areas of e d u-
c ation and modern medicine. The use of hangl, the native syllabary
system, in religious books was instrumental in increasing the literacy
rate among the population, especially among women. Missionaries
founded several important hospitals and educational institutions,
including Yonsei University and Ewha Womans University in Seoul.
Notes
1. For further information on the development of various schools of Buddhism in
Korea, see Pak Youngsook, The Korean Art Collection in The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, in Arts of Korea, pp. 42426. A more detailed account is provided
by Lewis R. Lancaster and Yu Chai-shin in Introduction of Buddhism to Korea: New
Cultural Patterns, vol. 3, and Assimilation of Buddhism in Korea: Religious Maturity
and Innovation in the Silla Dynasty, vol. 4, Studies in Korean Religions and Culture
(Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press, 1989 and 1991).
2. Jonathan W. Best, Imagery, Iconography and Belief in Early Korean Buddhism,
Korean Culture (Fall 1992), pp. 2333, is a useful overview of Korean Buddhist
history, and includes a description of important deities in the Korean Buddhist
pantheon and their iconography.
50
Overview of Korean Art History
Neolithic period (ca. 7000ca. 10th century B.C.)
Archaeology in Korea is a relatively recent discipline.
1
The period
recognized as Koreas Neolithic era, which spanned approximately
6,000 years, has been studied only during the last century through the
excavation of sites and analysis of physical remains. This period is
marked by the appearance of pottery and small settlements with semi-
subterranean dwellings. The variety of shapes and decorative tech-
niques of excavated pottery wares reects a diversity in the material
cultures of the Neolithic period and suggests contacts between popula-
tions living in different areas of the peninsula, as well as with those on
the continental mainland and the islands that constitute modern Japan.
The Neolithic inhabitants of the Korean peninsula fashioned
chipped and polished stone spears, arrowheads, and tools, as well as
bone shhooks and needles. The earliest known Neolithic pottery in
Korea has been dated to about 7000 B.C. These pots were handmade
with sandy clay, and red in open or partially covered pits at relatively
low temperatures of about 700C. Used most likely for the storage of
foodstuffs and as cooking containers, they typically had deep interiors,
wide mouths, and pointed or at bases. While several decorative meth-
ods, including relief appliqu, pinching, and stamping, were employed
to ornament the exterior surface of the pots, the most commonly found
design is the comb-pattern (chlmun) motif, made by incising diagonal
lines into the damp clay, perhaps with a toothed implement, before
ring (g. 2).
In the late Neolithic period, around 2000 B.C., Korean potters
began to produce plainer pottery, possibly as the result of the migra-
tion of new groups of people from Manchuria and Siberia onto the
peninsula. Compared with the earlier comb-pattern wares, these pots,
known as mumun ware, are made of coarser clay, have thicker walls,
and bear minimal or no decoration. A wide variety of shapes were pro-
duced, including jars with handles and bowls on pedestals. The hard-
ness of the bodies of some of these wares indicates improvements in
kiln technology, which made it possible to re pottery wares at higher
temperatures.
51
Figure 2. Comb-Pattern Vessel.
Neolithic period, ca. 40003000 B.C.,
from Amsa-dong, Kangdong-gu, Seoul.
Earthenware with incised decoration;
H. 15 in. (38.4 cm). Kynghi
University, Seoul
Bronze Age (ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.)
Bronze technology was introduced into Korea from the northern part
of the continental mainland around the tenth century B.C. Early
bronze objects include imported daggers, swords, spearheads, mirrors,
and small bells. By the seventh century B.C., a Bronze Age material cul-
ture of remarkable sophistication was ourishing on the peninsula,
inuenced by northeastern China as well as Siberian and Scythian
bronze styles. Found primarily in burial sites, the earliest Korean
bronze objects are mostly swords, spearheads, and objects that seem to
have served ritual functions, notably mirrors, bells, and rattles. In its
chemical composition, Korean bronze is different from that of neigh-
boring bronze cultures, containing a higher percentage of zinc. Recent
archaeological discoveries show that bronze weapons and implements
were cast using stone molds. However, the extraordinary neness of
the linear decoration on some mirrors of the late Bronze Age suggests
that clay molds were also used.
From the end of the Neolithic period and continuing into the
Bronze Age, high-ranking members of Korean society began to be
buried in more elaborate graves. The most common forms of burial are
stone cists (chambers lined with stone) and dolmens (above-ground
constructions of large stone slabs; g. 3). Dolmen burials are more
numerous in Korea than in any other country in East Asia. The rich-
ness and variety of objects recovered from these burials indicate the
elite status of the occupants. Among these objects are stone and
bronze weapons such as daggers and spearheads; bronze mirrors and
other ritual implements; pottery vessels, both painted and burnished
red and black wares (see image 1 ); and polished stone tubular beads or
curved, comma-shaped beads (kogok), often made of nephrite (g. 4).
These curved ornaments are sometimes associated with Siberian bear
cults. Similarly shaped stone beads (Jpn. magatama) have also been
found in Japan in upper-class graves of the Yayoi (ca. 4th century B.C.
ca. 3rd century A.D.) and Kofun (ca. 3rd century538) periods.
52
Image 1
Figure 3. Dolmen tombs, burial sites
that rst appeared in the Bronze Age
(ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.), are
more numerous in Korea than in any
other country in East Asia. (Photo-
graph of a dolmen from Unsng-ni,
nyul-kun, South Hwanghae
Province)
53
Iron Age (beginning ca. 300 B.C.)
Iron implements, imported from China, were present in Korea by the
beginning of the fourth century B.C. The use of locally mined and
smelted iron for the production of weapons, woodworking tools, and
agricultural implements seems to have been widespread in the southern
part of the Korean peninsula a century later. The standard Chinese
history Sanguo zhi (Record of the Three Kingdoms), written in the
late third century A.D., notes that at that time iron was produced in
Pynhan, one of the three southern Korean tribal confederations, and
exported to the Chinese commanderies in northern Korea and to Japan.
The establishment of Chinese commanderies on the peninsula at
the end of the second century B.C. brought Korea into Chinas cultural,
economic, and political sphere of inuence. Tombs in the region under
Chinese control consisted of a series of chambers constructed of wood,
brick, or stone and covered by earthen mounds in the Chinese style.
The occupants of these tombs (Chinese or Korean) were accompanied
by a large number of imported Chinese luxury items, such as bronze
vessels and mirrors, lacquer containers, ceramics, silk, and horse trap-
pings. Following Chinese practice, the walls of the tomb were deco-
rated with paintings depicting people engaged in a variety of activities.
The vogue for Chinese burial goods extended into southern Korea,
where pit graves dating to the rst and second centuries have been
found containing such items.
The ceramics of the Iron Age take on diverse forms. Unlike the
previous period, when clay objects were hand-built, the Iron Age
saw the introduction of the potters wheel. The introduction of iron
technology and the inuence of Chinese ceramic technology also led
to the production of higher-red wares during the Three Kingdoms
period (see below). It is thought that the Koreans red their pottery
in climbing kilns (see Artists and Materials, g. 9, p. 66). The soft-
bodied, low-red, grayish wares known as wajil togi (brick-clay pot-
tery) found in tombs of the Iron Age period are clearly distinguishable
from the more utilitarian pots recovered from residential sites and
were probably produced solely for ritual or mortuary purposes.
Figure 4. Illustration of an individual
kogok (below) and several of these
comma-shaped ornaments (usually
made of jade) suspended from a
necklace (above)
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.)
Among the earliest surviving examples of painting in Korea are the wall
m u rals in the interior rooms of tombs of the Kog u ry kingdom (37 B.C.
668 A.D.), the nort h e rnmost of the three states that dominated the Ko r e a n
peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period. (Traces of wall paintings
h ave also been found in the tombs of the kingdom of Paekche [18 B.C.
660 A.D.], in the southwest.) These mura l s, which depict scenes of d a i ly
life and hunting, port raits of the tomb occupants, and Buddhist a n d
Daoist themes, provide va l u able info rm ation about local customs and
b e l i e f s, dress, and architecture. They also represent the beginning of
landscape painting in Korea. Because of their style of c o n s t ru c t i o n
a stone chamber covered by an earthen moundKog u ry tombs we r e
f r e q u e n t ly looted, and thus little is known about their furn i s h i n g s. The
abundant funera ry goods that have been exc avated from tombs in the
s o u t h e rn states of Kaya (42562 A.D.) and Silla (57 B.C.668 A.D.) reve a l
p o s s i ble contacts with lands along the Silk Ro u t e, the famed trade road
t h at linked West Asia, Central Asia, and China.
The skill of Korean metalworkers can also be seen in tomb furnish-
ings. Using local raw materials, each of the southern states produced
intricately crafted gold, bronze, and iron weapons, vessels, and per-
sonal ornaments for use in the afterlife. Kaya, a federation of semi-
independent principalities, was especially known for producing and
exporting iron, which was used to create weapons, armor for men and
horses, and tools. Tomb furnishings excavated from the securely con-
structed wood and stone burial chambers that served as the resting
places of royalty and the aristocracy in Silla and Kaya attest to the ele-
gant tastes of the elite, as well as the fascination with foreign motifs
and products. Silla, which had such a rich supply of gold that its capital
was named Kmsng (city of gold), is noted for the glittering gold
crowns, belts, shoes, and jewelry that ornamented the bodies of kings
and queens (see image 4 and g. 5). The decorative motifs of many of
these items reveal the intermingling of Chinese, Buddhist, and
shamanistic inuences.
In their designnotably the vertical projections that suggest
antlers, dangling pendants, and treelike shapes and goldworking
techniques, Korean crowns are similar to ones excavated from various
parts of the Eurasian steppes, suggesting not only connections
between these regions but also that Korean shamanism derived from
Scytho-Siberian shamanism. The existence of active land and sea trade
linking Korea with lands far to the west and south is evidenced by
54
Image 4
Figure 5. Crown. Three Kingdoms
period, Silla kingdom (57 B.C.668 A.D.) ,
5th6th century. Gilt bronze with
gold foil and wire; H. 8 in. (20.6 cm).
Ho-Am Art Museum, Yongin.
glass vessels and beads, some of which were imported from as far away
as the Mediterranean. Gilt-bronze saddle ttings, iron stirrups, and
other horse trappings recovered from graves demonstrate the impor-
tance of horses in Korea at the time.
Large quantities of high-red stoneware were produced for tombs
throughout southern Korea during this period. With the exception of
Chinese stoneware, Korean stoneware of the Three Kingdoms period
is the earliest known stoneware in the world. Among the most distinc-
tive forms are footed vessels and sculptural vessels and stands deco-
rated with incised patterns and/or appliqud images of animals and
humans. These wares typically have gray bodies, and some are also
coated with accidentally produced ash glaze. Footed vessels, which
were presumably used in rituals, generally consist of shallow bowls or
cups set on tall pedestals, with rectangular or triangular perforations
(see image 3 ). Formed using the potters wheel, these wares were red
in sloping kilns at temperatures in excess of 1000C, sufcient to pro-
duce stoneware. Kaya and Silla potters made a variety of vessels in the
shapes of animals, boats, and mounted warriors, apparently for cere-
monial use (see image 2 ). A few tombs have yielded three-dimensional
pottery gurines, including images of entertainers, ofcials, foreigners,
horses, and animals of the zodiac.
The growing inuence of Buddhism in Korea during the Three
Kingdoms period is evidenced in excavated remains of temples (many
of which appear to have been impressive in size) and surviving sculp-
tures and rock carvings of deities. Fashioned of stone, bronze, gilt
bronze, and wood, the images generally reect the inuence of artistic
styles in vogue at the time in different parts of China. Buddhist statues
made in Kogury, which was linked by overland routes to northern
China, bear a strong resemblance to the distinctively angular, attenu-
ated sculptures of the Northern Wei dynasty (386534). Paekche stat-
ues, which are among the most sophisticated produced at the time, are
characterized by serene faces, owing drapery, ame-shaped aureoles,
and openwork jewelry, reminiscent of the sculpture of the Liang
dynasty (502557) in southern China, with which Paekche traded by
sea. One of the most famous and technically accomplished examples
of Korean Buddhist sculpture is a large gilt-bronze image of the
bodhisattva Maitreya seated in a pensive pose, produced in the late
sixth century (g. 6). In its rened casting technique and skillful
modeling, this statue exemplies the highest level of craftsmanship
of the Three Kingdoms.
55
Image 3
Image 2
Figure 6. Seated Maitreya. Three
Kingdoms period, late 6th century.
Gilt bronze; H. 32 in. (83.2 cm).
The National Museum of Korea,
Seoul, National Treasure no. 78
56
Unied Silla dynasty (668935)
In the late seventh century, after years of internecine warfare and con-
stantly shifting alliances among the peninsular powers, the southeast-
ern kingdom of Silla succeeded in uniting the Korean peninsula for the
rst time under a single government. The rulers of Unied Silla con-
tinued the close relationship between the state and Buddhism initiated
by their predecessors, and the Buddhist establishment ourished under
the patronage of royalty and the aristocracy. The cosmopolitan Unied
Silla court pursued extensive contacts with Japan as well as with the
Tang dynasty (618907) in China. Moreover, the numerous Buddhist
pilgrims who traveled from Korea to China and India also brought a
greater awareness of other cultures to the peninsula. While newly
introduced types and styles of Buddhist images from China and India
enriched the iconographic repertoire and contributed to the common
i n t e rn ational style that characterized Buddhist sculptures of the period,
artistic traditions inherited from the fallen Kogury and Paekche
kingdoms played a role in the formation of Unied Silla art. The
indigenous traditions of the Silla kingdom likewise contributed to
the development of Unied Silla sculpture (see image 5 ).
The concern for the worldly benets of Buddhist practices and rites
ev i d e n t ly remained paramount for the majority of adherents during
the Unied Silla period. Not only does the thirt e e n t h - c e n t u ry history
Samguk yusa ( M e m o rabilia of the Three Kingdoms) contain many
accounts of divine intervention credited to this era, but it is also know n
t h at Buddhist rituals to strengthen and protect the state continued to
be reg u l a r ly perfo rmed at court and at important monasteries through-
out the nation. The construction of temples and the creation of m a j o r
works of a rt were commissioned with the same purp o s e. Two prime
examples are the late seve n t h - c e n t u ry Sachnwang-sa (Temple of t h e
Four Heave n ly Kings), built in Kyngju, the capital of U n i ed Silla, at
r oyal order to bolster resistance against the Tang imperialist threat ,
and the famous eighth-century cave l i ke granite sanctuary of S k k u ra m ,
on Mount Toham east of Kyngju, that is commonly believed to have
been created, in part, to protect Korea from Japanese aggression (g. 7).
The mag n i cent stone image of a seated Buddha within the sanctuary
gazes out over the East Sea in the direction of Japan, an orientation that
has given rise to the tradition concerning the images protective func-
tion. Another major project undert a ken at this time was the rebu i l d i n g
o f Pulguk-sa (Temple of the Buddha Land), which had been founded
in 553. Located in the foothills of Mount Toham near Skkuram, it is
Koreas oldest surviving Buddhist temple.
Image 5
Figure 7. Seated Buddha. Unied Silla
dynasty (668935), second half of
the 8th century. Granite; H. 127 in.
(326 cm). Skkuram Cave-Temple,
Kyngju, North Kyngsang Province.
National Treasure no. 24
Kory dynasty (9181392)
The Kory period produced some of the most outstanding achieve-
ments in Korean culture and the arts. The elegant, rened lifestyle of
the Kory court and aristocracy is clearly reected in the arts of the
period, which inherited and maintained the aesthetic sophistication of
Unied Silla. As in the preceding era, Buddhism, lavishly patronized
by the royal court and aristocracy, was a major creative force in the
arts. Frequent ofcial exchanges and trade with China, especially in
the early part of the Kory dynasty, offered Korean artisans a rich
array of new technologies and motifs, which they adapted and rened
to reect native tastes. Further stimulus was provided by interaction
with countries beyond East Asia, facilitated by the travels of Buddhist
monks to and from India and the arrival of merchants by sea from the
Middle East.
Examples of cultural contact between China and Korea during the
Kory period abound. Early Kory trade missions took gold, silver,
ginseng, paper, brushes, ink, and fans to China and imported silk,
porcelain, books, musical instruments, spices, and medicine. Korean
intellectuals prided themselves on their knowledge of Chinas classical
literature and their ability to write and compose poetry in Chinese.
Similarly, many Buddhist monks traveled to China for lengthy periods
to study religious doctrines and texts, which they then brought back
to Korea. The importation of Chinese luxury goods such as lacquer
and celadon wares inspired Korean artisans to experiment with new
technologies and artistic styles.
Buddhism was an integral part of daily life during the Kory
period. The founder of the dynasty, Wang Kn, known by his posthu-
mous title of Taejo, or Grand Founder (r. 91843), declared Buddhism
the state religion. The inuence of Buddhism extended into all realms
of artistic activity, but it is best appreciated in the many objects and
paintings created for use in the Buddhist ceremonies regularly held in
temples and palaces. Numerous temple complexes were constructed
in the new capital Songdo (modern Kaesng) and in local areas. The
proliferation of temples with their elaborate stone pagodas, decora-
t i ve ceramic roof and oor tiles, brightly colored wall paintings, stat u e s
fashioned of wood, marble, stone, and gilt bronze, and rened ritual
utensils attests to the growing power of the Buddhist establishment.
Kory illuminated manuscripts of Buddhist sutras, executed in minute
detail and lavishly embellished with gold, elegant paintings of Bud-
dhist deities commissioned by aristocratic devotees, nely wrought
57
lacquerware inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and delicate metalwares, were
hallmarks of this period and exemplify the use of sumptuous materials
in the service of Buddhism (see images 7, 9, 1518 ). While the inva-
sions suffered by Korea during this and later periods destroyed the
majority of artworks produced, regular contacts with Japan resulted
in the preservation of many Kory Buddhist paintings and objects in
that country.
Two important developments in the history of Korean printing
and book production occurred during the Kory period. Motivated
by the desire to invoke the protection of Buddhist deities in response
to armed incursions by the Khitanthe semi-nomadic tribe who
founded the northern Chinese Liao dynasty (9071125)and by the
attempt to solidify the authority of the state religion, the Kory court
ordered the carving of woodblocks for printing a complete edition of
the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka). This project, a monumental undertak-
ing, was begun in 1011 but not completed until 1087, long after peace
with the Liao had been established. The set of woodblocks was
destroyed by the Mongols in 1232, during their invasion of the penin-
sula, and the Kory subsequently commissioned the carving of a new
edition. Known as the Tripitaka Koreana, this set of just over 80,000
woodblocks was completed in 1251. It is now kept at Haein-sa temple,
in South Kyngsang Province (see image 19 ). The second major
development in printing, the invention and use of cast-metal movable
type, took place in the early decades of the thirteenth century, some
two centuries before Gutenbergs invention of metal movable type in
Europe. The skill of Korean craftsmen in producing sufciently strong
and thick paper and an oilier grade of ink was crucial to the success of
this new printing technique.
2
The production of celadon or green-glazed (chngja) wares, among
the most widely admired of Korean cera m i c s, represents the outstanding
achievement of Kory artisans. By the ninth to the early tenth century,
with the adoption of celadon production techniques used at the Yue
kiln complex in southeastern China, Korean potters had perfected the
high-red glaze techniques that enabled them to undertake the manu-
facture of celadon ware. The Kory celadon industry reached its pin-
nacle both technically and artistically between the early twelfth and
early thirteenth centuries, when it achieved the celebrated translucent
glazes, rened forms, and naturalistic designs that won high praise
from the Chinese, one of whom pronounced Korean celadons as rst
under Heaven. It was during this period that Kory celadon ware
58
Images 7, 9, 1518
Image 19
acquired a character independent of its Chinese counterparts, develop-
ing distinctive features in shape, design, color, and decoration. While
potters employed several methods to decorate these wares, including
incising and carving, the technique of inlay (sanggam) was the most
innovative and highly regarded decorative method (see images 11, 13,
14, and Artists and Materials , p. 66).
The quality of celadon declined sharply in the second half of the
thirteenth century, a reection of the economic and social problems
that beset the country in the nal years of the Kory dynasty. In con-
trast to the elegant wares of the earlier period, this last phase in
Korean celadon production is characterized by rougher shapes, coarse
clays, and impure glazes.
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
The advent of the Chosn dynasty in the late fourteenth century
brought in its wake major social and cultural changes. In their efforts
to augment the power of the royal government and rejuvenate the
country, which during the preceding Kory period had suffered almost
a century of Mongol domination, the Chosn rulers withdrew royal
patronage of the Buddhist establishment, then seen as corrupt, and
embraced Neo-Confucianism as the ofcial state ideology. Another
important development in the Chosn period was the growing chal-
lenge on the part of Korean intellectuals to the pervasive inuence
of Chinese thought and culture in Korean society. With the decline
and fall of the Ming dynasty (13681644), Koreans became even more
interested in promoting their own culture. The art and literature of
the period, especially from the eighteenth century on, reects this
greater interest in native Korean traditions and everyday life.
Chosn ceramics consist mainly of two types: punchng and white
porcelain (paekcha). Punchng refers to stoneware made of a grayish
blue clay that is covered with white slip and coated with a translucent
glaze. The glaze, which contains a small amount of iron, turns a bluish
green when red. The development of this type of ware was the result
of early Chosn potters attempts to revitalize what remained of the
Kory celadon tradition. Punchng was produced throughout the
peninsula until the end of the sixteenth century, when it gradually fell
out of favor as porcelain became more widely available. The abduction
and forced relocation of thousands of Korean potters, many of whom
made punchng ware, to Japan during Toyotomi Hideyoshis (1536
59
Images 11, 13, 14
1598) invasions of the peninsula in 1592 and 1597 contributed to the
discontinuation of punchng production in Korea. The Japanese enthu-
siasm for some types of punchng ware was strongest among tea cere-
mony practitioners, who viewed it as the embodiment of the aesthetics
of rusticity, awkwardness, and naturalness (see image 21 ).
Adopting techniques from the Jingdezhen kilns in southeastern
China, Korean potters began to produce white porcelain during the
early Chosn period, in the rst half of the fteenth century, and this
ware remained in demand throughout the dynasty. Chosn rulers con-
sidered white porcelainin particular, the undecorated monochrome
wares as the embodiment of the austere tastes associated with Neo-
Confucianism, the ofcial ideology of the new state (see images 22, 24 ) .
Although plain, white-bodied porcelains were favored throughout
the Chosn period, decorated versions of the same wares were also
produced in large quantities. Blue-and-white ware, a type of porcelain
decorated under the glaze with a design painted in cobalt-oxide, began
to be manufactured in Korea by the second half of the fteenth cen-
tury. The high costs of importing cobalt from China eventually led to
the use of a domestically produced pigment. Other developments in
the ornamentation of Chosn porcelain ware include underglaze iron-
brown and copper-red painting (see image 23 ). The wide variety of
shapes, designs, and decorative techniques in porcelains produced in
Korea beginning in the eighteenth century was spurred, in part, by the
weakening inuence of Confucian teaching on the arts.
It is interesting to note that overglaze polychrome-enamel decora-
tion of porcelain, which became popular in China during the Ming
dynasty and later in Japan, was never used in Korea. The absence of
such colorful wares may be due to the lingering inuence of Neo-
Confucianism, which shunned ostentatious display. It is also possible
that the additional labor involved in producing these wares discour-
aged their manufacture.
Although ofcially out of favor, Buddhism remained the chief reli-
gious faith among upper-class women and the common people, and
continued to be an important cultural force in Korean society. Buddhist
images, some cast in bronze but many carved in wood and then gilded
or lacquered, were produced for private devotion as well as placement
in temples. Buddhist paintings of the period, some of which include
depictions of Korean landscape and commoners, consist mainly of
murals and large hanging scrolls. In contrast to Kory Buddhist paint-
ings, they tend to be brighter in color and less rened in execution.
60
Image 21
Images 22, 24
Image 23
Figure 8. Chng Sn (16761759),
Three Dragon Waterfall at Mount
Naeyn. Chosn dynasty (13921910),
rst half of the 18th century. Hanging
scroll, ink on paper; 53 22 in.
(134.7 56.2 cm). Ho-Am Art
Museum, Yongin
The use of hemp and linen as a painting medium, in place of the more
costly silk used during the Kory, also reects the change in patronage
(see image 29). The growing popularity of the meditative Sn (Chn.
Chan; Jpn. Zen) Buddhism led to an increase in the production of
portraits of Buddhist priests, which were objects of veneration (see
image 30).
Because so few of the paintings survive, little is known about secu-
lar, or non-Buddhist, painting styles and practices before the fteenth
century. Chosn kings employed skilled painters, who were chosen
through an examination system and worked under the Bureau of
Painting (Tohwawn, later renamed Tohwas). Court painters were
required to execute a wide variety of paintings, most of which were
designed to serve didactic and moralistic purposes. These ranged from
works depicting rituals, ceremonies, and gatherings of elder statesmen
to portraits and paintings of auspicious symbols.
In the early Chosn period, landscape painting, practiced by profes-
sional painters as well as the literati, ourished and developed in a new
direction. Drawing on the native Kory painting tradition and adapt-
ing recently introduced styles and themes from Chinas Ming dynasty,
Chosn artists began to produce landscape paintings with more dis-
tinctly Korean characteristics. The single most important landscapist
of this time was the court painter An Kyn (active ca. 144070), whose
innovative style exerted tremendous inuence both during his lifetime
and in later generations (see images 25A, B). Ink-monochrome paint-
ings of landscapes and traditional literati subjects such as bamboo,
plum, and grapevine remained a favored form of artistic expression
throughout the dynasty (see images 26, 28).
The eighteenth century saw the development of two new types of
Korean painting: true-view landscape painting and genre painting,
both of which were inspired by the new emphasis on Korean cultural
and historical identity. True-view landscapes (chingyng, or real
scenery) represented a trend in painting that advocated the depiction
of actual Korean scenery as an alternative to the classical themes of
Chinese painting practiced by earlier Korean artists (g. 8). Genre
painting likewise focused attention on the distinctive characteristics of
Korean culture and society in its vivid portrayal of the daily life of all
social classes carpenters, woodworkers, and farmers as well as cour-
tesans and yangban aristocrats.
61
Image 29
Symbolic Images and Folk Art
Decorative paintings and objects reecting native beliefs and customs
have been appreciated by kings, aristocrats, and scholar-ofcials as well
as commoners throughout Korean history. Whether created for display
at court, in gentry or ordinary households, or in religious settings,
decorative or folk art is a long-admired tradition in Korea and an inte-
gral part of Korean culture. Most surviving folk art was produced dur-
ing the latter half of the Chosn dynasty, in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries.
3
Popular customs and beliefs form the core of folk art themes.
Motifs found in paintings as well as on ceramics, lacquerware, furni-
ture, and personal ornaments symbolize such concerns as long life,
good luck, and protection against evil spirits. Many of these auspicious
symbols, including animals, birds, plants and owers, fantastic rock
formations, and mythical creatures, can be traced back to ancient
Daoist traditions or to shamanism, the indigenous religion of Korea.
Decorative paintings produced for Buddhist temples feature guardian
kings and other protective deities. Among the most popular images in
Buddhist paintings is the mountain spirit (Sansin), portrayed variously
as a Confucian sage, a Buddhist saint, or a Daoist immortal accompa-
nied by a tiger. During the Chosn period, court painters employed at
the Bureau of Painting produced large, colorful paintings of auspicious
motifs, often in the form of a folding screen, for display at palace cere-
monies or as gifts to government ministers presented at the new year
or on their birthdays.
In Neo-Confucian society, men and women, from the age of seven,
lived in separate quarters in the family compound. Womens quarters
were furnished with paintings, textiles, ceramics, and other decorative
and utilitarian items featuring brightly colored owers, animals associ-
ated with marital joy, and images symbolic of numerous progeny (see
image 32 ). In contrast, the mens quarters might contain a folding
screen of calligraphy, with characters representing such Confucian
virtues as lial piety, loyalty, and righteousness, or a chaekkri screen
depicting scholarly paraphernalia books, bronzes, ceramics, and the
four treasures of the scholars studio (paper, brush, inkstone, and ink
stick). Special paintings and objects were also made to celebrate the
birth of children, weddings, New Years Day, and harvest festivals, as
well as to commemorate the deceased at funerals and memorial serv i c e s.
Korean folk or decorative painting is distinguished by its spontane-
ity, vitality, and bold use of bright, saturated colors. The images are
62
Image 32
63
typically large, covering most of the paintings surface, with little
concern for the illusion of receding space or a sense of volume.
Notes
1. For a detailed survey of Korean prehistory and history from the Paleolithic
period through the Unied Silla dynasty, see Nelson, The Archaeology of Korea.
2. In the middle of the eleventh century, during the Song period (9601279), a
Chinese commoner invented a method for movable-type printing using earthenware
type. Although revived from time to time in subsequent periods, movable-type
printing never took hold in China, as the conventional woodblock printing proved
more efcient and economical in producing texts that required the use of vast
numbers of characters. One of the earliest recorded Korean works printed in metal
movable type is a volume concerning Confucian ritual published in about 1234. A
Buddhist text printed in Korea in 1377 and now in the Bibliothque Nationale,
Paris, is the oldest extant book printed in this manner. For the development and use
of movable-type printing in China and Korea, see Denis Twitchett, Printing and
Publishing in Medieval China (New York: Frederic C. Beil, 1983), pp. 7484.
3. Some art historians use the term folk art for all colorful, decorative paintings;
others prefer to limit the term to items produced for commoners. While the decora-
tive paintings used by the upper classes and commoners share many images and
symbols, certain themes such as the Five Peaks and the Sun and Moon were origi-
nally reserved for use by the king.
64
A rtists and Mat e r i a l s
Artists and Artisans
Beginning in the Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.) and con-
tinuing through the Unied Silla dynasty (668935), highly talented
painters were employed in the court bureau called Chaejn (literally,
o f ce of coloring). Although the exact nature of this bureau is unclear,
it was headed by an inspector under whom were placed two categories
of painters, charged with meeting the ofcial demand for paintings and
other decorative items. Exceptionally talented craftsmen were given
the title paksa, a general term referring to one with expert knowledge
of a given eld, and apparently had the rank of mid-level ofcials.
During the early Kory period (9181392), as a result of a major
change in the governmental system, the ofcial status of artisans was
downgraded and they were called simply taegongchang (master crafts-
men). It is during this period that the name Tohwawn (Bureau of
Painting) rst appears in Korean documents. Under the Confucian
system promoted by the succeeding Chosn dynasty (13921910),
artisans were considered to be manual workers, a classication that
placed them below intellectuals and farmers but above merchants.
Painters, however, were more highly regarded, as calligraphy and
painting were viewed as ne arts, in contrast to objects, which served
a utilitarian and decorative function. Literati painting, practiced and
appreciated by members of the yangban class, was also highly valued.
An indication of the high status of painters and calligraphers among
the educated elite, as well as the professional painters in the court
Bureau of Painting, in the late Chosn period is that they were the
only artists who routinely signed their works.
Both the Kory and the Chosn governments maintained authority
over craftsmen in state-supervised workshops located in the capital
and the provinces, thus ensuring an adequate supply of high-quality
goods for the royal court. Records tell of thousands of painters, pot-
ters, metalsmiths, and lacquermakers being employed and supervised
by the court as well as by aristocrats and Buddhist temples to produce
ne objects for personal adornment, domestic decoration, religious
ceremonies, and political enhancement. The large government work-
shops trained younger members of their staff, who were usually
selected through an examination process. Craftsmen of a humbler
status worked in hereditary workshops and were trained by their
seniors.
1
Ceramics
The Korean peninsula is well endowed with the necessary materials
to make low- and high-red ceramics: good-quality clay and kaolin, as
well as abundant supplies of wood required to fuel the kilns. While
pottery was produced throughout the peninsula, the most productive
and technologically advanced kilns were located in the south.
The earliest known pottery in Korea dates to about 7000 B.C. in the
Neolithic period (ca. 7000ca. 10th century B.C.). The earliest pots
were handcrafted of sandy clay and red in open or semi-open kilns at
relatively low temperatures of about 700C. These porous, unglazed
wares vary in shape and decoration according to the region from
which they come. For example, vessels excavated from dwelling sites
north of the Taedong River, in what is now North Korea, typically
h ave a at bottom and minimal or no decoration, while those uneart h e d
south of the river, commonly known as comb-pattern earthenwares
(chlmun togi ), have a coniform or round base and are decorated with
incised linear patterns (see g. 1). Comb-pattern wares are considered
the most representative type of ceramic from Koreas Neolithic period.
Other, less common methods of decoration include stamping, punch-
ing, pinching, and applied relief. The advent of the Bronze Age
(ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.) brought changes in the material, shape,
and function of ceramic wares. Vessels from that period include both
red and black burnished wares (see image 1 ) and painted wares,
probably produced for ritual purposes.
The technique of producing high-red ceramics is thought to have
been introduced to the peninsula from China around the end of the
rst millennium B.C., possibly through the Chinese commanderies in
northern Korea. Within the next few centuries, an improved climbing-
kiln technology imported from China made it possible to achieve the
higher temperatures (in excess of 1000C) needed to produce stone-
ware (kyngjil togi ).
2
With the exception of Chinese stoneware, the
Korean stoneware of the Three Kingdoms period is the earliest known
high-red ware in the world. In contrast to the soft, low-red earthen-
ware (wajil togi ) of earlier periods, these wares have a harder and
more nely textured clay body. Most of the pottery found in tombs
65
Image 1
and residential sites of this period is gray in color, which results from
the restriction of the ow of oxygen into the kilns ring chamber. By
the end of the Three Kingdoms period, ash glazes were produced.
These initially happened by accident when ash fell onto the pottery
during ring and fused with the ceramic surface, leaving a thin, mot-
tled yellowish green glaze. Once glaze became desirable, ceramic wares
were intentionally dusted with ash before ring. By the Unied Silla,
pottery vessels coated with glaze were made (see images 3, 6 ).
Kory celadon ware, which reached its height of production both
artistically and technically in the early twelfth to the early thirteenth
century, owes much of its initial inspiration to Chinese ceramic pro-
duction. Celadon or green-glazed (chngja) ware is stoneware covered
with a glaze containing a slight amount of iron-oxide and red in a
reduced oxygen atmosphere to achieve a grayish blue-green color.
3
Kory potters in time developed a thinner, more translucent glaze
than that used in Chinese celadons, which allowed the carved, incised,
and inlaid designs to be seen clearly. Studies of more than 200 kiln
sites, most of which are located in southwestern Korea, indicate that
celadons were red in multichamber, tunnel-like kilns built along
the side of a hill. At one of the largest kiln sites excavated in Korea
(Yunin-gun, S-ri, in Kynggi-do Province), the primary wood-
burning ovens were located at the base, but smaller res situated
along the length of the kiln supplied additional heat (g. 9).
Korean potters produced celadon wares in a variety of shapes, and
e m p l oyed seve ral techniques in decorating these objects. Early celadons
were left unornamented or were decorated with designs that were
incised, carved, or mold-impressed (see images 10, 12 ). Kory potters
are renowned for their use of inlay (sanggam) in the decoration of
ceramics. The inlay technique, possibly derived from Korean metal
inlay and inlaid lacquerware, consists of incising or carving a design
into the unbaked, leather-hard clay body and lling in the resulting
depressions with a white or black substance to highlight the design
(see images 11, 13, 14 ). Figural celadonsin the form of human g-
ures, birds and animals (such as waterfowl, monkeys, lions, and turtles),
fruits, and imaginary beastsrepresent some of the nest wares
dating from the peak period of Kory celadon production.
Punchng ware, initially inspired by the Kory celadon tradition,
was made in the early Chosn dynasty, during the fteenth and six-
teenth centuries. The term punchng refers to a stoneware made of a
grayish blue clay that is covered with white slip and then coated with
66
Images 3, 6
Images 11, 13, 14
Images 10, 12
Figure 9. Celadons were red in
multichamber, tunnel-like kilns built
along the side of a hill.
a transparent glaze. The glaze contains a slight amount of iron, which
when red results in a bluish green color. Punchng decorated under
the glaze with inlaid and stamped designs was popular through the
fteenth century. Sgrafto-decorated ware was produced from around
the middle of the fteenth century (see image 21 ), followed by incised
as well as iron-brown painted designs.
White porcelain (paekcha) is primarily made of kaolin, a clay con-
taining quartz, feldspar, and limestone. It is covered with a clear glaze
and red at a temperature in excess of 1200C. The ware is nonporous,
and has a metallic ring when struck. The color of white porcelain may
vary depending upon the date and place of production as well as the
composition of the clay and glaze.
Plain white porcelain was preferred during the beginning of the
Chosn era, in keeping with the austere tastes and sensibilities associ-
ated with Neo-Confucianism, which was promoted by the government
as the ofcial state ideology. The best grade of porcelain, reserved for
the use of the royal court and aristocracy, was manufactured primarily
at the ofcial kilns in Kwangju-gun, Kynggi Province, near modern-
day Seoul. The glaze color of early Chosn porcelain is snowy white or
slightly grayish; white ware made toward the end of the dynasty has a
bluer or milkier cast (see image 24 ).
Chosn potters also produced porcelain wares decorated with
designs painted under the glaze in cobalt-bl u e, iron-brown, and copper-
red. Cobalt, which produces a rich blue color after ring, was used in
Korea in the decoration of porcelain by the mid-fteenth century. Blue-
and-white porcelain was initially restricted to use by the royal house-
hold and the aristocracy, and made in ofcial kilns under government
supervision. Partly because of the high cost of cobalt-oxide pigment,
which was imported from China before the development of domestic
sources, the decoration of many of these wares was executed not by
potters but by professional court painters, who visited the kilns twice a
year. Underglaze copper-red decorated porcelain, produced at provin-
cial kilns, reached its peak of popularity in the eighteenth century
(see image 23 ). Painting in underglaze copper-red was more difcult
to accomplish than its counterpart decorative medium, underglaze
cobalt-blue, because copper readily oxidizes and turns to shades of
gray or black during ring, or even disappears entirely.
4
67
Image 21
Image 24
Image 23
Lacquer
Lacquer objects, which incorporate a labor-intensive yet surprisingly
adaptable and exible method of decoration, were among the most
prized articles in ancient East Asia. Because of their fragility, however,
very few Korean lacquer objects from before the Chosn period have
survived. The earliest extant Korean pieces, a holder for a writing
brush and undecorated black lacquer vessels, were unearthed from a
Bronze Age burial site dated to the rst century B.C. Some of the most
exquisite examples of inlaid lacquerware were produced in the Kory
period (see image 9 ).
East Asian lacquer is made from the sap of the lacquer tree (rhus
verniciua), which is native to central and southern China and possibly
to Japan. The essential component of lacquer sap is called urushiol
after the Japanese term urushi, meaning lacquer. Urushiol polymer-
izes when exposed to oxygen. Once dried, it is remarkably resistant to
water, acid, and, to a certain extent, heat. Therefore, it is ideal for use
as an adhesive and binding agent and as a protective coating on all
kinds of materials, especially wood, bamboo, textiles, and leather.
For lacquer to set or dry, it must be exposed to high humidity
(75 to 85 percent) and a temperature between 70 and 80 Fahrenheit.
Although raw lacquer is a highly toxic substance that in most people
induces an allergic reaction similar to that caused by poison ivy, it
becomes inert once it is dry. The very property that makes lacquer
such a ne coating material also necessitates application of the raw
lacquer in very thin layers so that it can dry properly. If the lacquer
layer is thick, as soon as its surface dries, the lacquer beneath is cut off
from contact with the humid air and will remain forever liquid.
Lacquer sap is gray in color when rst tapped from the tree, but on
exposure to light and heat it turns dark brownthe color of raw lac-
quer and ultimately a dull brownish black. The color can be altered
by the addition of pigments while the lacquer is still liquid. The most
commonly used pigments are the mineral cinnabar for red, carbon ink
or an iron compound for black, and orpiment for yellow. Not all min-
eral pigments mix well with lacquer, however.
A distinction can be made between two broad classes of lacquer
objects. In the rst category, lacquer is applied purely for the purposes
of protection and decoration and does not change the form of the deco-
rated object beneath; examples are wooden chairs and leather armor
d e c o rated with lacquer. An object in the second cat ego ry is made mostly
of lacquer, supported by a nonlacquer core or substrate. Typical of this
68
Image 9
type are lacquer boxes and containers, of which the core can be almost
any material perhaps hemp cloth, wood, or metal encased in a lac-
quer coating so thick that it modies the objects fo rm, giving it a plump,
fleshy shape that can be decorated by carving in addition to the usual
techniques of i n l ay and painting (see images 9, 20 ). In the rst cat ego ry,
the strength of the object depends on its material and method of con-
struction, and the lacquer serves to protect its surface. Objects in the
second cat ego ry are essentially frag i l e, because the thick laye rs of l a c q u e r
lack tensile strength and are liable to crack and a ke off the core surface.
5
Painting
Bronze Age depictions of humans and animals, in the form of petro-
glyphs, offer the earliest extant evidence of painting in the Korean
peninsula. But it is in the wall paintings of tombs of the late Kogury
period (37 B.C.668 A.D.) that we nd the true beginnings of Korean
painting. The wall murals, painted in the tombs interior chambers,
depict hunting scenes and a variety of illustrations of daily life, show-
ing both the nobility and commoners.
Although few paintings survive from the Three Kingdoms period
or the subsequent Unied Silla dynasty, Buddhist devotional works
produced during the Kory dynasty include lavishly detailed paintings
of Buddhist deities and illuminated transcriptions of canonical texts
(see images 1518 ). Evidence of painting in Korea is more complete
for the Chosn dynasty. Early Chosn painting is represented by the
landscapes of the preeminent painter An Kyn (active ca. 144070),
who drew upon Chinese themes, techniques, and critical traditions
(see images 25 A, B). From his innovative interpretations of these
s o u r c e s, An Kyn developed a distinctive ly Korean landscape idiom that
was continued by his many followers.
Works that can be condently assigned to individual artists become
more numerous in the middle and late Chosn period. Among the most
important of these painters is Chng Sn (16761759), traditionally
acknowledged as the leading exponent of true-view landscape, a new
trend in Korean painting in the eighteenth century that advocated the
depiction of actual Korean scenery as an alternative to the classical
themes of Chinese painting (see g. 8, p. 61). Other subjects favored by
Chosn painters include scholarly themes, such as plum and bamboo,
and portraits. Genre painting, one of whose master practitioners was
Kim Hong-do (17451806), portrayed the daily life of the Korean
people in all its variety and liveliness.
6
69
Images 1518
Images 9, 20
Images 25 A, B
Portable Korean paintings were produced as hanging scrolls (vertical
compositions; see images 15, 16, 18, 25A, B, 26, 28, 29), handscrolls
(horizontal paintings), fans, or album leaves mounted in a book. Paint-
ings could also be attached to folding screens. These works were exe-
cuted on silk or paper using an animal-hair brush. The image itself was
made with black ink or pigments. Once the painting was created, usually
on a at, horizontal surface, a mounter would strengthen it by attaching
several sheets of paper (applied with water-soluble rice glue that can
be removed to allow future remountings) and secure it to a mounting
nished with silk borders. East Asian paintings are sensitive to light
and, thus, generally displayed for limited periods of time (g. 10).
7
Following the Chinese landscape tradition of the Northern Song
period (9601127), Korean painters typically employed three basic
schemata in their landscape paintings: a scene dominated by vertical
elements, a panoramic view lled by a series of horizontal elements,
and a composition combining the two (see images 25A, B). In these
paintings, the impression of recession is achieved simply by shifts in
the scale of landscape elements, from the foreground to the middle
ground to the far distance. Instead of modeling forms as if illuminated
by a consistent light source, as in Western art, painters built up forms
using contrasts of light and dark inkwash and texturing. Rather than
presenting a scene with a single vanishing point, as in Western one-
point perspective, artists visualized each composition from several van-
tage points. This constantly shifting perspective allows viewers to
imagine themselves traveling through the picture space.
During the Song dynasty, the Chinese educated elite who painted
and practiced calligraphy for their own enjoyment advocated that
artists pursue not merely form likenessthat is, formal resemblance
to what the eye sees in realitybut the inner spirit of their subject.
By the succeeding Yuan dynasty (12721368), this ideal was rmly
entrenched among both Chinese and Korean scholar-artists. Such
artists subordinated representational goals in favor of self-expression
through the use of calligraphic brushwork. By reducing painting to a
set of brush conventions that could be varied and inected in the same
manner as an individuals handwriting, they transformed the act of
painting into a highly personal vehicle for expressing emotions. Paint-
ing, like writing, became a heart print of the artist (see image 28).
8
The Korean educated elite of the Kory and Chosn periods consid-
ered painting and calligraphy as two of the Four Accomplishments (in
addition to music and a board game of strategy called paduk) that were
70
Images 15, 16, 18,
25, 26, 28, 29
Image 28
Figure 10. Illustration of a hanging
scroll and mounting
expected of a learned man. Favorite painting themes included land-
scapes and the group of plants known as the Four Gentlemen
bamboo, orchid, plum blossom, and chrysanthemum.
Brush. East Asian painting and calligraphy brushes are made of a vari-
ety of animal hairs such as horse, fox, weasel, and rabbit. Long hairs
form a exible point that can produce a ne or thick line. Beneath the
long external hairs is a tuft of shorter hairs that serve to hold the ink
or pigment. The brushes are tted with a cylindrical handle, often
made of wood or bamboo.
Ink. Traditionally ink was made of a carbon-based material, often pine
soot, that was then mixed with an adhesive and other substances. The
ink was dried and pressed into a cake or stick, which was rubbed
against a very ne surface such as an inkstone, while mixing with
water to produce liquid ink for painting or writing.
Paper. Although the technology came to the peninsula from China,
Koreans developed the ability to make superior paper that was highly
regarded throughout East Asia. Most paper was made of mulberry
pulp, although hemp and rice straw were also used (see images 17, 29 ).
The establishment of the Ofce of Papermaking (Chiso) by the Kory
government played an important role in the development of the high-
quality thick, hard, and smooth paper for which Korean papermakers
became renowned.
Pigments. Most pigments used for paintings were made by grinding
minerals into a powder and then combining them with glue and other
materials. Like ink, mineral pigments were dried and compressed into
cakes, which were then ground while mixing with water to produce a
form usable for painting. Frequently used pigments were cinnabar red,
lead white, and malachite green (see images 15, 16, 18, 29, 30 ). Col-
ored pigments were also derived from plants: for example, lotus (light
green), rattan (yellow), and indigo (blue). After the mid-nineteenth
century, imported articial pigments were also used.
Seals. An artist might apply one or more personal seals to a painting
in place of or in addition to his or her signature. Seals are made from
a variety of materials (stone being the most common), carved in relief
or intaglio, and impressed on the painting with a viscous, oil-based
cinnabar-red seal paste. Seal legends might consist of the artists sobri-
quet, a studio name, or a phrase. Similarly, collectors often impressed
their seals on paintings to indicate their ownership and appreciation,
thereby marking the paintings provenance and passage through time.
71
Images 17, 29
Images 15, 16, 18, 29, 30
Poems, historical notes, or dedications might also be written on the
painting itself or the mounting by the artist, a collector, or a connoisseur.
Silk. Silkworms are native to northern China, as are the mulberry
trees that provide their food source. The cocoons made by silkworms
consist of one long silk lament, which can be spun into a fabric that
is extremely ne, elastic, and smooth (see images 15, 16, 18, 25 A, B,
26, 28, 30 ). Silk cloth, silkworms, and the technique of producing silk
cloth were most likely introduced into Korea from China during the
Han dynasty (206 B.C.220 A.D.). The oldest surviving piece of Korean
silk dates to the sixth century.
Buddhist Paintings
Buddhist images were painted on silk during the Kory period, and
more commonly on hemp, linen, or heavy paper during the Chosn
period (see images 15, 16, 18, 29 ). The silk used for Kory Buddhist
paintings (hwagyon, or picture silk) was specially woven, with the
warp and weft well spaced so that the resulting weave was more trans-
parent than ordinary silk cloth and allowed the pigments to permeate
evenly throughout. It is believed to have been dyed a pale tea color,
obtained by mixing yellow and a small amount of purple. The prepared
silk was then framed and sized with a solution of alum and animal
glue. From a full-scale cartoon, or drawing, visible through the silk
cloth from behind, the outlines were drawn on the picture surface in
black ink or red pigment, after which the colors were applied.
Colored pigments were rst painted on the back of the silk
cinnabar red and malachite green on the garment areas, lead white and
ocher on the esh and other remaining areasand subsequently to
the picture surface. The application of pigments on the back of the silk
served to x the pigments on the front and thereby enhanced the
intensity and volume of the colors. In addition, the alkalinity of the
ocher aided in conservation. (This technique of painting color on both
sides of the picture surface was invented in China, and both Korean
and Japanese painters adopted it for religious paintings that required
opaque and intense colors.) Finally, when all the other colors had been
applied and contour and drapery lines completed, gold was used.
When a painting was nished, an eye-dotting ceremony was held
to give life to the images.
72
Images 15, 16, 18,
25, 26, 28, 30
Images 15, 16, 18, 29
Calligraphy
The Chinese written language and the art of calligraphy were intro-
duced into Korea through the military commanderies established in
the northern part of the peninsula during the Han dynasty (206 B.C.
220 A.D.), at the end of the second century B.C. Koreans used ve pri-
mary script types. Standard script (haes; Chn. kaishu), in which each
stroke is separately executed and clearly dened, was used for docu-
ments and texts that demanded clarity and legibility. Running
(haengs; Chn. xingshu) and cursive (chos; Chn. caoshu) scripts, in which
characters are abbreviated and strokes linked in continuous motions of
the brush, allowed greater freedom for artistic expression and was
used for personal communications and other nonofcial purposes. The
earlier script styles known as small seal (sojn; Chn. xiao zhuan) and
clerical (yes; Chn. lishu) were usually reserved for special purposes,
such as commemorative plaques or personal seals. The Neo-Confucian
scholar-ofcials who dominated the Chosn period prized the ability to
express themselves eloquently in classical literary Chinese written in a
rened hand. Although initially inspired by the work of their Chinese
counterparts, the Korean educated elite developed numerous variations
and styles that elevated calligraphy to a ne art in their country.
Notes
1. See the essays on Status of the Artist and Patronage by Hong Sn Pyo and
Kim Kumja Paik, respectively, in Turner, ed., The Dictionary of Art, vol. 18, pp.
25859. See also Yi Sng-mi, Art Training and Education, ibid., pp. 38081.
2. In East Asia low-red ware customarily refers to earthenware and high-red
ware to stoneware and porcelain.
3. Celadon is the term generally used in the West for green-glazed ceramic
wares. This term is derived from the color of a shepherds costume in a popular
play written by Honor dUrf (15671625).
4. For a detailed description of the shapes, designs, and decorative techniques in
Kory and Chosn ceramics, see Itoh, Korean Ceramics from The Museum of Oriental
Ceramics, Osaka.
5. For an excellent and authoritative study of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean
lacquer objects, see Watt and Ford, East Asian Lacquer: The Florence and Herbert
Irving Collection.
6. For examples of paintings by Chng Sn and Kim Hong-do, see Arts of Korea,
pp. 2025, 21113, and the Metropolitan Museums Web site
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Korea/koreaonline/index.html.
73
7. More information about the formats, materials, and display methods of East
Asian paintings may be found in the online feature A Look at Chinese Painting in
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (www. metmuseum.org/explore/Chinese/
html_pages/index.htm).
8. For a full description and history of painting styles associated with Chinas
scholar-ofcials, see Wen C. Fong, Beyond Representation: Chinese Painting and
Calligraphy, 8th14th Century (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1992).
74
75
Korean Traditional Music
Although music making in Korea is as old as the presence of people
on the peninsula, the earliest evidence of the practice is provided in
Chinese historical records, which tell of merry farmers songs and
dances, and in tomb furnishings and wall paintings from the Three
Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.). Korean music includes three-
quarter time, in contrast to the duple rhythms preferred in China and
Japan. Until at least the fteenth century, music notation consisted of
a page of grids with performance notes written in Chinese characters.
Korean traditional music can be divided into two broad categories:
court music and folk music. (Music played to accompany Buddhist and
shamanistic ceremonies forms a third category.) Music performed at
court and for the aristocracy accompanied Confucian rituals, banquets,
or military events and tended to be stately and slow, in keeping with
the solemnity of the occasions. Singing and dancing often accompanied
court music, which derived from both native and Chinese sources. The
term tang-ak, referring to Chinas Tang dynasty (618907), is usually
used for foreign court music, while the termhyang-ak refers to court
music that has native Korean origins.
Folk music, including songs and instrumental compositions for
farmers festivals and popular enjoyment, is generally freer in mood
and style than court music. Two of the most widely enjoyed types of
folk music are the dramatic operalike pansori and sanjo, which are a
form of chamber music played by a small ensemble. Folk music is often
accompanied by dance performances or other types of entertainment
such as games and storytelling and typically varies by region.
Korean music employs approximately sixty different kinds of
instruments, including utes, drums, gongs, bells, and plucked and
bowed stringed instruments. Although a few musicians crafted their
own instruments, they were usually made by highly skilled specialists.
East Asian musical instruments are traditionally categorized accord-
ing to the primary material used in their manufacture: stone, skin,
metal, silk, earth (pottery), bamboo, and wood. The three illustrations
of musical instruments included in this resource (see images 3335 )
show traditional instruments in the silk (kayagm), wood (taepyngso
Images 3335
76
and pak), skin (changgo), stone (teukgyeong), and metal (ching and
kkwaenggwari ) categories.
The Metropolitan Museum has a diverse selection of Korean
musical instruments, including those used in court, military, and
shamanistic religious ceremonies. These are on view in the Musical
Instruments galleries, along with photographs of musicians dressed
in traditional attire and playing the instruments displayed.
For further info rm ation on Ko rean music and musical instruments,
s e e :
Korea Foundation. Korean Cultural Heritage: Performing Arts. Vol. 3.
Seoul: The Korea Foundation, 1997.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments,
20 vols. London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1984.
Song Bang-song. Korean Music and Instruments. Seoul: National
Classical Music Institute.
Song Bang-song and Keith Pratt. The Unique Flavor of Korean
Music. Korean Culture 1, no. 3, pp. 414.
1. Jar
Bronze Age (ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.) ,
ca. 4th century B.C. Burnished red
earthenware; H. 5 in. (14.6 cm). Gift
of Hongnam Kim to commemorate the
opening of the Arts of Korea Gallery,
1998 (1998.212)
Made of an iron-rich clay, this small
jar has a bulbous shape and a ared
rim typical of vessels of this type.
The red color and lustrous surface
were achieved by applying an iron-
rich pigment called skkanju to
the surface of the vessel and then
burnishing, or rubbing, the surface
with a stone or other hard, smooth
object before ring. Until recently,
bu rnished red wares had been fo u n d
only in stone cist or dolmen tombs
(see g. 3, p. 52). The latest exca-
vations of residential sites have
uncovered red burnished wares in
such utilitarian forms as bowls and
footed cups. Like the small globular
jars found in tombs, these are made
of ne clay and have thin walls,
suggesting that they were intended
for ritual use. Burnished black
wares in various shapes have also
been found in tombs dating from
the fourth to the third century B.C.,
but in fewer numbers than red
wares.
Jars such as this were hand-
crafted, with coils of clay laid in
a spiral to form the walls of the
vessel, and then smoothed using
hands, a paddle, and a scraping
tool. They were red in an open
or a semi-open kiln.
Notice: The smooth surface of
the vessel and its bulbous form
Consider : The assumption that
ceramics made of ner materials
and requiring more labor were
reserved for ceremonial use
2. Bird-Shaped Vessel
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.) ,
ca. late 2nd3rd century. Earthen-
ware; H. 12 in. (32.7 cm), L. 13 in.
(35.2 cm). Purchase, Lila Acheson
Wallace Gift, 1997 (1997.34.1)
This stately bird-shaped vessel is
among the earliest extant sculp-
tural objects made in Korea. Such
footed vessels may have derived
their form from earlier Chinese
bronzes. In Chinese funerary
art of the Western Han dynasty
(206 B.C.9 A.D.), birds with fantastic
tails and heads served as vehicles
that carried souls from the earthly
realm to that of the immortals.
Korean bird-shaped vessels, most
of which have been found at burial
sites in the southern part of the
peninsula in the area once controlled
by the small group of city-states
known as the Kaya Federation
(42562 A.D.), were probably in-
tended for use in ritual ceremonies.
77
1
Image Descriptions
The images of works of art
and sites in this section can be
accessed in digital format on the
CD-ROM. With the exception
of images 14 and 18, which are
reproduced as posters, all the
images are also provided in slide
format. For the List of Images,
see p. 161.
The vessel would have been lled
with liquid through the opening
in the back, and the tail served as
the spout. The low-red grayish
white body clearly distinguishes
these vessels from ceramic objects
intended for everyday use. This
example illustrates the sophisti-
cated blending of the naturalistic
and the formal that characterizes
Koreas ceramic tradition. The
birds curvaceous body provides a
striking contrast to the prominent,
angular crest, protruding ears, and
long, narrow beak.
Kaya tombs have yielded a wide
array of sculpted pottery objects,
including vessels in the shapes of
birds and animals, mounted war-
riors, and chariots. These objects,
along with other types of pottery
vessels, jewelry, weapons, and cere-
monial regalia, were placed in the
tombs to serve the deceased in the
afterlife. While animal- or bird-
shaped vessels were also produced
in the neighboring kingdoms of
Silla (57 B.C.668 A.D.) and Paekche
(18 B.C.660 A.D.), the largest
number were made in the Kaya
Federation. The rounded contours
and the inward curving foot found
on this bird-shaped vessel are dis-
tinctive features of Kaya ceramic
tomb wares.
Notice: The contours of the vessel
and the interplay of realism and
abstraction
Consider: The symbolic role of
animals in ritual objects
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 3,
pp. 4748
3. Stand
Three Kingdoms period, Silla kingdom
(57 B.C.668 A.D.), 5th6th century.
Stoneware with traces of incidental ash
glaze; H. 14 in. (37.5 cm). Purchase,
Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1997
(1997.34.23)
This large footed stand is an exam-
ple of the gray stoneware vessels
found in tombs from the fth to
sixth centuries and is the product
of important technological advances
in Korean ceramic production.
With the exception of Chinese
stoneware, the Korean stoneware
(kyngjil togi ) of the Three King-
doms period is the earliest known
high-red ware in the world,
requiring kiln temperatures in
excess of 1000C. These wares were
produced in a wood-red climbing
kiln, a tunnel-shaped structure
typically built up the side of a hill
(see g. 9, p. 66). This closed-kiln
design, in contrast to the earlier
78
2
open or semi-open kiln, produced
intense and steady heat and allowed
control of the oxygen ow into the
ring chamber. The characteristic
gray color of Three Kingdoms
stoneware is the result of the
reduction of oxygen in the chamber.
Unlike the soft, low-red earthen-
ware (wajil togi ) of earlier periods,
stoneware is hard, dense, and
impervious to liquids.
High-red glazes represent
another important development in
ceramic technology in this period.
At rst accidentally produced by
wood ash circulating in the kiln
during ring, as seen on this stand,
eventually these early ash glazes
were produced deliberately.
This stand was made to support
a round-bottomed bowl or jar used
as a container for food or liquid.
The base displays alternating rec-
tangular perforations, a decorative
scheme generally associated with
Silla in contrast to the Kaya prefer-
ence for triangular cutouts. A pat-
tern of wavy lines is incised on the
exterior of the deep bowl as well as
the base. The stands large size,
erect shape, and well-ordered deco-
ration are evidence of the potters
technical skill.
Although they may have been
used in domestic settings, stands
with pedestal bases and footed ves-
sels are usually found in tombs and
were presumably used in ceremo-
nial presentations of food to the
deceased. These new types of ritual
vessels are in part the result of
changes in mortuary practices.
They may also reect the inuence
of Chinese material culture trans-
mitted through the Han military
commandery of Lelang, in north-
ern Korea, which remained a Chi-
nese colonial bastion on the penin-
sula for over four hundred years
(108 B.C.313 A.D.).
The vessel forms and the tech-
nological advancements in the pro-
duction of stoneware during the
Three Kingdoms period were
transmitted to Japan most likely
through trade and the immigration
of Korean craftsmen. The Kaya
Federation, which was in close con-
tact with the Japanese islands to
the south and southeast by sea, was
especially inuential in this
process.
1
Notice: The balanced proportions
of this stand and the well-ordered
decoration
Consider: The suitability of the
form and decoration of this stand
to its ritual function
Note
1. The production of gray stoneware in
Japan, which dates from the Kofun period
(ca. 3rd century 538), in the mid-fth
century, marked a dramatic change from
the low-red, reddish-colored ware of
the previous Jmon and Yayoi periods.
Known as Sueki from sueru (to offer)
79
3
and ki (ware)this new type of ceramic
ware was derived directly from the gray-
ware of the Three Kingdoms period in
Korea. Sueki was created in a variety of
shapes for everyday use, for ceremonial
functions, and for burial of the dead. A
striking example can be found in Miyeko
Murase, Bridge of Dreams: The Mary
Griggs Burke Collection of Japanese Art
(New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000), pp. 1415, and The Paths
Dreams Take: Japanese Art in the Collections
of Mary Griggs Burke and The Metropolitan
Museum of Art CD-ROM(New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000).
4. Pair of Earrings
Three Kingdoms period, Silla kingdom
(57 B.C.668 A.D.) or Kaya Federation
(42562 A.D.), 6th century. Gold;
H. 4 in. (10.5 cm). Purchase, Harris
Brisbane Dick Fund, 1943 (43.49.5,6)
The pair of earrings illustrated
here represents the more elaborate
style of earring developed in the
sixth century from the simple and
elegant Kaya type of the late fourth
to early fth century.
2
Its middle
section contains a globular bead
and three small leaves, similar to
the earlier Kaya styles. The bottom
section, attached to the middle
section by two short chains, has
twin pendants of a triangular seed
shape, resembling beechnuts, a
variety of which is known in Korea.
The top section, which is complete,
consists of a fat, hollow ring and
an interlocking middle ring.
In the Three Kingdoms period,
r oyalty and the aristocracy acquired
luxury goods not only for personal
enjoyment but also as symbols of
power and political authority. The
large quantities of exquisite jew-
elry and other objects for personal
use, as well as weapons and horse
trappings, made of precious materi-
als that have been recovered from
tombs of this period attest to the
elegant taste and impressive wealth
of the upper classes. The most
sumptuous of these luxury objects
are those excavated from fth-
and sixth-century royal tombs in
present-day Kyngju, the site of
the capital of Silla, then known as
Kmsng, or city of gold. These
tombs have revealed enormous
quantities of pure gold objects
personal ornaments such as ear-
rings, bracelets, and nger rings,
along with intricately crafted
crowns, caps, belts, and shoes, many
of which are embellished with
jade.
3
These items were worn by
both men and women, although it
80
4
is not clear whether they were used
by the living or made solely for the
adornment of the deceased. The
close similarities of earrings found
in Japan with those from Kaya and
Silla tombs suggest that such arti-
cles were imported from the south-
ern Korean kingdoms.
Using, at least in part, domestic
supplies of gold ore, Korean gold-
smiths employed a variety of tech-
niques, some of which originated
with the Greek and Etruscan gold-
smiths of southern Europe and
western Asia. For example, the
technique of granulation (forming
and attaching grains of gold to a
base to create a decorative relief
pattern) is thought to have been
transmitted to northern China in
the rst millennium B.C. and later
to the Korean peninsula.
4
In the
earrings illustrated here, granula-
tion was applied to the surface of
the middle and bottom sections to
create decorative patterns.
Notice: The variety of techniques
such as hammering (to produce
a at sheet of gold), granulation,
and double-looped wiresused to
produce these earrings
Consider : The visual and aural
impression of someone wearing
these long, elegant earrings; the
transmission of artistic techniques
over long distances (typically, pro-
duction methods move with the
people who practice them, while
foreign decorative motifs are trans-
mitted by the movement of
objects); how the importation of
new technologies stimulates
advancement and innovation in the
production of material goods
Notes
2. See Arts of Korea, pl. 44A, p. 110.
3. The contents of Silla tombs have
remained largely intact owing to the
relatively impenetrable tomb structure,
which was constructed of wood, sealed
with clay, and covered with mounds of
stone and earth. The tombs of Kogury
and Paekche, which were based on a
Chinese-style tomb design, had more
accessible entrances and were thus more
susceptible to plunder.
4. For recent studies of the transmission
of sophisticated metalworking techniques
over long distances, see Joan Aruz et al.,
eds., The Golden Deer of Eurasia: Scythian
and Sarmatian Treasures from the Russian
Steppes (New York and New Haven: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art and Yale
University Press, 2000); Emma Bunker,
Gold Wire in Ancient China, Orienta-
tions (March 1997), pp. 9495; and Pak,
The Origins of Silla Metalwork.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 44C,
pp. 108, 110
81
5. Standing Buddha
Unied Silla dynasty (668935), 8th
century. Gilt bronze; H. 5 in. (14 cm).
Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.37.136)
This small gilt-bronze statue of a
standing Buddha is typical of the
numerous images made for private
devotion during the Unied Silla
period, a high point in the produc-
tion of Buddhist sculpture in
Korea. The gures lowered eyes
express a contemplative attitude,
and the peaceful countenance a
feeling of serenity. The right hand
displays the gesture of reassurance
(Skt. abhayamudra), while the left
hand makes the sign of fullling
wishes (Skt. varadamudra)
gestures that indicate that this
Buddha might be Amitabha, who
gained popularity in the Unied
Silla period with the rise of Pure
Land Buddhism. The enlightened
status of the Buddha is indicated
by the standard attributes (Skt.
lakshana) established in India a
millennium earlier: the protuber-
ance on the top of the head (Skt.
ushnisha) demonstrates wisdom, the
elongated earlobes represent nobil-
ity, and the neck folds symbolize
auspiciousness (see g. 1, p. 43).
Comparisons with other exam-
ples of the period suggest that this
statue probably originally stood on
a lotus-petal base and was backed
by a mandorla (aureole). The gure
was meant to be seen only from the
front, as the back of the head and
body is hollowed out, a feature
often seen in small gilt-bronze
images of the late Unied Silla.
Buddhism, supported by Koreas
rulers during the Three Kingdoms
period (57 B.C.668 A.D.) as part of
a program to consolidate the power
of their respective states, became
the ofcial religion throughout
the Korean peninsula in the sixth
century under the Unied Silla
dynasty. Buddhism was lavishly
patronized by the court and aristo-
cracy, and the increasingly close
association of Buddhism and the
state was marked by the construc-
tion of temples and the production
of icons at royal expense.
Notice: The contrasts between the
aspects of the statues appearance
that convey a sense of spirituality
versus elegance
Consider : How this sculpture,
given its size, facial characteristics,
and frontal presentation, would
function as an image for private
meditation and prayer; how it
would look standing on a base,
backed by a mandorla, and
surrounded by other ritual objects
on an altar
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 68,
pp. 150, 152
82
5
6. Bottle with Flattened Side
Unied Silla dynasty (668935),
8th10th century. Stoneware; H. 9 in.
(22.9 cm). Purchase, Judith G. and
F. Randall Smith Gift, 1994 (1994.226)
The early rulers of Unied Silla,
enjoying the peace and stability
that accompanied their unication
of the Korean peninsula, pursued
extensive contacts with Japan as
well as with the Chinese Tang
dynasty (618907). In addition, the
numerous Buddhist pilgrims who,
seeking greater understanding of
their faith, traveled by land and sea
from Korea to China and India also
brought a greater awareness of
other cultures to the peninsula.
The response of Unied Silla
potters to foreign inuences can be
seen in this at-sided stoneware
bottle of the eighth to tenth
century. The vessels form probably
derives from the leather asks used
by nomadic tribes in the northern
regions of the mainland; these
asks had slightly ared lips and
attened sides that facilitated their
suspension from saddles. The sur-
face of this vessel is unadorned, a
characteristic of utilitarian stone-
ware containers in the Unied Silla
and Kory (9181392) dynasties.
The accidental splashes of ash
glaze are the result of wood ash
falling on the vessel during ring.
Notice: The shape of this bottle;
the striking variations in color
caused by the accidental occurrence
of the ash glaze
Consider : The adoption and adap-
tation of foreign vessel shapes
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 10,
pp. 5859
7A, 7B. Rafter Finial in the Shape
of a Dragon Head and Wind
Chime
Late Unied Silla (668935)early
Kory (9181392) dynasty, 10th
century. Gilt bronze; nial: L. 15 in.
(39.4 cm); chime: H. 15 in. (38.7 cm).
Purchase, The Vincent Astor Founda-
tion Gift, 1999 Benet Fund, and The
Rosenkranz Foundation Inc. Gift, 1999
(1999.263.a,b)
This expertly cast, lavishly gilt
bronze nial in the shape of a
dragons head and the accompany-
ing bell are among the nest pieces
of metalwork of the late Unied
Silla and early Kory dynasties,
when Korean art had digested
Chinese inuence and developed a
mature native style characterized
by renement and sumptuousness.
The imposing dragons head
originally graced one of the corner
rafters of a Buddhist temple or
a royal hall. The bell, which
83
6
functioned as a wind chime, would
have been suspended by an S-
shaped iron hook from the iron
loop at the dragons mouth, which
is corroded but intact (g. 11). In
contrast to larger bells, which were
sounded by striking the surface
with a wooden mallet or stake, this
small bell had a metal-plate clapper
(now lost) attached to its interior.
An auspicious symbol as well
as a decorative motif, the dragon is
one of the most popular images in
Korean art and culture. It is viewed
as a guardian gure that protects
humans and wards off evil spirits.
The dra m atic features of this ex a m p l e
large staring eye s, aring nostrils,
wide-open mouth with protruding
sharp fangs, and single horn
convey a erceness and invincibil-
ity in keeping with such apotropaic
functions. The theme of protective-
ness is echoed in the decoration on
the bell, which features a svastika, a
Buddhist symbol of safety and peace.
Notice: The powerful appearance of
the dragon head; the elegant shape
and decoration of the bell
Consider : The visual effect of
buildings ornamented with such
elaborate gilt-bronze rafter nials
and bells; the combination of
Buddhist religious symbols with
images of mythical creatures
8. Mirror with Decoration of
Figures in a Landscape
Kory dynasty (9181392). Bronze;
Diam. 7 in. (17.8 cm). Fletcher Fund,
1925 (25.219.4)
Bronze technology was introduced
into the Korean peninsula in about
the tenth century B.C., most likely
from the northern regions of
the mainland. Among the most
frequently found bronze artifacts
excavated from Bronze Age sites
in Korea are mirrors, the oldest of
which date to the sixth to fourth
century B.C. The early examples
are decorated on the back (or non-
reective surface) with geometric
patterns and are believed to have
been employed in shamanistic
rituals. The use and production of
bronze mirrors were transmitted
to Japan from Korea.
By the Kory dynasty, mirrors
became an item of daily use among
the upper class. The geometric
84
7A 7B
Figure 11. The wind chime would
have been suspended from the rafter
nial in the manner suggested here.
designs of ancient times were aban-
doned in favor of decorative motifs
such as oral and plant scrolls, aus-
picious birds (crane and phoenix),
dragon and clouds, and narrative
themes in landscape settings.
While there are only a few surviv-
ing examples of secular painting
from the Kory period, secondary
evidence, such as the decoration of
celadon ware (see image 10 ) and
the ornamentation of this mirror,
indicates that there was a sophisti-
cated pictorial tradition.
Kory bronze mirrors are found
in tombs as funerary objects for the
deceased, in Buddhist pagodas as
ritual objects used in ceremonies
to quell earth spirits, and as part
of the luxurious household furnish-
ings of the wealthy. This example,
which has an elegant scalloped
edge with pointed lobes, was proba-
bly made for the latter setting. It
was fashionable to present mirrors
of this type as wedding gifts and
to place them on elaborately deco-
rated stands.
Bronze mirrors are made of
copper, tin, and zincall of which
are found in abundance in Korea.
One side of this mirror (the reverse
of that illustrated here) is polished
to a high sheen to serve as the
reective surface. The other side,
decorated with a narrative scene in
a garden setting, has a knob in the
center through which a cord could
be looped to suspend the mirror.
The scene depicts a gure, identi-
ed by his hat as a government
ofcial, crossing a bridge. On the
opposite side of the bridge, a monk
(with shaven head and carrying a
staff) points the way. In the back-
ground beyond the bridge is a tree,
probably a cypress, bearing distinc-
tive clumps of leaves. On the right
is a palace gate, in front of which
is a seated gure anked by two
attendants. Another gure emerges
from the half-opened gate.
Variations of this narrative
scene are found on other mirrors
made in China and Korea. The
story depicted might be that of the
legendary visit to the moon by the
Tang dynasty (618907) emperor
Xuanzong (r. 71256). According
to this story, a bridge to the moon
was created when two magicians
who were entertaining the emperor
threw a stick into the air. After the
three men crossed to the moon,
the moon princess came out of her
palace to greet the emperor and
ordered her servants to sing and
dance for him.
Notice: The numerous elements of
the narrative scene; the decorative
features of the mirror
Consider : The function of this
mirror as an illustration of a popu-
lar tale and as a luxury object
85
8
9. Incense Container
Kory dynasty (9181392), 10th12th
century. Lacquer with mother-of-pearl
and tortoiseshell inlay (over pigment)
and brass wires; H. 1 in. (4.1 cm),
L. 4 in. (10.2 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1925
(25.215.41a,b)
During the Kory period, lacquer-
ware with mother-of-pearl inlay
reached a high point of technical
and aesthetic achievement and was
widely used by members of the
aristocracy for Buddhist ritual
implements and vessels, as well as
horse saddles and royal carriages.
Inlaid lacquers combine texture,
color, and shape to produce a
dazzling effect in both large and
small objects. Although Korean
lacquerware of the Kory period
was highly prized throughout East
Asia, fewer than fteen examples
are known to have survived, one of
which is this exquisite box in the
Metropolitan Museums collection.
This paucity of material is largely
attributable to the fragility of
lacquer objects and, to a certain
extent, to wars and raids by foreign
powers, notably those launched
from Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi
(153698) in the late sixteenth
century.
This three-tiered box is inlaid
with mother-of-pearl and painted
tortoiseshell on a black lacquer
ground to produce a dense pattern
of chrysanthemum owers and
foliate scrolls. The edges of the box
are reinforced with twisted brass
wire. The thin pieces of translucent
tortoiseshell were painted on the
reverse with red and yellow pig-
ments, and the pieces then applied
to the object with the painted side
face down. The combined use of
mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell is
apparently peculiar to Korean lac-
quer, although it must be pointed
out that the same combination
inlaid into hardwood is seen on a
number of musical instruments, all
probably of Chinese origin and dat-
ing from about the eighth century,
in the Shs-in in Japan.
Extant contemporaneous objects
in both celadon and lacquer sug-
gest that this box was one of four
that t around a central round box.
These objects have traditionally
been identied as cosmetic boxes,
though it is unlikely that all of
them were used for this purpose.
The presence of Buddhist imagery
on related examples may indicate
that boxes of this kind were part
of a set of incense containers that
encircled a box in which a Buddhist
rosary might have been kept.
Notice: The visual effect of the
different surface materials; how
the black lacquer sets off the inlay
materials; how the oral patterns
cover the box
C o n s i d e r : The time and care needed
to prepare small pieces of tortoise-
86
9
shell and mother-of-pearl, then
inlay them onto a lacquer ground;
the relationship between inlaid
lacquerwares and inlaid celadons
(see images 11, 13, and 14), both
hallmarks of Kory art
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 55,
pp. 12829
10. Wine Ewer
Kory dynasty (9181392), early 12th
century. Stoneware with incised and
carved design of geese, waterbirds, and
reeds under celadon glaze; H. 10 in.
(26.6 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1927
(27.119.2)
Celadon wares are among the most
widely admired of Korean ceramics.
Produced in Korea during the
Kory dynasty, they reached the
height of perfection in technology,
form, and decoration between the
early twelfth and early thirteenth
centuries. Around the ninth or
tenth century, with the adoption of
celadon production techniques used
at the Yue kiln complex in modern
Zhejiang Province in southeastern
China, Kory potters took the rst
step toward the manufacture of
celadon ware.
Initially inuenced by Chinese
techniques and designs, the Korean
celadon industry, centered in the
southwestern part of the peninsula,
soon asserted its independence.
By the beginning of the twelfth
century, Korean potters had devel-
oped the rened forms, naturalistic
designs, highly transparent glazes,
and distinctive grayish blue-green
color that won high praise from
visiting Chinese, one of whom
pronounced Korean celadons as
rst under Heaven.
5
The color of
Kory celadon ware is derived from
the presence of small amounts of
iron oxide in the glaze, which was
red in a reducing atmosphere.
Kory potters initially decorated
their celadon wares with incised or
carved designs, as seen on this wine
container. Carved decoration was
executed using one of two methods.
In the rst method, a needle was
employed to incise the design in
the leather-hard clay, after which a
sharp tool was pressed against the
lines at an angle to emphasize the
design. In the second method, the
87
10
clay around the edges of the design
was carved away, causing the
design to stand out in relief.
The popular motif of waterfowl
among reeds combines Korean
aesthetic sensibilities and a strong
interest in naturalistic imagery.
Scenes of this type also appear in
Chinese paintings of the Southern
Song dynasty (11271279), with
which the Kory court maintained
cultural and diplomatic ties.
6
Notice: The tonal differences in the
celadon glaze; the liveliness and
naturalism of the plants and birds
Consider: The relationship between
the ewers form and the organization
of the decoration; how the ewers
design would look as a painting on
silk or paper
Notes
5. Xu Jing, Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing
(Illustrated Record of the Chinese
Embassy to the Kory Court during the
Xuanhe Era), ed. and comp. by Imanishi
Ry (Gifu, Japan: Imanishi Shunjy, 1932).
This text, written by the Chinese scholar-
ofcial Xu Jing (10911153), who visited
the Kory capital in 1123 as a member of
a diplomatic mission from the court of the
Northern Song emperor Huizong (r. 1101
25), is the oldest and most informative
commentary on Kory celadon ware. See
Itoh, Korean Ceramics from The Museum of
Oriental Ceramics, Osaka, pp. 913. For
additional information on Kory celadon
ware, see Arts of Korea, pp. 233415, and
McKillop, Korean Art and Design, pp. 3658.
6. An example of a Southern Song paint-
ing in the Metropolitan Museums collec-
tion with a similar theme is Egrets in Water
Reeds of the late twelfth century (47.18.77);
published in Wen C. Fong, Beyond Repre-
sentation: Chinese Painting and Calligraphy,
8th14th Century (New York and New Haven:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art and
Yale University Press, 1992), pl. 46, p. 261.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 11,
pp. 6061
11. Oil Bottle
Kory dynasty (9181392), late 12th
century. Stoneware with reverse inlaid
design of peonies under celadon glaze;
H. 2 in. (5.7 cm). Rogers Fund, 1917
(17.175.9)
The decoration of this small bottle
is a rare example of the technique
of reverse inlay. (For a description
of the inlay technique in Kory
celadon ware, see image 13.) The
area around the design was carved
away and the background then
inlaid with a white substance,
which, when the piece was glazed
and red, produced a green pattern
against a cream-colored ground.
Notice: The contrast between the
green and white colors; how the
design complements the shape of
the bottle
Consider: The skill and imagina-
tion required to reverse the inlay
process
88
11
12. Melon-Shaped Wine Ewer
Kory dynasty (9181392), 12th cen-
t u ry. Stoneware with carved and i n c i s e d
design of bamboo under celadon g l a z e ;
H. 8 in. (21.6 cm). Gift of M rs. Rog e r
G. Gerry, 1996 (1996.471)
The graceful form, rened decora-
tion, and lustrous blue-green glaze
distinguish this ewer as one of
the nest products of the Kory
celadon kilns at the peak of their
production. The carved and incised
decoration emulating the natural
forms of melon and bamboo exem-
plies the Korean practice of draw-
ing on nature for inspiration when
working in clay.
This ewer, probably made to
hold wine, originally may have been
accompanied by a bowl-shaped
basin, which, when lled with hot
water, would have kept the contents
of the ewer warm.
7
Luxurious
utilitarian celadon wares such as
this example were favored by the
aristocracy. Because they were
from aristocratic families and had
wealthy patrons, many Buddhist
monks in the Kory period also
followed the practice of the nobility
in using celadon ware.
Notice: The parts of this ewer
that resemble bamboo or a melon;
the lustrous, jadelike color of the
celadon glaze
Consider : Natural forms as a pri-
mary source of artistic inspiration
Note
7. See Itoh, Korean Ceramics from The
Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka,
gs. 6, 7, p. 17.
13. Bottle
Kory dynasty (9181392), 13th
century. Stoneware with inlaid design
of chrysanthemums under celadon
glaze; H. 13 in. (34.6 cm). Fletcher
Fund, 1927 (27.119.6)
This bottle, made during the height
of celadon production in Korea,
attests to the technological and aes-
thetic achievements of Kory pot-
ters in the production of elegantly
formed and decorated vessels, as
well as to the Korean preference
for themes from nature. Inlaid
chrysanthemum blossoms are
aligned along the bottles gently
curved sides, which have been
formed into lobes.
The time-consuming technique
of inlay in celadon ware (sanggam)
involves incising or carving the
design into the unbaked, leather-
hard clay with a needle or wooden
tool and lling in the resulting
depressions with a white or black
89
12
substance.
8
The piece is given a
biscuit, or rst, ring, then coated
with a celadon glaze and red again
at a higher temperature. Although
inlaid decoration was used in
Chinese ceramics during the Tang
(618907) and Northern Song
(9601127) dynasties, it was not
widespread and its application to
celadon ware was never fully
exploited. Among makers of Kory
celadon, however, it became a
favored decorative technique, estab-
lishing a distinct and important
category of Korean ceramics.
Inlaid celadon vessels such as
this example epitomize the rened
sensibilities of the Kory aristoc-
racy. While ordinary people used
simple, undecorated stoneware,
royalty and the aristocracy created
a demand for large quantities of
celadon-glazed objects. The nest
vessels were made in ofcial kilns,
which worked to government spec-
ications and were supervised by
court ofcials. The fondness for
detail and exquisite materials is
also evidenced in the inlaid lacquer-
ware and Buddhist paintings of
the Kory period (see images 9 and
1518).
Notice: The way in which the
chrysanthemums have been
depicted; the bottles shape; how
the scale of the owers emphasizes
the volume of the bottle
Consider : Whether the bottles
form and design are more natural-
istic or decorative; what messages
are conveyed by ones choice of
utilitarian wares and domestic
furnishings
Note
8. The exact composition of the inlay
substances used by Kory potters remains
a subject of discussion. According to a
recent study by Pamela Vandiver (The
Technology of Korean Celadons, in Itoh
and Mino et al., The Radiance of Jade and
the Clarity of Water, pp. 15253), the white
or black inlays were not made of white
kaolinitic or dark ferruginous clays, as is
commonly believed, but composed mainly
of quartz particles or cubic particles of
magnetite. Vandivers analysis, however,
is not accepted by all scholars.
90
13
14. Poster A
Maebyng
Kory dynasty (9181392), late 13th
early 14th century. Stoneware with in-
laid design of cranes and clouds under
celadon glaze; H. 11 in. (29.2 cm).
Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27.119.11)
A maebyng is a vessel with a small
mouth, short neck, round shoulder,
and constricted waist. The form is
derived from the Chinese meiping,
or prunus vase. The Kory
maebyng is distinguished from
its Chinese counterpart by a
saucer-shaped mouth and a body
that forms a pronounced S-shaped
curve, resulting in a slightly ared
base. A few of these vessels in
China and Korea have retained a
cup-shaped cover over the mouth,
suggesting that they were used to
store wine.
Although inlay was widely
employed throughout East Asia in
metalwork and lacquerware, the
use of the inlay technique in the
decoration of celadon ware, known
as sanggam, is peculiar to Korea (for
a description of this technique, see
image 13 ). By the mid-twelfth or
early thirteenth century, the inlay
technique had become the most fre-
quently used method of decoration
in Korean celadon ware. Its success-
ful application to celadons was made
possible by the Korean potters
development of the highly translu-
cent glazes that allowed
the decoration underneath to show
through clearly.
The body of this maebyng is
ornamented with inlaid clouds and
cranes, symbols of longevity. The
design is enhanced by the black
outline of the funguslike heads and
long trail of the white clouds, and
the black curved strokes that dene
the plumage of the birds. Encircling
the mouth and base is a key-fret
pattern. This repeated squared
spiral derives from the ancient
Chinese thunder pattern, and is
frequently found on Chinese and
Korean decorative objects and
architectural ornaments.
Notice: The painterly appearance
of the crane and clouds; the
maebyngs shape
Consider : The relationship between
the vessels design and form; the
relatively loose arrangement of the
design elements (compare image 10 )
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 18,
pp. 70, 74, 41719
91
14
15. Unidentied artist (ca. 13th
century), Amitabha Triad
Kory dynasty (9181392). Hanging
scroll, ink and color on silk; 47
32 in. (121.6 81.9 cm). Rogers
Fund, 1930 (30.76.298)
The Buddha Amitabha (Amita) was
the focal image of worship in Pure
Land Buddhism, a devotional sect
that enjoyed great popularity in
Korea during the Kory dynasty.
Devotees were assured personal
salvation and rebirth in Amitabhas
Western Paradise upon faithful
recitation of his name. Here,
Amitabha, encircled by a large
mandorla and with a golden nim-
bus surrounding his head, is shown
seated on an elaborate lotus throne.
He wears a red monastic robe
embellished with patterns painted
in gold. On his chest is a svastika,
an auspicious symbol representing
Buddhist teaching; on his palms
and the sole of his one visible foot
are chakra (wheel) motifs, symboliz-
ing the ever-turning dharma (law).
Amitabhas identity is estab-
lished by his hand gesture, the
dharmachakramudra, representing
the preaching of the Buddhist law,
and by the presence of the bodhi-
sattvas Avalokiteshvara (Kwanm),
on his left, and Mahasthamaprapta
(Tae Seji), on his right. Avaloki-
teshvara, the bodhisattva of com-
passion and wisdom, holds a bottle
of sacred water in his left hand and
a willow branch in his right. In the
center of his crown is a tiny image
of Amitabha, his spiritual master.
Mahasthamaprapta, who symbol-
izes Amitabhas wisdom and helps
people realize the importance of
seeking enlightenment, holds in
his right hand a rectangular object
with a red ribbon; a tiny precious
bottle appears in his crown.
The three gures are arranged as
a triada long-established fo rm at
t h at can be found in India seve ra l
centuries earlier and appears in
Korean Buddhist sculpture by at
least the sixth century. Amitabha,
the most important gure and the
subject of ve n e ration and meditat i o n ,
is depicted larger in size and frontally
posed, occupying the apex of the
triangle fo rmed by the three deities.
The slender, tapered gures of t h e
two attendant bodhisat t va s, show n
standing on lotus pedestals below
him in three-quarter view and in
a gentle t r i b h a n g h a (thrice-bent)
p o s t u r e, are in marked contrast to
A m i t abhas powerful presence.
9
The gures are uently drawn
in cinnabar red. Their facial feat u r e s
are differentiated: the face of the
Buddha is broad, while the youthful
faces of the bodhisattvas are elon-
gated. The long, narrow eyes of the
Buddha contrast with the almond-
shaped eyes of his attendants. On
all three gures, the eyebrows,
executed meticulously with ne
individual brushstrokes, reveal
92
15
the hand of a master painter. The
gures sumptuous garments are
embellished in gold with motifs of
c ranes among clouds (on Amitab h a s
inner garment, visible on the right
sleeve), lotus medallions (on his
outer robe, covering his shoulders
and draped across his left arm),
composite chrysanthemum or oral
roundels (on the bodhisattvas
translucent robes), and various
types of plant scrolls (on the bor-
ders of the gures garments).
Notice: The relationship of the
three gures and the differences
between them; the sumptuous
details of the garments; the various
parts of Amitabhas throne
Consider : How the composition
and the decorative elements of this
painting functioned to make it an
object of religious devotion; how
the relative importance of the three
gures is indicated by their size,
position, and posture
Note
9. The Sanskrit term tribhanga, which
derives from Indian tradition, refers to the
depiction of the body with the head, torso,
and hips bent alternatively to the left or
right.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 73,
pp. 16263
16A, B, C. Unidentied artist
(early 14th century), Water-Moon
Avalokiteshvara
Kory dynasty (9181392). Hanging
scroll, ink and color on silk; 44
21 in. (113.7 55.3 cm). Charles
Stewart Smith Collection, Gift of
Mrs. Charles Stewart Smith, Charles
Stewart Smith Jr. and Howard Caswell
Smith, in memory of Charles Stewart
Smith, 1914 (14.76.6)
This superb painting depicts one of
the most popular Buddhist deities
in East Asia, Avalokiteshvara
(Kwanm), the bodhisattva of in-
nite compassion and wisdom. Here
he is shown as the Water-Moon
Avalokiteshvara (Suwl Kwanm),
one of his numerous guises and
one frequently depicted in Kory
Buddhist paintings. Chinese records
suggest that this manifestation of
the bodhisattva originated in China
during the Tang dynasty (618
907), in the eighth century.
10
93
16A
This representation of the
Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara por-
trays the deitys standard attrib-
utes: the image of the Buddha
Amitabha in his crown (see detail,
image 16B); the willow branch that
symbolizes healing, displayed in
a kundika (a ritual vessel used for
sprinkling water) placed in a clear
glass bowl to the gures right;
and a full moon at the top of the
painting. Depicted in the moon is
a hare standing under a cassia tree
pounding the elixir of immortality,
a theme based on a well-known
Chinese legend.
Avalokiteshvara sits on a rocky
outcrop surrounded by a sea of
swirling waves, representing his
island abode of Mount Potalaka
(Naksan). In the water are small
rocks with protruding stalks of
precious coral; barely discernible
in the background, to his left, are
several large stalks of bamboo. The
boy Sudhana, who, according to
scripture, visited Mount Potalaka
and the homes of fty-three other
Buddhist saints on a spiritual
journey in search of ultimate truth,
stands at Avalokiteshvaras feet in
a pose of adoration.
11
Opposite the
youth, a sumptuously dressed gr o u p
comprised of the dragon king of
the Eastern Sea, his retinue (who
might represent the aristocratic
donors who commissioned the
painting), and sea monsters present
offerings of incense, coral, and
pearls (see detail, image 16 C).
Ava l o k i t e s h va ra is attired in
beautiful robes and sashes, with in-
t r i c ate gold details on his jewe l ry
and clothing. Holding a cry s t a l
r o s a ry in his right hand, he sits
with his right leg crossed and his
left foot placed on a lotus-fl owe r
s u p p o rt. Surrounding his body and
symbolizing his divinity is a large
luminous mandorla (aureole),
while a nimbus (halo) encircles
his head.
The luxuriousness of the paint-
ing materials and the bodhisattvas
attire and accessories, as well as
the numerous delicately rendered
details, well expresses the ideal
of changm (Skt. alamkara). This
idea of conveying a sense of sacred
splendor through rich ornamenta-
tion and visual glorication was
prevalent among the upper classes
in the Kory period and part of the
belief that ones goals could be
achieved through the proper per-
formance of rituals, which necessi-
tated iconographically correct
images and suitably furnished
settings.
N o t i c e : The impressive detail and
delicacy of Ava l o k i t e s h va ras ga u z e
robes and jewe l ry; the supplicants
attitude of a d o ration and ve n e rat i o n ;
the landscape elements that creat e
an environment for the g u r e s
Consider : The relationship between
visual splendor and spiritual power;
94
16B 16C
the aspects of Avalokiteshvaras
appearance that suggest compas-
sion, wisdom, and nobility
Notes
10. For a detailed description of the
sources of this image, which include
Buddhist and Daoist texts, Chinese and
Central Asian pictorial conventions, and
Korean legends, see Pak, The Korean Art
Collection in The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, in Arts of Korea, pp. 43346.
11. Sudhanas travels are described in the
Avatamsaka Sutra, the inuential Buddhist
scripture that provided the textual basis
for Korean renderings of the Water-Moon
Avalokiteshvara.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 75,
pp. 16667
17A, B. Unidentied artist (14th
century), Illustrated Manuscript
of the Lotus Sutra (detail)
Kory dynasty (9181392), ca. 1340.
Folding book, gold and silver on
i n d i go - dyed mulberry paper; 106 pag e s,
each 13 4 in. (33 11.4 cm).
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift,
1994 (1994.207)
This lav i s h ly illustrated fo u rt e e n t h -
century manuscript, produced on
mulberry paper dyed indigo blue
and executed in gold and silver,
demonstrates the standards of
excellence for which Kory sutras
are renowned. Like most Korean
illuminated manuscripts of this
period, it is presented in a rectan-
gular accordion format that facili-
tated reading. The text is the
second volume of the Lotus Sutra,
one of the most inuential Buddhist
texts in East Asia and, along with
the Avatamsaka Sutra, the most
frequently copied sutra in Korea
during the Kory period. The Lotus
Sutra presents in concrete terms
the essence of Mahayana Buddhism
namely, the doctrine of universal
salvation of all living beings and
the attainment of Buddhahood, the
ultimate aim of existence.
Read from right to left, the manu-
script begins with the title, written
in gold, fo l l owed by illustrations of
episodes described in the inscribed
t ext, executed in minute detail and
l av i s h ly embellished in gold. The
i l l u s t rations are framed by a border
o f va j ra (thunderbolt) and ch a k ra
( w h e e l ) m o t i f s, symbolizing inde-
s t ructibility and Buddhist teach-
i n g s, respective ly.
1 2
At the far right,
the historical Buddha Shakya m u n i ,
s h own seated on a dais behind an
altar and surrounded by bodhi-
sattvas and guardians, preaches
to his disciple Shariputra in the
company of other monks (see detail,
i m age 17B). In the upper left of t h e
frontispiece is a scene illustrat i n g
95
17A
the parable of the bu rning house,
which relates the story of a we a l t hy
man and his children. The children
are playing in the house, unaw a r e
t h at it is plagued by demons, poi-
sonous insects, and snakes and that
it is also on r e. Their fat h e r, in
order to entice his children aw ay
from the danger, offers them three
c a rt s, drawn by an ox, a deer, or
a go at according to each childs
preferences and interests. When
the children exit the bu rning house,
h oweve r, they each receive a cart
even more mag n i cent than they
expected. This parable illustrat e s
h ow expedient methods (the
modest carts) can lead sentient
beings (the children) from the
eeting and perilous world of
sensual perception (the house)
to a gr e ater goal, the vehicle of
M a h ayana Buddhism (the resplen-
dent cart s ) .
The second parable, shown in
the lower left, concerns an old man
and his son, who in his youth aban-
dons his father and lives for many
years in another land. As he grows
older, he becomes increasingly poor
and seeks employment in prosper-
ous households. After wandering
from place to place, he stumbles
upon the new residence of his now
wealthy and successful father. Not
recognizing his father, the son ees
in fear that he will be enslaved.
His father, realizing that his son is
incapable of living as the sole heir
to such a prominent man, disguises
himself as a moderately wealthy
man and hires his son as a laborer
whose job is to clear away excre-
ment. Gradually, he entrusts his
son with greater responsibilities,
so that the young man grows
accustomed to administering his
masters affairs and slowly develops
self-assurance and generosity. At
this time, his father reveals his true
identity and bestows upon his son
his entire fortune.
In this parable, the father
represents the Buddha, and the son
symbolizes unenlightened sentient
beings. Their master, recognizing
that they are unprepared to accept
this greater glory, waits until they
adapt to their more modest roles
before granting them the promise
of ultimate enlightenment. At the
end of the scripture, devotees are
warned that those who disregard
the Lotus Sutra will be reborn as
deformed beings, as reviled as the
wild dog being chased by the chil-
dren in the lower left corner of the
sutras frontispiece.
13
The text that
follows the illustration is written in
silver in a highly rened standard
script (haes).
The copying of sutras, the
written texts that transmit the
teachings of the Buddha, was
widely encouraged in Buddhist
practice, and patrons and artisans
alike were rewarded with religious
merit for their efforts.
14
Every
96
stage of the production of Buddhist
scriptures required great care and
spiritual purity. The raw materials
indigo-dyed mulberry paper,
ink, pigments (in this case, gold and
silver powders mixed with animal
glue), and mounting materials
were of the highest quality and
were meticulously prepared. Unlike
most Buddhist paintings of the
period, sutras record the names of
the calligraphers, artisans, super-
vising monks, and lay devotees who
participated in or commissioned
their production, usually in an
inscription at the end of the text.
When a sutra was completed,
special ceremonies of dedication
were held to commemorate the
occasion. Sutras produced at the
Royal Scriptorium (Sagyngwn)
during the Kory period were
highly valued by monasteries and
temples throughout East Asia.
Notice: The sumptuous materials
and intricate detail of this manu-
script; the devices used to separate
and connect the different scenes
depicted
Consider : The relationship between
p at r o n ag e, religious motivation, and
art production; what the materials
and appearance of this sutra convey
about the aesthetic preferences of
the Kory court and aristocracy
Notes
12. The prototype for this frontispiece
illustration can be traced back to a Song
dynasty (9601279) woodblock print. The
arrangement of the narrative scenes of the
Metropolitans sutra is directly borrowed
from Song illustration. Images of this
kind, together with religious texts, were
brought to Korea in large quantities by
Korean monks who went to China to
study. Upon their return to Korea, these
texts and pictures were reproduced in
handwritten copies and woodblock prints
and made available to other Korean
monks. For the Chinese woodblock print
that served as a model for this frontispiece,
see Pak, The Korean Art Collection in
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in
Arts of Korea, g. 25, p. 437.
13. These illustrations are identied by
Pak, ibid., pp. 43738 and p. 477, note 119.
For a complete recounting of these tales,
see Leon Hurvitz, Scripture of the Lotus
Blossom of the Fine Dharma (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1976).
14. This practice is thought to have been
introduced into Korea during the Three
Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.). Al-
though the earliest dated extant example of
a Korean illustrated sutra was made in 1006,
most of the surviving illustrated sutras
were produced in the fourteenth century.
See Pak, Illuminated Buddhist Manu-
scripts in Korea. In times of peril, such as
the Mongol invasions of Korea in the thir-
teenth century, sutras were also commis-
sioned in an effort to safeguard the nation.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 78,
pp. 17173
97
17B
18. Poster B
Unidentied artist (late 14th
century), Kshitigarbha (Chijang)
Kory dynasty (9181392). Hanging
scroll, gold and color on silk; 33
14 in. (84.5 36.8 cm). H. O. Have-
meyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs.
H. O. Havemeyer, 1929 (29.160.32)
The popularity of the bodhisattva
Kshitigarbha (Chijang) in Kory
Pure Land Buddhism is demon-
strated by the frequent depiction
of the deity in devotional paintings.
Kshitigarbha is most commonly
portrayed as a monk holding a
mendicants staff and a wish-fulll-
ing jewel (Skt. cintamani ), the light
of which could illuminate even the
darkest corners of hell.
15
With
the growing popularity of the Pure
Land school at all levels of Korean
society in the thirteenth century,
during which time the peninsula
suffered six invasions by Mongol
armies, the promise of paradise for
the faithful and the threat of hell
for evil beings became increasingly
attractive concepts. The image of
Chijang standing on lotus-ower
pedestals and holding his staff and
cintamani represented to devotees
his power over hell, from which he
could deliver unfortunate beings
and lead them to paradise.
The variety of colors used in
this paintingfrom the malachite
green of the gold-edged nimbus
and the bright cinnabar red of the
u n d e rs k i rt to the bluish gray monks
robe and the dazzling gold of the
textile patterns provides striking
contrasts. The rich ornamentation
of the decorative motifs on the gar-
ment is executed with virtuosity.
Despite such technical brilliance,
however, the bodhisattvas face is
somewhat precious, with narrowly
set eyes and very small nose and
lips, and the drapery is stiff and
at, with little suggestion of vol-
ume. These features, as well as the
schematic curves of the garment
and the pointed corners of the
hemlines, indicate that this painting
was made no earlier than the late
fourteenth century.
Notice: The delicately rendered
details of the painting: the trans-
parent cintamani, the medallions on
the robe, the jewels that ornament
the monks staff, and the lotus-
blossom pedestals
Consider : Whether the gures
expression and posture inspire a
sense of comfort; the use of line
versus volume in this image
Note
15. This iconography derives mainly from
Chinese Five Dynasties (90760) and
Northern Song (9601127) representa-
tions of Kshitigarbha in Dunhuang.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 77,
pp. 168, 170
98
18
19. Image Hall, Haein-sa Temple
South Kyngsang Province, October
1997. Photograph by Elizabeth
Hammer
Haein-sa was established on Kaya
mountain in South Kyngsang
Province in southern Korea in
802 and reached its present size in
the mid-tenth century. It is famed
as the repository of the Tripitaka
Koreana, the entire Buddhist canon
carved onto just over 80,000 wood-
blocks for printing in the thirteenth
century. Although parts of the tem-
ple compound have been destroyed
twice, the Tripitaka Koreana, now
recognized by UNESCO as a world
cultural treasure, miraculously
escaped damage.
Like most other Sn Buddhist
temples, Haein-sa is remotely situ-
ated in the mountains, which pro-
vides a quiet atmosphere conducive
to meditation. Because of the un-
even ground plane, monasteries
such as Haein-sa do not follow the
strict axial arrangement of urban
temples. Although the basic layout
of entrance gates, stone pagodas,
w o rship halls, and monks residences
interspersed with courtyards, is
followed, the buildings are situated
along the contours of the mountain.
The worship hall pictured here is
decorated on the exterior with col-
orful paintings depicting important
events in the lives of the founding
monks.
20. Stationery Box
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th
century. Black lacquer with mother-of-
pearl inlay; H. 3 in. (9 cm), W. 14 in.
(36.5 cm). Promised Gift of Florence
and Herbert Irving (L. 1992.62.3)
The production of inlaid lacquer
in Korea continued in the Chosn
period, during which time the ne
detail and mosaiclike patterns of
Kory inlaid lacquers (see image 9 )
were replaced by larger and more
prominent designs. The scrolling
oral vine on this fteenth-century
box is formed with thin strips of
mother-of-pearl, with larger, crack-
led pieces depicting the leaves and
owers. It is noteworthy that three
different types of owers grow on
the same scrolling vine; that the
vine covers the entire surface; and
that the larger leaves are of the
acanthus type, with its characteris-
tic curled-back ends. The only con-
currence of all these elements in
99
19
the decorative arts of East Asia
took place in the late fourteenth
and early fteenth centuries.
16
Notice: How the scrolling vine lls
the surface of the box; the abstract
quality of the leaves combined with
the small circles that ll the inter-
stices of the design
Consider : The change in the treat-
ment of ornamentation in various
media; how the appearance of this
scrolling vine suggests the growth
of an actual plant
Note
16. See Watt and Ford, East Asian Lacquer:
The Florence and Herbert Irving Collection,
p. 317.
21. Flask-Shaped Bottle
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th
century. Stoneware with sgrafto
design of owers under punchng
glaze; H. 8 in. (21 cm). Rogers Fund,
1986 (1986.305)
In the early ye a rs of the Chosn
dy n a s t y, Korean potters, working
with new energy and condence,
attempted to revitalize what
remained of the Kory dynasty
(9181392) celadon tradition. T h e
result of these effo rts was p u n ch n g
w a r e.
1 7
The term is a contraction
o f punjang hoechng sag i l i t e ra l ly,
c e ramic ware of a grayish gr e e n
c l ay body covered with white slip
and a clear greenish glaze a n d
was rst used in the twentieth cen-
t u ry (the original name of this ware
remains unknown). P u n ch n g w a s
manufactured only in the f t e e n t h
and sixteenth centuries. Yet during
this short time, the industry o u r-
ished and potters produced objects
in a variety of shapes and decorat e d
with seve ral methods. Thought of a s
utilitarian objects in Korea and used
by all classes, p u n ch n g wares we r e
w i d e ly appreciated for their aes-
thetic appeal in Muromachi (1392
1573) Japan, where the gr e at tea
master Sen no Riky (152291)
helped to create a taste for their bold
rustic fo rms and vigorous designs.
1 8
Punchng represents an impor-
tant development in the Korean
ceramic tradition. Its indebtedness
to Kory celadons can be seen in
the grayish green glaze, although,
because they contain less iron
oxide, punchng glazes are not as
green in tone as celadon glazes.
In addition, the simplied decora-
tive technique of stamped designs
used in celadons of the late Kory
period, in the second half of the
thirteenth to the fourteenth
century, was adopted by Chosn
potters in the decoration of early
punchng wares.
100
20
This fteenth-century bottle
was decorated on both sides with
a oral design using the sgrafto
technique. In this method, white
slip is applied to the surface of the
clay body, and a design is incised
into it. The slip is then scraped
away in the areas surrounding the
design to expose the grayish blue
body beneath. After the piece is
coated with a transparent glaze and
red, the white-slip design stands
out clearly against the dark back-
ground. In this example, the boldly
rendered oral decoration comple-
ments the thickly potted vessel.
The glaze has pooled in places on
the surface, producing subtle tonal
variations.
N o t i c e : H ow the o ral design stands
out in relief; the rougher appeara n c e
o f the object in comparison to Ko ry
celadon wares (images 1014 ); the
l i ve ly and spontaneous appeara n c e
o f the decorat i o n
C o n s i d e r : The differences betwe e n
the standards of production tech-
niques and designs developed by
Ko ry and Chosn potters
Notes
17. For further information on punchng
ware, see Itoh, Korean Ceramics from The
Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka, pp. 36,
40, 8197, 14648.
18. The inuence of punchng ware
techniques and aesthetics can be seen
in Japanese ceramics such as a Mino-
ware dish for use in the tea ceremony
(1975.268.436), published in the MMA
Bulletin (Summer 1987), no. 51, p. 44,
which reveals the same preference for
rusticity and accidental effect.
22. Wine Cup
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th
century. White porcelain; H. 1 in.
(4.1 cm), Diam. 4 in. (11.4 cm).
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.175.1)
White-bodied porcelain wares
(paekcha) were rst produced in
Korea at the beginning of the
Chosn dynasty, in the rst half of
the fteenth century, and continued
to be popular throughout the
dynasty.
19
The early phase of por-
celain manufacture is characterized
by undecorated white wares. These
wares reect the austere tastes
associated with Neo-Confucianism,
which was embraced by the Chosn
rulers as the ofcial state ideology
and advocated by the p r e e m i n e n t
social class, the ya n g b a n. The yang-
ban, who held the highest civil and
military positions in government,
devoted themselves to study and
self-cultivation in the Confucian
tradition and sought to fashion a
101
21 22
political and social system based
on Confucian ideals, principles, and
practices. Of paramount impor-
tance in yangban society were the
strict rules governing ancestral
worship and mourning rites.
Associated with purity, white
porcelain was considered especially
suitable for objects used by the
court and yangban households, in
particular, ritual dishes and con-
tainers such as this small double-
handled cup. Cups of this kind were
used for offering wine on special
occasions, such as memorial cere-
monies performed at an ancestral
altar.
20
The cup would have been
held with both hands, as is the
custom in East Asian ritual and
formal settings.
Notice: The simplicity of the cups
form and appearance
Consider : The connection between
Confucian ideals and white-bodied
porcelain
Notes
19. White porcelaneous wares were pro-
duced in the Kory dynasty (9181392)
around the same time as celadon wares,
but never achieved widespread popularity.
Because of their often insufcient ring
temperature, which can leave the clay
and glaze incompletely vitried, they are
technically excluded from the category of
true porcelains. For more information on
the production techniques and designs
of Chosn white porcelain ware, see
Itoh, Korean Ceramics from The Museum
of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka, pp. 3035,
98107, 149.
20. For a description of ancestral halls and
worship practices in the Chosn period,
see Kim, Korean Arts of the Eighteenth
Century, pp. 8486.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 28,
pp. 84, 86
23. Jar
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 18th
century. Porcelain with underglaze
copper-red decoration of a grapevine;
H. 10 in. (25.5 cm). The Harry G. C.
Packard Collection of Asian Art, Gift
of Harry G. C. Packard, and Purchase,
Fletcher, Rogers, Harris Brisbane
Dick, and Louis V. Bell Funds, Joseph
Pulitzer Bequest, and The Annenberg
Fund Inc. Gift, 1975 (1979.413.2)
Painting in underglaze copper-red
was more difcult to accomplish
than its counterpart decorative
medium, underglaze cobalt-blue,
because copper readily oxidizes and
turns to shades of gray or black
during ring, or even disappears
entirely. Underglaze copper-red
decoration on high-red ware is
most likely an invention of Kory
(9181392) potters, who succeeded
in producing this color early in the
twelfth century when it was used
sparingly in the decoration of
102
23
celadon ware. This type of decora-
tion was revived at provincial kilns
in the eighteenth century with the
ourishing of the decorative arts.
The jars uneven prole and
bold, quickly painted design impart
a sense of vibrancy and naturalism.
While Korean craftsmen used
many of the same decorative
motifs grapevines, dragons,
bamboo, owers as their Chinese
and Japanese counterparts, they
often executed these images with
a distinctive dynamic style.
Notice: The shape of the jar; the
freedom with which the design
was painted
Consider : Whether this jar appears
clumsy or appealing; the aesthetic
ideals that motivated the production
and appreciation of this jar (compare
image 10 )
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 37,
pp. 95, 99
24. Large Jar
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 18th
19th century. White porcelain;
H. 14 in. (37.5 cm). The Harry G. C.
Packard Collection of Asian Art, Gift
of Harry G. C. Packard, and Purchase,
Fletcher, Rogers, Harris Brisbane
Dick, and Louis V. Bell Funds, Joseph
Pulitzer Bequest, and The Annenberg
Fund Inc. Gift, 1975 (1979.413.1)
Among the most striking of the
white porcelain wares produced in
the Chosn period are large utili-
tarian jars such as this one, which
was made by joining two bowl-
shaped forms at their rims. (The
seam is partially visible along the
jars midsection.) It would have
been especially admired for its
irregular shape, a result of slight
sagging during the ring.
The porcelain kilns of the
Chosn period produced objects
of varying levels of quality. The
best grade of porcelain was made
for the court at the royal kilns in
Kwangju, in Kynggi Province,
south of the capital Seoul, as well
as at the provincial kilns under the
auspices of the Saongwn, the
government bureau in charge of
ceramic production. The royal kilns
were relocated every ten years or
so, in order to ensure a constant
supply of rewood, immense
amounts of which were consumed
to produce the temperatures in
excess of 1200C needed for ring
porcelain. Other provincial kilns
produced both punchng (see image
21) and porcelain for local use, and
occasionally as tribute to the court.
Throughout the history of
Korean ceramics, one can see the
attempt to combine functionality
with fo rms and designs that possess
a natural, spontaneous quality.
The Korean potter did not resort
to exaggerated forms or unneces-
sary decoration to achieve a sense
of perfection or articial beauty.
103
24
Instead, the true beauty of Korean
ceramics lies in their pure and mod-
est forms, which are determined by
technique and function, and in their
minimal decoration.
Notice: The unevenness of the
glaze and the jars asymmetrical
prole; the visible mark around
the mid-section where the two
bowl-shaped forms were joined
C o n s i d e r : The qualities of a s y m m e-
t ry and irr egularity as ex p r e s s i o n s
o f n at u ralness and spontaneity
25A, B. Unidentied artist (15th
century), Landscapes in the
Style of An Kyn: Evening Bell
from Mist-Shrouded Temple
and Autumn Moon over Lake
Dongting
Chosn dynasty (13921910). Pair of
hanging scrolls, ink on silk; Each 34
17 in. (88.3 45.1 cm). Purchase,
Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, and Mr. and
Mrs. Frederick P. Rose and John B.
Elliott Gifts, 1987 (1987.278a,b)
In the early Chosn period, from
the founding of the dynasty in 1392
to about 1550, landscape painting
ourished and developed in a new
direction. Drawing on the native
Kory dynasty (9181392) painting
tradition and adapting recently
introduced styles from Chinas
Ming dynasty (13681644), Chosn
artists began to produce landscape
paintings that blended Chinese
conventions with more distinctly
Korean characteristics. The
preeminent landscapist during this
time was the court painter An Kyn
(active ca. 144070). His innovative
style, which exerted enormous
inuence on Korean landscape
painting, was inspired by Chinese
monumental landscapes, particu-
larly those of the Northern Song
(9601127) master artist Guo Xi
(ca. 1000ca. 1090).
21
The energetic brushwork and
d ra m atic contrasts of dark and light
in these two Chosn paintings re-
ect the dominant inuence of A n
Ky n .
2 2
These stylistic chara c t e r i s-
tics of the An Kyn school of p a i n t-
ing were part i c u l a r ly well suited
to the depiction of the celebrat e d
theme Eight Views of the Xiao and
Xiang Riv e rs, which was rst fo rm a l-
ized in China during the eleve n t h
ce n t u ry and became popular in
Korea in the fteenth century (see
image 26 ). Eight Vi e w s c o m p o s i t i o n s
were based on a set of poems ex t o l-
ling the beauty and melancholy of
104
25A, B
the entire landscape of mountains,
rivers, and m a rshes in the Lake
Dongting region, in the modern
Chinese province of Hunan. The
Metropolitan Museums hanging
scrolls depict two of the Eight Vi e w s
scenes and were presumably once
p a rt of a set of eight. Evening Bell
f rom Mist-Shrouded Te m p l e (i m a g e
2 5A) is lled with a misty, somew h at
m e l a n c h o ly at m o sp h e r e. Tiled
rooftops visible through the mist
s u ggest the presence of a l a r g e
monastic complex in the foothills of
an imposingly tall mountain ra n g e.
Autumn Moon over Lake D o n g t i n g
(image 25 B), a rather dark painting
which depicts an empty boat moored
at the shore in the fo r eground and a
d o u ble-storied pavilion dimly visibl e
in the middle ground, gives the im-
pression of a nocturnal scene. Both
paintings omit standard details of
human interest g u r e s, boat s, a
rustic bridge, a bustling mountain
m a r ket, or even a well-trodden pat h .
This absence suggests a disinterest
on the part of the artist in narrat i ve
detail and underscores his concern
with capturing the mood of t h e
landscape and a moment in time.
In contrast to the horizontal hand-
scroll fo rm at favored by Chinese
a rt i s t s, Korean depictions of t h i s
Eight Vi e w s theme are commonly
presented in hanging scroll fo rm at
and often mounted as a fo l d i n g
s c r e e n .
Notice: The brushwork and convo-
luted mountain forms; the sharp
contrasts between light and dark
areas; how wash is used; that silk
darkens with age
Consider : The treatment of space;
the precise manner of painting the
architectural elements compared
with the more boldly rendered
mountain forms; that for Korean
artists, the Xiao and Xiang rivers
area was completely imaginary and
could be glimpsed only through
imported Chinese paintings; the
reasons for the lack of color
Notes
21. An important handscroll painting by
Guo Xi in the Metropolitan Museums
collection is Old Trees, Level Distance
(1981.276). Guo Xis best-known work
is Early Spring, in the National Palace
Museum, Taipei, and is published in James
C. Y. Watt and Wen C. Fong, Possessing
the Past: Treasures from The National Palace
Museum, Taipei (New York and Taipei:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art and
National Palace Museum, 1996), pl. 60,
p. 129.
22. For a comprehensive study of the
Metropolitan Museums paintings and
their connection to An Kyn, see Hong-
nam Kim, An Kyn and the Eight Views
Tradition: An Assessment of Two Land-
scapes in The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, in Arts of Korea, pp. 367401.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 84,
pp. 182, 18687
105
26A, B. Unidentied artist
(late 15th16th century), Wild
Geese Descending to Sandbar
Chosn dynasty (13921910). Hanging
scroll, ink on silk; 49 29 in.
(126.4 48.5 cm). Purchase, Harris
Brisbane Dick Fund, John M. Crawford
Jr. Bequest, and The Vincent Astor
Foundation Gift, 1992 (1992.337)
Monochrome landscape painting
was favored by both literati and
professional court painters in
Korea in the fteenth and sixteenth
centuries. This painting is an
example of Korean artists inter-
pretation of the landscape painting
idiom of Chinas Northern Song
dynasty (9601127).
The title identies the work as
one of the Eight Views of the Xiao
and Xiang Rivers, a poetic theme
traditionally associated with the
Northern Song painter Song Di
(ca. 1015ca. 1080) that became
a favorite subject for painters not
only in China but, from the twelfth
century onward, in Korea and
Japan (see images 25 A and B). The
distant mountains, the low hills
accented by trees (see detail, image
26B), and the at riverbanks
landscape elements that the artist
has carefully organized into dis-
tinct ground planes create a
peaceful and expansive vista. The
geese descending to a broad sand-
bank at the foot of the mountains
in the distance and the returning
shing boat in the foreground, seen
through a misty haze, suggest an
evening scene. Each of these ele-
ments is sensitively rendered in
differentiated tones of ink and pale
ink washes.
This painting takes as its inspi-
ration a poem, inscribed in Chinese
characters in the upper right cor-
ner after the four-character title:
On the frozen frontier is a hail of
arrows,
Along the Golden River [Jinhe] there
are no rice elds.
Brothers one and all, ying down in
skeins,
After ten thousand li,
23
they arrive at
Xiao and Xiang.
The distant waters shine like reels of
silk,
The level sands are white as glinting
frost.
At the ferry quay, no one is about,
Close to the setting sun, the geese
descend ever more gracefully.
( T ra n s l ation by Roderick Wh i t e l d )
The poem is written in irr eg u l a r
verse, a form popular during the
Song dynasty (9601279). The rst
two lines refer to a hunt in the cold,
bleak steppe along Chinas north-
ern frontier from which the wild
geese migrate south, a reference
to the conquest of the Song by the
Mongols and their subsequent rule
of China under the Yuan dynasty
(12721368).
106
26B 26A
Notice: The organization of the
different landscape elements to cre-
ate a unied, coherent composition;
the use of mist to suggest distance;
the contrast between the sharply
delineated landscape elements in
the foreground and the more softly
rendered forms in the background
Consider: The position of man in
nature as suggested by this paint-
ing; the relationship between the
apparent mood of the painting and
that of the poem
Note
23. A li is equivalent to about one-third
of a mile.
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 85,
pp. 182, 188
27. Mountains in Chirisan
National Park
South Kyngsang Province, October
1997. Photograph by Elizabeth Hammer
Chirisan National Park extends
into three provinces in the south-
ern part of the Korean peninsula,
North Chlla, South Chlla, and
South Kyngsang. Characteristic of
Korean mountain ranges, the peaks
tend to be close together, with
steep and narrow valleys. Moun-
tain references saturate Korean
culture. For example, the common
phrase san nm san (mountains
beyond mountains) describes the
appearance of the terrain and also
expresses a sense of resignation in
the face of frequent troubles. These
mountains in the Sobaek range,
with their brilliant autumn colors,
have inspired painters and poets
for millennia. The poet Yang San
(15171584), for instance, wrote
the following:
Though they say, The hills are high,
All hills are still below heaven.
By climbing, climbing, climbing more,
There is no peak that cannot be scaled.
But the man who never tried to climb,
He says indeed: The hills are high.
24
Note
24. Richard Rutt, ed. and trans., The
Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1998), poem no. 33.
107
27
28. Unidentied artist (16th cen-
tury), Grapevine in the Wind
Chosn dynasty (13921910). Hanging
scroll, ink on silk; 31 15 in.
(80 40 cm). Purchase, The Dillon
Fund Gift and Friends of Asian Art
Gifts, 1994 (1994.439)
A wind-tossed grapevine, heavy
with ripening fruit, the rustling of
its dessicated leaves almost audible,
is rendered with a variety of mas-
terfully handled brush techniques.
The sway of the serpentine branch
in large arcs is executed with
strokes of changing speed and
pressure to suggest both contour
and volume in a technique known
as ying white (in which areas of
the unpainted silk show through).
The contrasting textures of plump
fruit rendered without outlines
in the so-called boneless style of
brushwork and brittle leaves are
achieved with carefully modulated
tones of wet and dry ink that create
a luminosity within the painting.
This work is probably a fragment
of a larger composition, which may
have included a poetic inscription
by the artist.
Ink-monochrome compositions
executed in a highly calligraphic
style such as this example are
associated with amateur literati
painters. The subject of grapevine
rendered in ink, like the Four
Gentlemenplum, orchid, chry-
santhemum, and bamboowas
favored by Chinese and Korean
literati painters alike. Among
the Korean artists who won fame
as painters of grapevines were
Sin Cham (14911554) and Sin
Saimdang (150451), the rst
female painter recorded in Korean
history. Paintings of this kind
were most often viewed in the
sarangbang, the study and living
quarters of the male heads of yang-
ban households. In keeping with
Confucian aesthetic sensibilities,
these rooms were furnished simply
and modestly, with white paper
walls, wood furniture, plain white
or blue-and-whitedecorated
porcelain vessels, writing utensils
made of natural materials, books,
and ink-monochrome paintings
and calligraphy.
Notice: The different types of
brushwork; the expressive quality
of the branches
Consider : The contrast between
the bold and swiftly executed
brushstokes used to depict the
grapevine and the theme of autumn
fading into winter
108
28
29A, B. Unidentied artist
(late 16th century), Brahma
(Pmchn)
Chosn dynasty (13921910). Hanging
scroll, ink and color on hemp; 84
88 in. (214.6 224.8 cm). Gift of
Mrs. Edward S. Harkness, 1921 (21.57)
This monumental painting on hemp
d epicts the Indian deity Bra h m a
( P m c h n ) i d e n t i able by the
Sanskrit syllable o m in a circle
ab ove his belly and his towe r i n g
h e i g h t accompanied by his ret-
inue of attendants and musicians.
B rahma, a Hindu deity, was incor-
p o rated into the Buddhist pantheon
as a guardian of Buddhist teachings.
His heaven is described in Indian
my t h o l ogy not as a place of m e d i t a-
tion but as one of p l e a s u r e, popu-
l ated with heroes, entert a i n e rs, and
musicians like those in this painting.
The central gure of B ra h m a
d o m i n ates the composition, which is
lled with three rows of b o d h i-
s at t vas and heave n ly at t e n d a n t s
bearing ceremonial objects or musi-
cal instruments or with their hands
in a gesture of w o rs h i p. Elab o rat e
j eweled canopies surmount the
gr o u p. The elongated proportions of
the gures and the schematic facial
f e at u r e s, hair, and robes are all exe-
cuted with a heightened sensitivity
to color, tex t u r e, and detail. The
mannered gure style, stylized
ab s t raction of the ga rm e n t s, and
composition in which the gures l l
almost the entire pictorial space par-
allels seve ral other Chosn Buddhist
paintings of the sixteenth century.
Such paintings would have been an
i n t egral part of Buddhist temple
r i t u a l s, especially those perfo rm e d
to ensure protection for the country
during the many periods in which it
suffered frequent foreign inva s i o n s.
Although it was the primary
impetus for artistic activity during
the Kory period (9181392),
Buddhism suffered an increasing
loss of royal and aristocratic
patronage during the succeeding
Chosn dynasty. Owing to these
changed conditions, Buddhist
paintings of the fteenth and
sixteenth centuries underwent
signicant changes in format,
materials, and painting style.
The fabric on which this work
is painted also marks a signicant
departure from that used in Kory
paintings. The predominant use of
hemp (or sometimes thick paper) in
sixteenth- and seventeenth-century
monumental Buddhist paintings
is undoubtedly due to economic
circumstances: silk and gold had
become too expensive to use for
Buddhist images, especially under
the conditions of austerity imposed
by the early Chosn rulers and
as a result of the signicant change
in patronage, from the court to
109
29A
wealthy provincial donors and local
monasteries. Finally, painting on
hemp required less demanding
craftsmanship. While paintings on
silk required specialists who could
apply the colors to both the back
and the front of the painting sur-
face, works on the thicker hemp
were painted only on the front.
Music is an important part of
Korean Buddhist ritual. In this
painting, musicians are shown play-
ing drums, utes, and string instru-
ments (see detail, image 29 B, and
images 33, 34 ).
N o t i c e : The various elements of
B rahmas heaven; the arra n g e m e n t
o f the gures; and the use of s c a l e
in conveying the relat i o n s h i p
b e t ween the central gure and his
r e t i n u e
C o n s i d e r : The different aesthetic
r evealed in this painting compared
with that of Ko ry Buddhist paint-
ings (see images 1518 ); the man-
nered appearance of the g u r e s ;
the conuence of different reli-
gious tra d i t i o n s
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 81,
pp. 17879
30. Unidentied artist (17th cen-
tury), Portrait of Sosan Taesa
(Chnghdang, 15201604)
Chosn dynasty (13921910). Hanging
scroll, ink and color on silk; 59
30 in. (152.1 77.8 cm). Seymour
Fund, 1959 (59.19)
This portrait of the eminent
Chosn monk Hyujng, who was
more widely known as Ssan Ta e s a ,
is a rare early example of a depic-
tion of a Korean monk and an
important historical and religious
document. The gure, who holds a
y whisk in his right hand, is por-
trayed in three-quarter view seated
on a wooden chair, his shoes neatly
arranged below him on a footstool.
The careful delineation of the
monks full face, in particular the
elongated eyebrows, the broad
mustache, and the closely cropped
beard, was intended to give the
sitter a realistic appearance.
At a time when Buddhism was
severely repressed by the Chosn
government, Hyujng restored
order to the community of monks
and wrote the basic text for Korean
monks, Snga kwigam (Model for
Sn Students), which is still fol-
lowed today by members of the
Sn order.
25
In this text and in his
teachings, he attempted to synthe-
size the doctrines of Buddhism,
Daoism, and Confucianism. In
1593, when he was seventy-three
years old, Hyujng, serving the
government as Commander of the
Eight Provinces and the Sixteen
Buddhist Schools, led an army of
Buddhist monks against the Japa-
nese invasion forces of Toyotomi
110
29B
Hideyoshi (153698) and helped
to recover the Chosn capital,
Hanyang (modern Seoul). In recog-
nition of his achievement, he was
honored upon his retirement in the
following year with the highest
title that could be bestowed on a
Buddhist monk. In addition to his
other abilities, and in keeping with
common practice among the upper
classes, Hyujng was also an
accomplished calligrapher.
Portrait paintings of eminent
monks, particularly those of patri-
archs or founders of schools, were
enshrined in Buddhist temples to
be revered by disciples. Such por-
traits, whether executed during the
subjects lifetime or after his death,
were often an idealized image
rather than a commemoration of
actual physical appearance. The
Metropolitans painting is one of
several surviving copies of a now-
lost portrait of monk Hyujng
executed during his lifetime.
The painting includes two
i n s c r i p t i o n s. The rst, in the upper
left corn e r, written in silver that has
n ow tarnished, identies the subject
o f the port rait as Pujongsu Chng-
hdang Taesa. The second inscrip-
tion, written in black ink below the
p o rt rait, records the names of t h e
paintings donors and the monks
r e s p o n s i ble for the ceremony held
to celebrate its completion.
2 6
Notice: The artists skillful depic-
tion of the subjects hands and face,
garments, and the chair in which
he is seated
Consider : The function of this por-
trait as a tribute to and reminder of
a religious leader; what feelings the
portrait of a religious leader might
inspire in a disciple or in a casual
viewer
Notes
25. For an insightful account of life in a
p r e s e n t - d ay Sn monastery, see Ro b e rt E.
B u swell, The Zen Monastic Experience:
Buddhist Practice in Contempora ry Ko re a
(Princeton: Princeton Unive rsity Press,
1 9 9 2 ) .
26. A translation of the second inscription
and a commentary about its date are pro-
vided in Pak, The Korean Art Collection
in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, in
Arts of Korea, pp. 44445.
111
30
31. Rank Badge (Hyungbae)
with Paired Tiger-Leopards
Chosn dynasty (13921910),
18th19th century. Silk and metallic
thread; 10 10 in. (25.4 27 cm).
Rogers Fund, 1951 (51.40)
In 1454, the Chosn court adopted
a system of insignia of rank for
civil and military ofcials based on
that of the Chinese Ming dynasty
(13681644), to whom the Chosn
payed tribute. As in China, square
badges, embroidered with images
of both real and imaginary birds or
animals denoting a specic rank,
were worn on the front (hyung) and
back (bae) of court costumes (g.
12). Regulations governing the
hierarchical relationship between
the Chosn and Ming courts
required that the badges worn
by Korean ofcials of the rst rank
be equivalent to those of Chinese
ofcials of the third rank.
In 1734, after the fall of t h e
Ming dy n a s t y, the Chosn gove rn-
ment established a system that,
for the rst time, assigned insignia
to all nine ranks of Korean court
o f c i a l s. Civil ofcials of the rst
to third rank were denoted by a pair
o f c ra n e s, the emblem fo rm e r ly used
by Ming civil ofcials of the rs t
rank. A single silver pheasant rep-
resented ofcials of the fo u rth to
ninth rank. In 1871, the court
enacted changes in the ra n k - b a d g e
system that lasted until the end
o f the dynasty in 1910. The white
c ra n e, symbol of a lofty scholar as
well as a Daoist immortal, was used
for civil ofcials (a pair of c ranes fo r
the rst to third rank and a single
c rane for the fo u rth to ninth). The
i m ag i n a ry tiger-leopard d ep i c t e d
h e r e, which signied courage and
the power to expel evil spirits, was
used for military ofcials (a pair of
tiger-leopards for the rst to third
rank and a single tiger-leopard fo r
the fo u rth to ninth).
Embroidery has been a highly
regarded and well-developed art
form in Korea since at least the
third century B.C., when Chinese
historical records note that Korean
ambassadors wore embroidered
costumes. Women of all classes
practiced this craft, and a ladys
marriage prospects were signi-
cantly enhanced if she was skillful
with her needle.
27
Rank badges,
as well as other embroidered gar-
ments and decorative accessories,
were usually made by the women
of the household and were often
given as gifts on special occasions.
(Embroidered items could also be
obtained from workshops.) Among
a womans most prized possessions
were her Seven Friends: needle,
scissors, spools (a wedding trous-
seau could include a hundred spools
decorated with auspicious em-
blems), leather or fabric thimbles,
a ruler, thread, and a small iron.
112
31
The construction of hyungbae
began with an underdrawing on
the base fabric, usually woven silk.
(Sericulture was brought to Korea
from China, and even after the
domestic production of silk was
well established, some high-quality
silk was still imported from China.)
For the embroidery, silk was care-
fully twisted and then laboriously
stitched using a variety of simple
techniques, especially satin stitch,
at stitch, and couching. Some
areas, such as the bands of semi-
circles that form the mountains
in the rank badge illustrated here,
were raised by padding, perhaps
with strips of paper secured with
couching stitches and then covered
with satin stitches. The striking
eyes of the animals were made by
couching into place threads made
of thin strips of gold leaf on paper
wrapped around a silk core.
Notice: The visual impact of the
colorful motifs of the badge; the
evenness of the needlework
Consider: The use of stylization
to create a more decorative effect;
the status of embroidery, which
was practiced by women of all
classes; clothing and accessories
as an indicator of social status and
ofcial position; the association
of animals and birds with ofcial
ofce
Note
27. See Amos, Korean Embroidery, and
Chung, The Art of Oriental Embroidery:
History, Aesthetics and Techniques.
113
Figure 12. Unidentied artist (17th
century), Portrait of an Ofcial (tradi-
tionally identied as Cho Mal-saeng,
13701447). Chson dynasty (1392
1910). Hanging scroll, ink and color on
silk, 70 41 in. (178.3 104.4 cm).
The National Museum of Korea, Seoul
32. Box
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th
century. Painted wood with attened
ox-horn inlay; H. 6 in. (15.2 cm).
Promised Gift of Florence and Herbert
Irving (L. 1999.65)
The ox-horn painting (hwagak)
technique can be traced back to
the fth century in Korea. In the
Chosn period, it was commonly
used to decorate small containers
for personal possessions, sewing
equipment, and accessories of well-
to-do ladies. In this nineteenth-
century box, the ox horn was cut,
soaked in water, boiled, and then
pressed into thin, at sheets. The
sheets were painted with a design
in vibrant colors and attached to
the wooden box with the painted
surfaces face down. The box was
given a protective coat of varnish,
which in this example has become
somewhat cloudy with age and
mellowed the tone of the pigments.
Various auspicious plants and
animals decorate this box. The
dragon is a powerful creature that
controls the clouds and rain; the
ram, one of the animals of the
East Asian zodiac, suggests life in
retirement from society; the crane,
a relatively long-lived bird, repre-
sents longevity; and the phoenix
symbolizes good luck, peace, and
harmony. Here, these creatures are
surrounded by stylized clouds and
owers, including peonies, the lush
blossoms of which represent fert i l i t y.
Upper-class men and women
traditionally lived in separate areas
of the home. Mens quarters, in
keeping with Confucian ideals of
modesty and restraint, were simply
furnished with books and writing
utensils. Womens quarters, in con-
trast, were decorated with brightly
colored paintings, embroideries,
folding screens, and containers
such as this box.
28
Notice: The boxs bright colors and
lively images; how the sense of
energy is created; the segregated
composition; the abstracted forms
of the images that create a decora-
tive pattern
Consider : The austere tastes
reected in the furnishings of a
mans living quarters compared
with the exuberant tastes
expressed in those of a womans
quarters; the messages contained in
the choice of auspicious symbols
Note
28. A display featuring typical living quar-
ters of upper-class men and women in the
Chosn period is on permanent display at
the American Museum of Natural History,
New York City. See also Laurel Kendall
and Mark Peterson, Korean Women: View
from the Inner Room (New Haven: East
Rock Press, Inc., 1983).
Illustrated in Arts of Korea, pl. 57,
pp. 13233
114
32
33. Chng-ak Kayagm(Plucked
Zither), ca. 1980
Made by Kim Kwang Ju, South Korea.
Wood, silk, cotton; L. 65 in. (165 cm).
Gift of Korean Cultural Service, 1982
(1982.171.1)
The kayagm is a twelve-string
zither that is plucked with the
thumb and rst three ngers of the
right hand. Performers sit on the
oor, in keeping with Korean cus-
tom, and rest the lower part of
the instrument across their knees.
With two or three ngers of the
left hand, they simultaneously
press down on the strings to pro-
duce intermediate pitches and such
ornamental effects as vibrato.
As indicated by its name kaya
refers to the Kaya Federation (42
562 A.D.) of the Three Kingdoms
period (57 B.C.668 A.D.), while gm
means stringed instrument the
kayagm has been played in Korea
for centuries. According a legend
recorded in the Samguk sagi (Histo-
ries of the Three Kingdoms), King
Kasil of Kaya ordered that an
instrument be created from a Chi-
nese prototype (zheng) and music
be composed for it by the master
Korean musician U Rk. When
U Rk was forced by warfare to ee
to neighboring Silla, he took the
kayagm with him. The excavation
from Silla tombs of pottery g-
urines playing this instrument, as
well as the survival of four ninth-
century examples in the Japanese
imperial treasury Shs-in (where
they are identied in Japanese as
sirai-goto, or koto of Silla), attest
not only to the antiquity of the
kayagm but also to the continua-
tion of its basic structure and
appearance.
This chng-ak kayagm is an ex-
ample of the larger type of plucked
zithers used for court music. It is
made primarily of paulownia wood
mounted with pegs and xed and
movable bridges, over which are
stretched twelve strings of twisted
silk. The distinctive rams-head
shape that decorates the top of
the instrument dates to the Three
Kingdoms period.
115
33
34. G roup of Musical Instruments
From top left:
Changgo (drum)
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th
century. Wood, hide, metal, rope;
L. 25 in. (64.7 cm). The Crosby
Brown Collection of Musical Instru-
ments, 1889 (89.4.141)
Taepyngso (oboe)
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th
century. Wood, metal, reed; L. 16 in.
(41.9 cm). The Crosby Brown Collec-
tion of Musical Instruments, 1889
(89.4.147)
Ching (large gong)
20th century. Bronze, Diam. 15 in.
(38.7 cm). Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981
(1981.28.10)
Pak (clapper)
Ca. 1980. Wood; L. of each slab 14 in.
(36.9 cm). Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981
(1981.28.12)
Sogo (drum)
Mid-20th century. Wood, hide;
L. 13 in. (33.1cm). Gift of Dr. Won
Kyung Cho, 1981 (1981.136)
Kkwaenggwari (small gong),
with mallet
20th century. Bronze, Diam. 7 in.
(19.7 cm). Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981
(1981.28.11a,b)
The metal gongs illustrated here,
which derive from Chinese forms,
were struck with a wooden mallet.
The large gong (ching), held
suspended from a cord, was origi-
nally used by armies to signal
retreat from battle (a drum was
sounded to instruct the army to
advance) and later primarily for
military processions. The small
gong (kkwaenggwari ) produces a
sharper sound when struck and
was used especially for perfor-
mances at the ancestral shrine of
the Yi royal family, rulers of the
Chosn dynasty (13921910).
Holding the top lip of the gong,
the musician dampens its sound
by touching the center while it is
still resonating.
The Great Peace Oboe
(taepyngso) is related to the
Chinese s o n a and the Indian s u ra.
It consists of a large metal bell,
wooden tube, and metal lip disk
tted with a short double reed.
There are seven nger holes on the
t o p, and one on the back. Because
it produces a loud, piercing nasal
sound, this instrument is especially
s u i t able for outdoor military pro-
c e s s i o n s. In modern times, it has
also been adopted for farm e rs music
and Confucian ancestral rituals.
The small drum with handle
(sogo), is used, along with a wooden
rod, in folk music. The face of this
example is decorated with the
ancient symbol taegeuk, a circle
of revolving elds of red and blue
that represents the philosophical
116
34
concept of yin and yang (m and
yang). This symbol also occupies
the center of the Rep u blic of Ko r e a s
national ag.
The hourglass-shaped drum
(changgo) has been in use since at
least the Kog u ry kingdom (37 B.C.
668 A.D.) and is today the most
widely used traditional percussion
instrument in Korea. Although
during the Chosn period it was
primarily used for court perfor-
mances, it now accompanies all
kinds of Korean music. The changgo
is related to Chinese and Japanese
versions but is larger. Set on the
oor in front of the musician, the
drum is played by pounding the left
side with the palm, creating a soft
and low sound, and striking the
right side, which is covered by a
thinner piece of hide, with a bam-
boo stick. The pitch can be altered
by moving the belts encircling the
laces (attached here with dragon-
head hooks) that keep the drum
coverings taut. Traditional changgo
are made from a single piece of
paulownia wood, with cow and
horse hides on either side, as seen
on this example.
The hardwood clapper (pak) is
another rhythmic instrument that
has long been employed in Korea.
The six long wooden sticks are
loosely bound by a deerskin string
at the thinner ends. Used for court
and ritual music, the clapper is
sounded once to begin the perfor-
mance, when the rhythm changes,
and three times at the conclusion
of the composition.
35. Teukgyeong
Ca. 1981. Wood, marble, feather,
beads, horn; H. 82 in. (210 cm). Gift
of Korean Cultural Service, 1982
(1982.171.3a,b,c)
This L-shaped marble slab, sus-
pended in a colorful stand, was
sounded at the end of court cere-
monial musical performances.
The thickness of the slab, which
is struck at the end with a horn
mallet, determines the pitch; this
example sounds approximately
middle C. Teukgyeong are tradition-
ally decorated, as seen here, with
ducks, symbols of joy and delity;
phoenixes, messengers of peace and
prosperity; and pinecones, which
represent longevity and good luck.
117
35
Lesson Plans and Activities
Lesson Plan 1: Rank Badges
Materials
6 6-inch pieces of construction paper
Additional scraps of construction paper in different colors
Markers and crayons
Glue and scissors
OR
6 6-inch pieces of felt or burlap
Scraps of felt
Batting
Yarns of different colors
Scissors, glue, large-eyed blunt needles
Image 31 Rank Badge (hyungbae) with Paired Tiger-Leopards
Image 2 Bird-Shaped Vessel
Image 32 Ox-Horn Box
Introduction
Discuss symbolism and how animals, plants, colors, and shapes may
stand for an abstract idea. In the United States government, elephants,
donkeys, hawks, and doves represent political parties or ideas. Discuss
how animals, plants, and colors symbolize concepts or popular beliefs
in Korean art and culture, using the guide on pages 15152 and some
of the slides.
Look at image 31 , a rank badge, and ask students to imagine how
these might have been worn. In the fteenth century, the Korean court
adopted from the Chinese a rank-badge system to indicate the status
of civil and military ofcials. These square cloth badges were worn on
the front and back of court costumes. They were beautifully embroi-
dered in brightly colored silk thread with images of both real and
imaginary birds or animals indicating the wearers position and rank.
Who might wear a rank badge with tigers? What might the tigers
symbolize? In Korea, the king and members of his immediate family
119
Grade Level
Can be adapted to any grade level
Objectives
Students will discuss rank badges
of Korea, their construction, design
motifs, and signicance as an
indicator of social status.
Students will design and make a
rank badge from paper, cloth, or
embroidery.
wore dragons, civil ofcials wore birds, and military leaders wore ani-
mals. A badge with two animals indicated a higher rank than a badge
with one animal. Ask students if they have seen military ofcials in
uniform; rank badges can be compared to the medals that indicate the
rank of general, corporal, sergeant, etc.
Draw the students attention to the images, the bright colors, and
the patterns in the rank badge. The animals ll most of the space, and
each one is shown in a different positionnotice the curving of their
backs, their paws, the position of their tails and heads. They look as if
they are circling each other. Their mouths are open to show teeth; they
may be roaring. Their fur is striped and spotted, and their eyes are
large and staring. The background is lled with stylized waves, drops
of water, and forms suggesting mountains.
Show students examples of embroidery or demonstrate the tech-
nique for them. They may have a relative who does embroidery or
some other kind of needlework. Using the information in the object
entry, discuss how women made the rank badges and the importance
of the skill of embroidery.
Ask students to choose an animal that they feel is symbolic of their
personality. They may wish to choose one of the animals from the list
on page 151.
For younger students, use construction paper. Distribute 6 6-inch
pieces of paper and have them pick one or two additional contrasting
colors from the scraps. They should cut or tear one or two large ani-
mal shapes from the contrasting color and experiment with position-
ing these on the square of paper. When they have decided where the
animals should go, they may glue them. Additional scraps may be used
to embellish the space with clouds, trees, and other elements. The
background may be decorated with markers or crayons, and details
such as eyes, fur, and whiskers may be added to the animals.
To complete the badge, punch a hole in the top two corners, attach
a long string, and adjust it so that the badge can be worn around the
neck. Ask students to discuss the impression they were trying to conve y
by choosing particular animals, colors, and other symbolic elements.
This project also may be done with felt appliqu, embroidery, or a
combination of the two. Students can cut their animal shapes from felt
and glue or sew them to a square of burlap or felt. If they are sewing
these forms, they may wish to pad the shape by lightly stufng it with
batting. If burlap is used as the backing of the badge, embroidery
details can easily be stitched with a large-eyed needle. The burlap may
120
be entirely covered with a variety of stitches satin stitch, chain
stitch, etc.or parts may be left to show through. Additional embroi-
dery stitches, such as French knots, may be added to the animals for
texture and details.
Extensions
Social Studies/Government. Older students may wish to design rank
badges for United States government ofcials, such as the President,
Vice-President, Speaker of the House, Cabinet members, etc., using
symbols of their position, power, and personalities.
Resources
Chung, Y. Young. The Art of Oriental Embroidery. New York: Scribners,
1979.
Lesson Plan 2: Korean Ceramics
Introduction
For younger students. Bring ceramic objects from homecups,
vases, and bowls that can be passed around and discussed. What
shape are they, how were they made, how were they decorated? Are
they used for special purposes? Distribute small pieces of clay so
students can see and touch the material.
Discussion. Choose slides from the list on page 122 to show in the
classroom, discussing the shape, function, decoration, and technique
of each Korean ceramic object. Is the piece symmetrical and regular
or slightly irregular? What colors were used? How is the piece deco-
rated? Can you see geometric or natural forms?
Activities. Basic instructions on working with clay in the classroom
can be found in a variety of manuals and teaching resources; this
lesson plan is designed to augment these resources. The following
activities are arranged generally from the easiest to most complex.
Each one can form the basis for a project on its own, or it can be com-
bined with other techniques, depending on the time and resources of
the classroom. Some may be done with air-dry clay or oven-bake clay;
others work better with low-re clay and glazes. These materials are
available through art supply catalogs.
121
Grade Level
Can be adapted to any grade level
Objectives
Students will look at Korean ceram-
ics and learn to identify and discuss
characteristics relating to shape, dec-
oration, function, and technique.
Students will make a ceramic vessel
that incorporates one or more of
these characteristics.
Materials
Clay, air-dry, oven-bake, or low-re
Glazes, especially light green, white, copper red
Clay tools
Brushes for glaze
Combs, broken in small pieces
Image 1 Jar
Image 2 Bird-Shaped Vessel
Image 3 Stand
Image 6 Bottle with Flattened Side
Image 12 Melon-Shaped Wine Ewer
Image 22 Wine Cup
Image 23 Jar
Image 24 Large Jar
Make a Simple Pot
Show students images 1, 6, and 23. Ask them to notice the shape of
each pot. The pot in image 1 is made using the coil method, and this
technique should be demonstrated to the students. The base can be
made from a cookie-shaped at piece of clay. Wet and score the outside
edges of this shape. Roll another piece of clay into a long rope, then
position it on the edge of the base and begin to wind it around in a
circle, building up the walls of the pot. Add new ropes of clay as
needed, pressing and smoothing the clay together with your ngers.
To make the pot wider, position the coil on the outside edge of the row
below it; to make the pot more narrow, position the coil on the inside
edge of the row below it. Continue to smooth the outside surface as
you add new coils.
The nal shape of the pot can be manipulated into a regular or
irregular form with paddles or with the hands. When a satisfactory
shape has been reached, the pot should be put aside to dry. When
almost leather-hard, the clay can be stamped with textures. When the
clay is completely leather-hard, the pot may be decorated with incised
lines. The pot can be red and decorated with glazes.
122
Part A: Shape
Make a Pot with Applied Forms
Show students images 2, 12, and 22. Discuss the shape of each vessel,
how the artisan has turned a basic bowl shape into an animal, plant, or
drinking cup.
Demonstrate forming a simple bowl with a st-sized lump of clay.
Make a basket of your ngers to gently hold the lump of clay. Place
your thumbs on top, and rotate the lump while pressing the thumbs
downward to create an opening in the clay. Do not pinch the rim of the
bowl; keep the sides and bottom about the same thickness inch is
good. When a satisfactory bowl shape has been created, gently press
the bottom against a at surface.
A foot, neck and lip, or handles may be created for the bowl with
coils or slabs of clay. To attach clay, score the at sides of the two areas
to be joined, then add a little water or slip. Press the areas together to
join them, using extra clay to smooth the seams. Clay may be added or
removed to create an animal or vegetable shape, and texture may be
incised into the clay when it has dried to leather-hard. The piece may
be red and glazed as well.
Make a Joined Pot
Show and discuss image 24 . Demonstrate how a pot can be made from
the joining of two smaller pots. Make two hand-turned bowls with the
same top circumference; the walls should be about -inch thick. Score
the top of each bowl, moisten with water or slip, and then attach the
two halves to create a round form. Smooth the seam with more clay as
needed. Let dry slightly, then determine top and bottom. Cut a hole in
the top of the vessel and slightly atten the bottom. Add a rope of clay
to the top to make a lip, scoring and moistening both pieces of clay to
join them. Smooth the joined area. Add a foot to the base with another
carefully joined rope of clay. At this point, the clay should still be soft
enough to experiment with the shape, emphasizing the join in the
middle of the pot, or gently pressing or paddling the sides to form an
interesting or irregular outline.
The pot may be decorated with incised lines or stamped patterns,
glazed, and then red.
Show and discuss image 3 . Make two pots as above, but instead of
joining them at the top, join the rounded sides together (by scoring
and wetting the clay, then smoothing and manipulating the join) to
form an hourglass shape. Build up the top and/or bottom with coils
of clay, if desired. When the clay is leather-hard, use a sharp tool to
123
pierce the base, cutting out small pieces of clay. Be careful not to
remove too much clay.
The pot may be incised, decorated, red, or glazed, as above.
Image 10 Wine Ewer
Image 11 Oil Bottle
Image 14 Maebyng (Vase)
Image 21 Flask-Shaped Bottle
Image 23 Jar
Incise. Wait until the clay is leather-hard. Using sharp tools, inscribe
bands or lines in a pattern on the pot. The decoration should comple-
ment the shape of the pot. Break a comb into small pieces and use
these to comb designs of parallel lines into the clay, if desired.
Carve. Wait until the clay is leather-hard, then use tools to carve away
designs, being careful not to carve too deeply. While students are wait-
ing for their clay to become hard enough to carve, they can draw vines,
leaves, owers, and other plant forms on paper.
Stamp. Ancient potters used readily available objects or things found
in nature to decorate their pots. Try pressing a rock, a sharp object, a
piece of rope, twigs, or pieces of burlap against clay that is not quite
leather-hard. Pound the object gently with a paddle to press it into the
clay, then carefully remove.
Glaze. Glaze can be applied to any of the ceramics after they have
been red. Try lightly glazing a pot that has been incised, stamped, or
carved, and the glaze will ll the low areas and create a shadow effect.
A smooth vessel may be glazed in colors that reect those of the
Korean ceramics that the students have seen in the slidesgray, light
green, copper red, and white. Glazes also may be brushed on the pot in
a decorative way, as in image 23 . Again, students may wish to practice
brush painting on a at surface before they decorate their pots.
Extensions
Ceramics. Students in a secondary school ceramics class can study
Korean ceramics in depth, using a wheel to make some of these forms
or constructing a kiln to re their pieces.
Science. Build an outdoor kiln to re earthenware pots, and experi-
ment with ash glazes. Or visit the studio of an artist who works with
124
Part B: Decoration
these techniques. With the help of the science teacher or a visiting
artist, students may wish to experiment with making their own glazes.
Social Studies. Compare Korean ceramics to ceramics around the
world. How are the forms, decorations, techniques, and function of
these artworks similar? How are they different? Put a map of the
world on a bulletin board and nd examples of ceramics to pin up on
the different areas of the world. Look at examples in The Metropolitan
Museum of Arts Resources for Educators, Greek Art, From Prehistoric
to Classical and The Art of Renaissance Europe.
Resources
Online information about Korean ceramics
For students
Discover a Korean Dragon
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/discover/html/paekche.htm
What Color is Celadon?
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/celadon/html/startpage.htm
For teachers
Arts of Korea: Ceramics
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Korea/koreaonline/
cCeramicIDx.htm
Kong, Ellen. The Great Clay Adventure: Creative Handbuilding Projects for
Young Artists. Worcester, Mass.: Davis Publications, 1999.
Schuman, Jo Miles. Art from Many Hands. Worcester, Mass.: Davis
Publications, 1981.
Topal, Cathy Weisman. Children, Clay and Sculpture. Worcester, Mass.:
Davis Publications, 1998.
The Korea Ceramics Project, organized and operated by Dr. Arthur
K. J. Park and Mary R. Park, provides onsite demonstrations of Ko r e a n
c e ramic-making techniques and info rm at i ve printed and video mat e r i a l .
1126 Hoffman Avenue
Royal Oak, MI 48067
Fax 5285477409
morningearth@earthlink.net
125
Lesson Plan 3: Illustrated Manuscript
Materials
Construction paper
Markers, crayons, or paint
Cardboard
Glue
Image 17 Illustrated Manuscript of the Lotus Sutra
Introduction
Choose a selection of picture books that illustrate myths, fables, or
religious stories from around the world. Read a few examples, or ask
students to nd examples of an illustrated narrative and share it with
the class. How does the illustration work with the text? Explain that
many cultures have religious, mythological, or folk tales that are meant
to teach or instruct the reader (or listener). The wisdom that is impart e d
would be helpful in the everyday life of the person to whom the tale is
being told.
Show images 1 7A and B and discuss the two parables and what
they mean. Discuss the placement of the text and the illustrations, the
way that it is read from right to left, the decorative border, and the
form of the book in an accordion-folded shape.
Give students time to look through books of myths, stories, fables,
parables, etc., to nd a passage that they would like to copy and illus-
trate. The passage can range from a few sentences to an entire para-
graph, depending on the age of the students. Distribute two sheets
of construction paper to each student, and have them tape the sheets
together on the short sides to make one long sheet. They should plan
where they will place the title of their selection, where they will place
the text they have chosen to copy, and where they will place the illus-
tration(s). They can block out these areas by measuring with a ruler,
if desired.
Students should use paints, marke rs, crayo n s, etc., to create the illus-
t ration, copy the text, and add decorat i ve border elements. The way in
which the text is copied should reect its messag e i f it is an exc i t i n g,
a c t i ve passag e, should the letters be large, bold, slant to one side? How
could the text reect a happy, sad, frightening, or funny passag e ?
126
Grade Level
Can be adapted to any grade level
Objectives
Students will look at and discuss an
illustrated sutra from Korea.
Students will explore the design and
technique of the manuscript, its reli-
gious purpose, its narrative function,
and the role of the copied text.
Students will choose a text from a
fable or myth to copy and illustrate
in their own folding book.
When the book is completed, it should be carefully folded into an
accordion shape, then pieces of cardboard glued to each side. (The
teacher may wish to pre-cut the cardboard and have students use it
as a template for folding their book.) The outer cardboard may be
decorated with special papers, fabric, or patterns.
Students can share their illustrated texts with the class; they
should note what culture and time period their choice of story repre-
sents, and why they made particular artistic and technical choices.
Extensions
Language Arts. In a creative writing class, students may wish to com-
pose their own fables or parables.
Language Arts. Use the Korean creation myth below. Read it aloud
to students and make a list of scenes that inspire illustration. Segment
the text to reect each scene. Assign or allow students to choose one
of the scenes to copy and illustrate. This may be done collaboratively;
divide the students into groups and let them decide who will be
responsible for the beginning, middle, and end of the myth. Display
the completed works in sequence.
Social Studies/Art. The form of the illustrated manuscript and the
techniques and materials of making books throughout history and
around the world may be studied. What kinds of inks, pigments, paper,
or supports were used? How do these materials and techniques reect
the people who made the books? What kinds of stories t this type of
format? How do these handmade books compare to books today?
Social Studies. As Buddhist thought became increasingly complex,
the sutra images themselves became more complex and ornamental.
Older students studying Buddhism may wish to use actual Buddhist
writings, creating images that reect religious ideas and practices.
Koreas creation myth is a good story that lends itself to illustra-
tion. The legend of Tangun was rst recorded in the Samguk yusa
(Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms), compiled in about1285.
In an old book it is written: in ancient times there lived Hwanung,
the son of a concubine of Hwanin. He thought often of the world
below and wished to redeem mankind. His father knew of his
thoughts. Down below on earth he saw Mount Taebaek with its
three prominent peaks. Through it he could bestow many blessings
on mankind. Thereupon he gave his son the three heavenly seals and
sent him down to rule the world. With 3,000 retainers Hwanung
127
descended to the peak of Taebaek, took his seat under a holy paktal
tree, and named this place the Holy City. He is called the Heavenly
King Hwanung. With the gods of wind, rain, and the clouds he
ruled over the grains, the duration of life, over diseases, punishments,
good and evil altogether he ruled over more than 360 things that
affect mankind. And he guided the course of events in the world.
At that time there were a bear and a tiger, who lived together in
the same cave. They continuously prayed to the divine Hwanung to
transform them into human beings. Thereupon the god gave them a
bunch of supernatural mugwort and twenty pieces of garlic and said:
If you eat this and do not behold the light of the sun for one hundred
days, you will be transformed into human beings. The bear and the
tiger received these things and ate them. After she had avoided the
sunlight for twenty-one days, the bear assumed the form of a woman;
the tiger, however, was not able to keep out of the sun and therefore
did not become a man. The bear-woman had no one to marry.
Because she longed to conceive a child, she incessantly recited incanta-
tions at the foot of the paktal tree. Thereupon Hwanung changed his
guise and married her. She conceived and bore a son, who was called
Wanggom, the ruler of the paktal tree (= Tangun).
This came to pass in the year of the tiger, the ftieth year of the
reign of Yao. Tangun founded his capital in Pyngyang, and from
this time on he called his country Chosn. Later he moved his capital
to Pa eg ak Asadal, which is also known as Kungol-san or Ku m m i - d a l .
He ruled the country for a period of 1,500 years.
Notes
Much of the Samguk yusa is based on older sources that are now lost.
Hwanin refers to the Lord of Heaven.
The paktal tree is a kind of birch.
The Chinese character that expresses the Korean termpaktal is pro-
nounced tan in Sino-Korean; gun = ruler, lord.
Yao is a highly revered leg e n d a ry emperor of China. Fo l l owing Chinese
h i s t o ry, the ftieth year of Yaos reign would correspond to 233 B.C.
The above is taken from Mark DeFraeye and Vos Frits, Korea: Scenic
Beauty and Religious Landmarks (Antwerp: Petraco-Pandora, 1996).
128

129
C r o s s - C u l t u ral Comparisons of Works of A rt
Because works of art reect the dominant ideas, aesthetic tastes,
historical events, and level of technological development of the
society that created them, comparisons between related works of
art from different times and/or places can be very revealing. The
following examples compare Korean art illustrated in this publication
and other important works of art in The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, many of which are currently available on the Museums Web
site or featured in other MMA Resources for Educators. Teachers
might also nd the Museums online Timeline of Art History
(www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm) useful for identifying
additional comparisons.
130
1.
Rhyton with the For epart of a
Wild Ca t
Iran, Parthian period, 1st century B.C.
1st century A.D.
Gilded silver; H. 10 in. (25.5 cm)
Purchase, Rogers Fund, Enid A. Haupt,
Mrs. Donald M. Oenslager, Mrs. Muriel
Palitz and Geert C. E. Prins Gifts;
Pauline V. Fullerton Bequest; and
Bequests of Mary Cushing Fosburgh,
Edward C. Moore and Stephen
Whitney Phoenix, by exchange, 1979
(1979.447)
MMA Web site, Collections: Ancient
Near Eastern Art, Highlight 43
Bird-Shaped Vessel
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.
668 A.D.), ca. late 2nd3rd century
Earthenware; H. 12 in. (32.7 cm),
L. 13 in. (35.2 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift,
1997 (1997.34.1)
Image 2
Both of these objects were prob-
ably intended for use in ritual
ceremonies. The Korean bird-
shaped vessel would have been
lled with liquid through the
opening in the back, and the tail
served as the spout. The Parthian
rhyton would have been lled
from the top; a spout for pouring
is in the middle of the cats chest.
131
2.
Goose Vessel ( Zun)
China, Western Han dynasty
(206 B.C.9 A.D.)
Earthenware; H. 13 in. (33 cm),
L. 19 in. (49.5 cm)
Gift of Charlotte C. Weber, 2000
(2000.662.2)
Bird-Shaped Vessel
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.
668 A.D.), ca. late 2nd3rd century
Earthenware; H. 12 in. (32.7 cm),
L. 13 in. (35.2 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift,
1997 (1997.34.1)
Image 2
These two earthenware containers
in the shape of fowl were made to
furnish tombs. The Chinese goose
sits on the ground, the hole is on
top of its head, and it retains much
of its original painted decoration,
which included red, light green,
and ocher. The Korean bird
perches on a round pedestal, does
not appear to have been painted,
and has openings in the back and
the tail. The practice of placing
clay, lacquer, wood, and metal g-
ures of humans and animals in
tombs may have been transmitted
to Korea from China.
These extremely ne and elegant
sets of gold jewelry were made
for the upper class by skilled,
unknown artisans. The techniques
of granulation and double loop-in-
loop chains are used in both exam-
ples, exemplifying the eastward
transmission of Mediterranean
goldsmithing methods. Although
both examples employ stylized
versions of natural motifs, espe-
cially leaves, the Greek earrings
are also decorated with miniature
images of mythical gures.
132
3.
Pair of Earrings from the Set of
Ganymede J ewelry
Greek, ca. 330300 B.C.
Gold; H. 2 in. (6 cm)
Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1937
(37.11.9.10)
MMA Web site, Collections:
Greek and Roman Art, Highlight 33
Pair of Earrings
Three Kingdoms period, Silla kingdom
(57 B.C.668 A.D.) or Kaya Federation
(42562 A.D.), 6th century
Gold; H. 4 in. (10.5 cm)
Purchase, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund,
1943 (43.49.5,6)
Image 4
The two pairs of earrings above can also be compared with the
Pair of Royal Earrings
India, ca. 1st century B.C.
Gold; H. 3 in. (7.6 cm), 3 in. (7.9 cm)
Gift of The Kronos Collection, 1981 (1981.398.34)
The Arts of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource for Educators, Image 3
Granulation was also used to decorate these imposing earrings
made for a king.
133
4.
Unidentied artist
Book of the Dead (detail)
Egypt, Dynasty 21, ca. 1040945 B.C.
Painted and inscribed papyrus; H. 13
to 14 in. (34.9 to 35.9 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1930 (30.3.31)
The Art of Ancient Egypt: A Resource
for Educator s, Slide 38
Unidentied artist (14th century)
Illustr ated Manuscript of the
Lotus Sutr a (detail)
Kory dynasty (9181392), ca. 1340
Folding book, gold and silver on indigo-
dyed mulberry paper; 106 pages, each
13 4 in. (33 11.4 cm).
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Fund,
1994 (1994.207)
Image 17
Although separated in date by
more than two thousand years
and expressive of different belief
systems, both of these objects are
illustrated religious texts that
provide moral instruction and
focus on death and the ultimate
judgment of human behavior.
Produced by highly skilled artists
and scribes using ne materials,
these objects have been treasured
for many hundreds of years. The
gures depicted are generally
arranged in groups, in which the
most powerful deity is identiable
by his location, size, posture, and
attributes. The artistic style infor-
ming each of these works, howeve r,
is dramatically different.
These representations of the
bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara em-
body a similar sense of majesty,
contemplation, and physical ease.
They differ, however, in the vol-
ume of the gures bodies and the
impression of corporeal strength
and solidity. The Korean painting,
furthermore, is much more ornate,
with attention lavished on the
beautiful robes and jewelry worn
by the deity.
134
5.
Unidentied artist (late 10thearly
11th century)
Avalokiteshvar a
Cambodia or Thailand, last quarter of
the 10th century
Bronze with silver inlay; H. 22 in.
(57.7 cm)
Purchase, The Annenberg Foundation
Gift, 1992 (1992.336)
The Arts of South and Southeast Asia:
A Resource for Educators, Image 44
Unidentied artist
(early 14th century)
Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk;
44 21 in. (113.7 55.3 cm)
Charles Stewart Smith Collection, Gift
of Mrs. Charles Stewart Smith, Charles
Stewart Smith Jr. and Howard Caswell
Smith, in memory of Charles Stewart
Smith, 1914 (14.76.6)
Image 16
135
6.
These sacred paintings were made
to be revered in a religious setting.
The gures in both compositions
are arranged in a triangle, the most
important shown frontally at the
apex. Compared with the central
gures, the anking attendants in
each painting are represented with
a greater degree of movement and
(in the Korean example) smaller
s t at u r e. In both We s t e rn and Asian
c u l t u r e s, the halo, or nimbu s, placed
behind the heads of divine or
sacred gures conveys their dig-
nity and spirituality. The Italian
and Korean paintings shown here
differ markedly in the manner of
depicting the anatomy and in the
interaction of the gures, the dress
and furnishings, and the setting.
Raphael (Italian, 14831520)
Madonna and Child Enthroned
with Saints, ca. 1504
Altarpiece, tempera, oil, and gold on
wood; main panel ove rall, 67 67 in.
(172.4 172.4 cm), lunette overall,
29 70 in. (74.9 180 cm)
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1916
(16.30a,b)
The Art of Renaissance Europe:
A Resource for Educators, Slide 14
U n i d e n t i ed artist (ca. 13th century )
Amitabha Triad
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk;
47 32 in. (121.6 81.9 cm).
Rog e rs Fund, 1930 (30.76.298)
Image 15
136
7.
These exquisite lacquer containers
for brushes, ink sticks, and ink-
stones were produced for the
ruling class. Both feature stylized
designs derived from images of
natural plants, which cover most
of the surfaces. While Korean
artisans seemed to favor mother-
of-pearl inlay against a black
ground, Japanese lacquermakers
were famous for designs with
minutely applied gold powder and
small pieces of valuable metal such
as silver.
Stationery Box
Japan, Momoyama period (15731615),
early 17th century
Lacquer, with sprinkled gold decora-
tion, inlaid with gold and silver foil;
H. 8 in. (21 cm), W. 18 in. (45.6 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift,
1987 (1987.82a,b)
MMA Web site, Collections:
Asian Art, Highlight 23
Stationery Box
Chosn dynasty (13921910),
15th century
Black lacquer with mother-of-pearl
inlay; H. 3 in. (9 cm), W. 14 in.
(36.5 cm)
Promised Gift of Florence and Herbert
Irving (L. 1992.62.3)
Image 20
137
8.
These two paintings of mountains,
water, trees, and diminutive human
gures suggest the majesty of
nature and convey a mood of
serenity. Distant peaks are swathed
in mist and light, which heightens
their remoteness. People live in
harmony with their surroundings.
The manner and materials used to
paint these images are very differ-
ent, a reection of the artistic tra-
ditions of the cultures in which the
paintings were produced.
Albert Bierstadt (American,
18301902)
The Rocky Mountains, Landers
Peak, 1863
Oil on canvas; 73 120 in.
(186.7 306.7 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1907 (07.123)
MMA Web site, Collections:
American Paintings and Sculpture,
Highlight 27
Unidentied artist (late 15th16th
century)
Wild Geese Descending to Sandbar
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink on silk;
49 29 in. (126.4 48.5 cm)
Purchase, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund,
John M. Crawford Jr. Bequest, and The
Vincent Astor Foundation Gift, 1992
(1992.337)
Image 26
138
9.
These two paintings, made about
a century apart, differ noticeably
in their approach to portraying
objects and images from nature.
The Dutch still life is a lush ower
arrangement. Using a wide range
of colors, myriad small brush-
strokes of oil-based pigment, and
light that produces a spotlight
effect, the artist has skillfully and
carefully recreated the details
of the owers presented in an
indoor setting. In contrast, the
unknown Korean artist used only
ink and relatively few brushstrokes
to create a lively, expressive repre-
sentation of a branch of a grape-
vine whose fruit is at the peak
of ripeness. East Asian artists,
especially those working in the
literati painting tradition, sought
to capture the spirit of their sub-
ject in nature, as well as their
own character.
Jacob Vosmaer (Dutch, 1584 1 6 4 1 )
A Vase with Flower s, ca. 1618
Oil on wood; 33 24 in.
(85.1 62.5 cm)
Purchase, 1871 (71.5)
MMA Web site, Collections:
European Paintings, #1118
Unidentied artist (16th century)
Grapevine in the Wind
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink on silk; 31
15 in. (80 40 cm)
Purchase, The Dillon Fund Gift and
Friends of Asian Art Gifts, 1994
(1994.439)
Image 28
139
10.
Bronzino (Italian, 15031572)
Portrait of a Young Man , 1530s
Oil on wood; 37 29 in.
(95.5 74.9 cm)
The Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of
Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929 (29.100.16)
MMA Web site, Collections: Eur o-
pean Paintings, Highlight 124
Unidentied artist (17th century)
Portrait of Ssan Taesa
(Chnghdang, 15201604)
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk;
59 30 in. (152.1 77.8 cm)
Seymour Fund, 1959 (59.19)
Image 30
As is readily apparent, these two
men, who were contemporaries, led
very different lives. The style of
dress, accoutrements, and domestic
furnishings reveal much about their
respective livelihood, social status,
and interests. The painters of these
portraits have approached their
subjects differently. In the painting
of the Korean monk, attention is
focused on the face, while the body
is somewhat at and abstracted.
The painting of the Italian noble-
man, in contrast, emphasizes the
sitters elegant attire. The quiet
condence, upright posture, and
open position of their arms, how-
ever, lends an air of self-assurance
to both men.
G l o s s a ry
For religious terms, see Korean Religions and Systems of Thought ,
pp. 3550. Approximate phonetic pronunciations of Korean names and
terms in the Glossary are given in parentheses.
An Kyn (ahn gyuhn) (active ca. 144070): the foremost landscape
painter and court painter of the early Chosn. Little is known about
this artist, who was awarded an unprecedented high rank and served
more than four kings in a career of about thirty years. His primary
inspiration was drawn from the Chinese Northern Song painter Guo
Xi (ca. 1000ca. 1090), whose works An Kyn would have seen in the
eminent collection of his ardent patron, Prince Anpyng (14181453).
An Kyns style had a tremendous effect on Korean landscape painting
both during his lifetime and in later generations. (See images 25 A, B;
Artists and Materials , p. 69.)
celadon ware (chngja [chohng-jah]): a stoneware produced in the
Kory dynasty which is covered with a glaze containing a slight
amount of iron-oxide and red in a reduced-oxygen atmosphere to
achieve a grayish blue-green color. The Kory celadon industry
reached its pinnacle both technically and artistically between the
early twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. (See images 1014 .)
Chng Sn (chuhng suhn) (16761759): a member of an impoverished
family of the yangban ruling class and one of the most important
landscape painters of the Chosn dynasty. He is traditionally
acknowledged as the leading exponent of the new trend in landscape
painting in the early eighteenth century, known as true-view
landscape (chingyng). (See g. 8, Artists and Materials , p. 61.)
Chosn dynasty (choh-suhn) (13921910): In their attempt to aug-
ment the power of the royal government and rejuvenate the country,
the new rulers of the Chson dynasty instituted policies to reduce
the wealth and inuence of the Buddhist establishment and the noble
families that had been prominent in the preceding Kory dynasty,
141
and adopted Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology. During this
period, Korea was dominated socially and culturally by the educated
elite known collectively as yangban. (See Overview of Korean
Histor y, pp. 3133; Overview of Korean Art Histor y, pp. 5961.)
chlmun (chuhl-muhn): literally, comb-design; refers to the most
representative type of unglazed, earthenware vessels made during
Koreas Neolithic period (ca. 7000ca. 10th century B.C.). (See g. 2,
Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 51.)
dolmen: a burial site formed of upright stones supporting a horizontal
stone slab. Dolmen tombs, which rst appear on the Korean peninsula
in the Bronze Age (ca. 10th ca. 3rd century B.C.), are more numerous in
Korea than in any other country in East Asia. (See O ve rv i e w of Ko re a n
H i s t o r y, p. 26; g. 3, O ve rv i e w of Ko rean Art History , p. 52.)
earthenware: a low-red pottery made from common clay to which a
proportion of other materials may be added to achieve good working
and ring properties. Earthenware, which is usually red between
600 C and 1100 C, is porous and permeable.
hangl (hahn-guhl): the native writing system developed in the
fteenth century to represent the sounds of the Korean language.
(See Korean Language and Liter ature, p. 148.)
hyungbae (hyoong-beh): the rank badge worn on the front (hyung) and
back (bae) of the robes of civil and military ofcials during the Chosn
dynasty. (See image 31 and g. 12, p. 113.)
Kaya Federation (kah-yah) (42562 A.D.): a small group of semi-
independent principalities that emerged during the Three Kingdoms
period, by the middle of the fourth century A.D. Kaya was located be-
tween the kingdoms of Paekche and Silla in the lower Naktong River
valley, in the south central part of the Korean peninsula. It was noted
for its production of iron ore and iron implements. (See Overview of
Korean Histor y, p. 27; Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 54.)
kayagm (kah-yah-guhm): a plucked zither, one of Koreas oldest and
most popular musical instruments. (See Korean Traditional Music ,
p. 75; image 33.)
142
Kim Hong-do (gim hung-daw) (17451806): a prolic court painter
of the Chosn period best known for his engaging genre paintings
depicting the daily life of all classes of Korean society. A versatile
artist and one of the most inuential artistic personalities of his time,
he also excelled in the subjects of landscape, portraits, Daoist and
Buddhist gures, and plants and animals. (See Artists and Materials ,
p. 69.)
kogok (koh-gohk): a curved, comma-shaped ornament, usually made
of jade, found on royal paraphernalia in tombs of the Three King-
doms and Unied Silla periods. (See g. 4, Overview of Korean Ar t
Histor y, p. 53.)
Kogury kingdom(goh-guh-ryuh) (37 B.C.668 A.D.): situated in the
northern part of the Korean peninsula, the largest of the three states
in the Three Kingdoms period. At the height of its power, Kogury
controlled over two-thirds of the peninsula. (See Overview of Korean
Histor y, p. 27; Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 54.)
Ko ry dy n a s t y ( g u h - ry u h ) (9181392): During this dy n a s t y, Bud-
dhism enjoyed widespread favor and ourished under the pat r o n age
o f the royal court as the state religion. The spread of C o n f u c i a n i s m
continued under the Ko ry, but despite the states commitment to
the principle of rule by civil ofc i a l s, in accordance with Confucian
d o c t r i n e, the hereditary privileges of the aristocracy were largely
p r e s e rved. This period was also characterized by frequent diplomat i c,
commercial, and cultural links with China and lands further to the
west. (See O ve rv i e w of Ko rean History , p. 3031; O ve rv i e w of
Ko rean Art History , pp. 5759.)
kyngjil togi (kyuhng-jil toh-ghee): a hard, high-red (around
1000C) gray stoneware, which begins to appear in Korea during
the Three Kingdoms period, around the third century.
Lelang (known in Korean as Nangnang): the most important of
the commandaries established by the rulers of Chinas Han dynasty
(206 B.C.220 A.D.) in the northern part of the Korean peninsula in
108 B.C. Lelang served as a Chinese colonial bastion on the peninsula
for more than four hundred ye a rs, until 313 A.D. , when it was ove rt a ke n
by the northern Korean kingdom of Kogury. During that period,
143
many aspects of Chinese culture, including Confucianism and the
Chinese written language, were introduced into Korea.
maebyng (meh-beyuhng): a vessel with a small mouth, short neck,
round shoulder, and constricted waist. One of the most distinctive
shapes among Kory celadon wares, the form was derived from the
Chinese meiping (prunus vase) but is distinguished from its counter-
part by a saucer-shaped mouth and a body that displays a pronounced
S-shaped prole. The production of maebyng continued into the early
years of the succeeding Chosn period but ceased after the sixteenth
century. (See image 14 .)
mu mu n (moo-moon): litera l ly, undecorated; a term used for unglazed,
plain earthenware pottery made in the Bronze Age. (See Overview of
Korean Art Histor y, p. 25.)
Paekche kingdom(behk-cheh) (18 B.C.660 A.D.): the kingdom
located in southwestern Korea during the Three Kingdoms period.
Because of its proximity to Japan, Paekche played an active role in the
transmission of important cultural and religious practices to Japan,
including Confucianism and Buddhism. (See Overview of Korean
Histor y, p. 27; Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 54.)
porcelain (paekcha [behk-cha]): a white-bodied, nonporous ware
primarily made of kaolin, a clay containing quartz, feldspar, and
limestone. It is covered in a clear glaze and red at a temperature in
excess of 1200 C. Porcelain began to be produced in Korea during
the Chosn dynasty, in the rst half of the fteenth century.
(See Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 59; images 22, 24 .)
punchng (boun-chung): a contraction of the term punjang hoechng
sagi, which refers to stoneware made of a grayish blue clay that is cov-
ered with white slip and coated with a transparent glaze. The glaze
contains a slight amount of iron, which when red results in a bluish
green color. Punchng ware was produced in the Chosn dynasty,
during the fourteenth and fteenth centuries. (See Overview of
Korean Art Histor y, p. 59; Artists and Materials , p. 66; image 21.)
Samguk sagi (sahm-gook sah-ghee) (Histories of the Three King-
doms): the rst of Koreas two earliest surviving histories. It was
144
compiled under the direction of the Confucian scholar-ofcial Kim
Pusik (10751151) and presented to King Injong (r. 112246) of the
Kory dynasty in 1145. The compilers used as their sources earlier
documents that have now been lost.
Samguk yusa (sahm-gook you-sah) (Memorabilia of the Three King-
doms): the second of Koreas two earliest surviving histories. It was
compiled by the Buddhist monk Iryn (120689) about 1285. Most of
the text consists of Buddhist legends from the Silla period.
sanggam (sahng-gahm): the inlay technique used in the decoration
of celadon ware produced during the Kory dynasty. The design is
incised or carved into the unbaked, leather-hard clay and the resulting
depressions are lled in with a white or black substance to highlight
the design. (See Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 59; Artists and
Materials , p. 66; images 11, 13, 14.)
sarangbang (sahrahng-bahng): a room used as a study by the male
head of a yangban household.
Silla kingdom(sheel-la) (57 B.C.668 A.D.): the kingdom located in
southeastern Korea during the Three Kingdoms period. By the late
seventh century, Silla succeeded for the rst time in Koreas history in
unifying most of the peninsula under a single government, known as
the Unied Silla dynasty. (See Overview of Korean Histor y, p. 27;
Overview of Korean Art Histor y, p. 54.)
stoneware: a vitried, high-red pottery made of clay to which a pro-
portion of other materials may be added to achieve good working and
ring properties. Stoneware, red in excess of 1200 C, is dense, hard,
and impervious to liquid.
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.): By the middle of the
fourth century A.D., the Korean peninsula was divided among the three
kingdoms of Kogury, in the north, Paekche, in the southwest, and
Silla, in the southeast. (See Overview of Korean Histor y, pp. 2728;
Overview of Korean Art Histor y, pp. 5455.)
145
true-view landscape (chingyng [chin-geyuhng], literally, real
scenery): designates not simply realistic landscape depictions but
paintings of Korean sites executed in techniques and in a manner rst
developed in the eighteenth century to portray specically Korean
scenery. This new, indigenous trend in Korean painting marked a
departure from earlier landscape painting, which was strongly inu-
enced by Chinese themes and brush techniques.
m-yang (uhm-yahng): the Korean words for the Chinese concept of
yin-yang. (See Korean Religions and Systems of Thought , p. 48.)
Unied Silla dynasty (sheel-la) (668935): Under this dynasty, the
Korean peninsula was united under a single government for the rst
time in history. Korean culture ourished during this period, creating
a strong political and cultural legacy for the countrys subsequent
rulers. (See Overview of Korean Histor y, p. 29; Overview of Korean
Art Histor y, p. 56.)
wajil togi (wah-jil toh-ghee): a soft, low-red earthenware.
yangban (yahng-bahn): literally, two classes; the educated elite who
served as civil and military ofcials. Steeped in Confucian teachings,
the yangban dominated the political, economic, social, and cultural life
of the Chosn period. (See Overview of Korean Histor y, pp. 3132;
Artists and Materials , p. 61; images 26, 28.)
146
147
Korean Language and Literat u r e
Spoken Language
The Korean spoken language is related to both Altaic which
includes the Turkish, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus language
groups and Japanese. (Although Chinese belongs to a separate
linguistic family, because of a long history of contact, the Korean
language has absorbed a large number of Chinese words.) In general,
words in Korean are pronounced without accent and at in tone.
Seven main dialects are spoken on the peninsula; the dialect of the
inhabitants of Seoul, Koreas capital, is considered Standard Korean.
Some basic rules of pronunciation follow.
Consonants are pronounced as in English. The vowels are largely
regular in pronunciation and resemble those of Italian and Spanish.
a = ah, as in father
o = oh or aw (rounded sound), as in call
u = oo, as in roof, soup
i = ee, as in kimchi, he, me, thee
e = eh (short sound), as in get, set
ae = eh, as in bed
oe = eh, but slightly rounded at the outset, similar to well
Short vowels, which are usually romanized with a breve ( ) are
pronounced:
= uh, as in onion
= uh, close to cut, but shorter
Romanized consonants such as k, t, p, and ch are pronounced as they
appear (voiced) when they occur between vowels or follow nasals (n, m,
ng). When these letters are in the initial or nal positions of a word,
they are pronounced as g, d, b, or j (voiceless). For example, Paekche
and Kory are properly pronounced Behk-cheh and Guh-ryuh, respec-
tively, with the b and g pronounced more softly than in English.
148
Written Language
Koreans adopted the Chinese written system sometime between the
rst century B.C. and the second century A.D. Characters were used
either to convey meaning, as in China, or phonetic information, when
required to accommodate the Korean language. All books and docu-
ments were written with Chinese characters, much as Latin was em-
ployed in Europe, until the mid-fteenth century. In 1446, at the order
of King Sejong (r. 141850), the Korean phonetic alphabet, originally
called hunmin jngm (the correct sounds to teach people), was devel-
oped. This unique system is based on symbols, clustered into syllable
blocks, derived from the shape of various parts of the mouth when
speaking the specic sound. For example, the hangl letter n suggests
the tongue touching the upper teeth when pronouncing that sound.
The modern alphabet, which is comprised of twenty-four characters,
is called hangl (see table below). While Chinese characters combined
with Korean pronunciation are still found in some instances in proper
names, hangl is used almost exclusively. The invention of hangl is
celebrated annually on October 9.
(a) (ya) () (y) (o) (yo) (u) (yu) () ()
Vowels
Consonants
(k,g)
(n)
(t,d)
(r,l)
(m)
(p,b)
(s,sh)
*
(ch,j)
(ch)
(k)
(t)
(p)
(h)
Romanization
The Metropolitan Museum follows the McCune-Reischauer romaniza-
tion system for Korean names and terms, with the use of apostrophes
following the conventions of the Basic Glossary of Korean Studies (Seoul:
The Korea Foundation, 1993, www.kofo.or.kr/english). Conveying the
Korean language with the Roman alphabet is problematic, and there
are a number of romanization methods. Furthermore, newspapers
and nonacademic texts frequently omit the breve and apostrophes.
(For example, the proper McCune-Reischauer romanization of spicy
pickles is kimchi, although kimchee and kimchi are commonly used.)
The apostrophe is used for two purposes: to show aspiration (k, t,
p, and ch) and to indicate the difference between a syllable ending in
-ng and a syllable that ends with an n followed by one that begins with
a g. For example, the fantastic animal haetae is pronounced heh-teh,
and the Korean pronunciation of Hanguk (Korea) is Hahn-gook (with
a softened nal k). Si is sounded as shee; for instance, Silla kingdom is
pronounced Sheel-la.
In the year 2000, the government of the Republic of Korea intro-
duced a revised romanization system for the Korean languag e, designed
in part to eliminate the reliance on the breve and the apostrophe to
differentiate vowels and consonants. For a description of this system,
see The Revised Romanization of Korean (Seoul: National Academy of
the Korean Language, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2000).
Korean Traditional Literature
Korea has a long tradition of orally transmitted literature, which prob-
ably owes its roots to religious communal ceremonies. Popular plays
performed by masked actors and puppets, dramatically sung arias
(pansori ), and legends, all of which are often combined with music and
dance, are literary forms that derive from the ancient oral tradition.
Po e t ry constitutes the earliest documented fo rm of Korean literat u r e.
The oldest Korean poems date to the Silla period (57 B.C.668 A.D.) and
are in a form known as hyangga (native songs). Strongly religious in
character, these poems consist of four, eight, or ten lines and have a
melodic quality suggesting that they were sung. Changga, or long
poems, were popular during the Kory period (9181392), especially
among female performers known as kisaeng (skilled entertainers simi-
lar to the Japanese geisha). Each stanza of a changga concludes with
a refrain that sets the mood of the poem, which most often is about
romantic love. The most enduring poetic form in Korean literature
149
is the sijo (popular melody), which was especially appreciated in the
Chosn era (13921910) and was composed by both Confucian scholars
and kisaeng. Typically made up of three lines of fourteen to sixteen
syllables each, sijo treat a range of themes, from Confucian morality
to nature and love. Coincident with Koreas dominant philosophies,
poems often contain a sense of the transitory quality of life and the
importance of nature. Because many were composed spontaneously, as
part of social gatherings, personal encounters, or seasonal celebrations,
Korean poetry often conveys a sense of immediacy and improvisation.
The earliest Korean narratives are myths and folk tales, such as
the creation legend of Tangun (see Lesson Plan 3: Illustrated
M a nu s c r i p t , p. 126) and the lives of ancient kings recorded in the
standard history Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms),
compiled in the thirteenth century. Like poetry, native Korean prose
was written in Chinese characters adapted phonetically to the Korean
language, until hangl became widely used in the nineteenth century.
Korean scholars of the Chosn period frequently wrote moralizing
ction set in China, reecting their professional interests and Confu-
cian education. Simil a r ly, their nonction writings included historical
a c c o u n t s, biogra p h i e s, autobiographies, and travel notes. Stories
written by commoners often were inspired by older tales and recorded
events.
References
A Bibliography of Korean Literature in English and Translated into English.
Compiled by On-Za Park. Seoul: Hansin Publishers, 1993.
Kim Ki-Chung. An Introduction to Classical Korean Literature: From
Hyangga to Pansori. London: M.E. Sharpe, 1996.
Lee, Peter H, ed. Anthology of Korean Literature: From Early Times to the
Nineteenth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1981.
Rutt, Richard, ed. and trans. The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998.
150
151
152
Symbols in Korean Art and Culture
Bat good fortune
Buttery wedded bliss, longevity
Carp success in career; courage, endurance, vigor;
wish for sons
Crane longevity, dignity
Deer longevity
Dragon water spirit; power, authority, good luck, success;
controls rain and re, fertility; royalty; symbol of king
Duck marital happiness
Fish peaceful, leisurely life, fertility
Magpie good news
Ox peaceful life (living in seclusion), composure
Phoenix uprightness, benevolence, justice, peace, royalty;
symbol of queen
Tiger mountain spirit; strength, bravery, protection,
gratitude (repayment of kindness)
Turtle good luck, longevity, protection
Wild goose good luck, marital happiness
Bamboo integrity, moral principles
Grape fertility
Lotus fertility (lotus blossom); brotherhood (root and stem)
Maehwa (Japanese apricot tree) eternal youth
Peach longevity, marital happiness
Peony wealth, glory
Pine integrity, longevity
Pomegranate wealth, fertility
Plants
Animals
153
Blue positive element in nature (expels evil spirits); birth, life, vitality,
longevity, good luck, dignity; color of the humble
White holiness, integrity, innocence, delity, navet; the abode of perfect
bliss; Korean people often describe themselves as the white-clad folk
Red positive element in nature (expels evil spirits); sun, the beginning,
youth, desire, success, love, beauty, authority, property
Black negative element in nature (sign of evil); death, despair, gloominess,
navet
Yellow abundance, good luck, power, authority, wealth, bravery, integrity,
peace; color of the king
east wood a sour taste pleasure spring perfect virtue
west metal a spicy taste anger fall righteousness
south re a bitter taste joy summer propriety
north water a salty taste sadness winter intelligence
center earth a sweet taste greed faith
Blue
White
Red
Black
Yellow
Colors
154
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1000 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10028
Bookshop tel. 212-650-2850
www.metmuseum.org
The Korea Society
950 Third Avenue, 8th Fl.
New York, NY 10022
Tel. 212-759-7525
www.koreasociety.org
The Korean Cultural Service
460 Park Avenue, 6th Fl.
New York, NY 10022
Tel. 212-759-9550
Fax 212-688-8640
www.koreanculture.org
includes exhibition space and
lending library
Asia Society
725 Park Avenue
New York, NY 10021
Tel. 212-288-6400
Fax 212-517-8315
www.asiasociety.org
includes bookstore
Bookstores
Chong Ro Book & Christian Center
80 W. Palisade Avenue
Englewood, NJ 07631
Tel. 201-816-1670
Fax 201-816-1568
29-30 Union Street
Flushing, NY 11354
Tel. 718-762-1200
Fax 718-762-7818
Gyo-Po Books & Gifts
208 Broad Avenue
Palisades Park, NJ 07650
Tel. 201-944-8740
Fax 201-944-0621
Koryo Books
35 W. 32nd St.
New York, NY 10001
Tel. 212-564-1844
Fax 212-564-0863
2025 Lemoine Avenue
Fort Lee, NJ 07024
Tel. 201-461-0008
Fax 201-461-4885
Re s o u r c e s
Korean Cultural Resources in the New York Metropolitan Area
155
Art Institute of Chicago
111 South Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60603
Tel. 312-443-3600
www.artic.edu
Asian Art Museum of
San Francisco
Golden Gate Park
San Francisco, CA 94118
Tel. 415-379-8801
www.asianart.org
Brooklyn Museum of Art
200 Eastern Parkway
Brooklyn, NY 11238
Tel. 718-638-5000
www.brooklynart.org
The Cleveland Museum of Art
11150 East Boulevard
Cleveland, OH 44106
Tel. 216-421-7340
www.clemusart.com
The Detroit Institute of Arts
5200 Woodward Avenue
Detroit, MI 48202
Tel. 313-833-7900
www.dia.org
Freer Gallery of Art/Arthur M.
Sackler Gallery
Smithsonian Institution
1050 Independence Avenue SW
Washington, DC 20560
Tel. 202-357-4880
www.si.edu/asia
Honolulu Academy of Arts
900 South Beretania Street
Honolulu, HI 96814
Tel. 808-532-8700
www.honoluluacademy.org
Los Angeles County
Museum of Art
5905 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, CA 90036
Tel. 323-857-6000
www.lacma.org
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1000 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10028-0198
Tel. 212-879-5500
www.metmuseum.org
The Minneapolis Institute of Arts
2400 Third Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55404
www.artsmia.org
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
465 Huntington Avenue
Boston, MA 02115
Tel. 617-267-9300
www.mfa.org
The Newark Museum
49 Washington Street
Newark, NJ 07101
Tel. 201-536-6615
www.newarkmuseum.org
Peabody Essex Museum of Salem
East India Square
Salem, MA 01970
Tel. 978-745-1876
www.pem.org
Philadelphia Museum of Art
26th Street & Benjamin Franklin
Parkway
Philadelphia, PA 19130
Tel. 215-763-8100
www.philamuseum.org
Seattle Art Museum
100 University Street
Seattle, WA 98101-2902
Tel. 206-654-3100
www.seattleartmuseum.org
Selected American Museums with Collections of Korean Art
156
Anap-chi Pond (1977, 34 min.). Describes the excavation of a pond con-
structed, beginning in 674, for the royal family of the Unied Silla
dynasty. Available from the Korean Cultural Service.
Discovering the Art of Korea, by Paula Lee Haller (1979, 60 min.). Overview
of Korean art. Available from Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543, 800-257-5126, www.lms.com.
Earth Fire Sky, by Dr. Arthur K. J. Park and Mary R. Park (forthcoming,
30 min.). Production techniques used by Korean potters, including
interviews with master potters. Available from Dr. and Mrs. Park,
1126 Hoffman Ave., Royal Oak, MI 48067, morn i n g e a rt h@e a rt h l i n k . n e t .
Ko rea: Reections on the Morning Calm, by James Messenger (1981, 28 min.).
Overview of Korean history through an art exhibition. Available from
Pennsylvania State University, Media & Technology Support Services,
Special Services Bldg., 1127 Fox Hill Rd., State College, PA 16803,
800-826-0132, www.libraries.psu.edu/mtss.
The Korean Onggi Potter, Smithsonian Institution Ofce of Folklife
Programs (1992, 24 min.). Production of onggi storage pots. Available
from Pennsylvania State University, Media & Technology Support
Services, Special Services Bldg., 1127 Fox Hill Rd., State College, PA
16803, 800-826-0132, www.libraries.psu.edu/mtss.
Kory Celadon Masterpieces (1989, 20 min.). Celadon stoneware from the
Kory dynasty. Available from the Korean Cultural Service.
Kyngju (1984, 20 min.). Capital city of the Unied Silla dynasty and its
historic artifacts. Available from the Korean Cultural Service.
Punchng Ware (1989, 20 min.). Punchng stoneware from the Chosn
dynasty. Available from the Korean Cultural Service.
Sillas Twin Tumulus, by Lee Kyu-im (1976, 60 min.). The excavation of
two tombs from the Silla Kingdom. Available from the Korean Cul-
tural Service.
The Wo rking Process of the Ko rean Folk Po t t e r, by Ron du Bois (1977, 28 min.).
Available from Ron du Bois, 612 S. Kings St., Stillwater, OK 74074,
405-377-2524, www.angelre.com.
Film and Video Resources
Listed here are useful documen-
taries related to Korean art.
The Korean Cultural Service (see
Korean Cultural Resources ,
p. 153) is a good source for Korean
movies. Others can be viewed in
the Metropolitan Museums Uris
Library and Teacher Resource
Center.
157
Asian Art Sites
Art Index: A Guide to Asian Art
on the Internet
www.artindex.com
Asia Society
www.askasia.org and
www.asiasociety.org
Asian Arts
The online journal for the study
and exhibition of the arts of Asia
www. asianart.com
Association for Asian Studies
www.aasianst.org
Korean Art Sites
Center for Korean Studies,
University of Hawaii
www2.hawaii.edu/korea/
bibliography/arts.htm
Ho-Am Art Museum
www.hoammuseum.org
The Korea Foundation
www.kofo.or.kr
KoreaInsights: Korean Culture
and Arts on the Internet
www.korea.insights.co.kr
Korea National Tourism
Organization
www.knto.or.kr
Korean Embassy
www.emb.dsdn.net/english/
frame.htm
Korean Studies Page
Harvard University
www.fas.harvard.edu/~hoffmann
National Kyngju Museum
http://refox.postech.ac.kr/tour/
kyongju/museum/museum.html
National Museum of Korea, Seoul
www.museum.go.kr
Selected Web Sites
See also the museum Web sites listed on p. 154.
Selected Bibliography for Educators
A m o s, Anne Godden. Korean Embroidery, Techniques and Conservat i o n .
Orientations 25, no. 2 (February 1994), pp. 4346.
Arts of Korea. Edited by Judith G. Smith, with contributions by Chung
Yang-mo, Ahn Hwi-joon, Yi Sng-mi, Kim Lena, Kim Hongnam,
Pak Youngsook, and Jonathan W. Best. New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1998.
Barnes, Gina L. The Rise of Civilization in East Asia: The Archaeology of
China, Korea and Japan. London: Thames & Hudson, 1993.
Best, Jonathan W. Imagery, Iconography and Belief in Early Korean
Buddhism. Korean Culture 13, no. 3 (Fall 1992), pp. 2333.
Choi Eung-Chn. Korean Buddhist Metal Art. Orientations 19, no. 9
(September 1988), pp. 3443.
Chung, Y. Young. The Art of Oriental Embroidery: History, Aesthetics and
Techniques. New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1979.
Cort, Louise Allison. Korean Inuence in Japanese Ceramics.
Orientations 15, no. 5 (May 1984), pp. 1829.
Cunningham, Michael R. Notes on Early Japanese and Korean Ceramics.
Orientations 26, no. 8 (September 1995), pp. 9196.
Deuchler, Martina. The Confucian Transformation of Korea. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Feng Xianming. Persian and Korean Ceramics Unearthed in China.
Orientations 17, no. 5 (May 1986), pp. 4753.
Five Thousand Years of Korean Art. Seoul: National Museum of Korea,
1979.
Grifng, Robert. The Art of the Korean Potter: Silla, Kory, Yi. New York:
The Asia Society, 1968.
Haboush, JaHyun Kim, and Martina Deuchler, eds. Culture and the State in
Late Chosn Korea. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center
and Harvard University Press, 1999.
Itoh Ikutaro. Koreanization in Kory Celadon. Orientations 23, no. 12
(December 1992), pp. 4650.
_____ and Mino Yutaka et al. The Radiance of Jade and the Clarity of Water:
Korean Ceramics from the Ataka Collection. Chicago: The Art Institute,
1994.
_____. Korean Ceramics from The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka.
Edited by Judith G. Smith. New York: The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 2000.
158
Kendall, Laurel. S h a m a n s, Housewiv e s, and Other Restless Spirits: Women in
Ko rean Ritual Life. Honolulu: Unive rsity of H awaii Press, 1985.
Kim Chewon and Lena Kim Lee, eds. Arts of Korea. New York and Tokyo:
Kodansha, 1974.
Kim, Hongnam. The Story of a Painting: A Korean Buddhist Treasure from
The Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation. New York: The Asia
Society Galleries, 1991.
_____, ed. Korean Arts of the Eighteenth Century: Splendor and Simplicity.
New York: The Asia Society Galleries, 1993.
_____. Tragedy and Art at the Eighteenth Century Chosn Court.
Orientations 25, no. 2 (February 1994), pp. 2837.
Kim Kumja Paik. Bold and Whimsical Forms: Korean Ceramics of the
Three Kingdoms Period in the Collection of the Asian Art Museum
of San Francisco. Orientations 25, no. 2 (February 1994), pp. 3842.
_____, ed. Hopes and Aspirations: Decorat ive Painting of Ko re a. San Fra n c i s c o :
Asian Art Museum, 1998.
Kim Wn-yong et al. Korean Art Treasures. Edited by Roderick Whiteld
and Youngsook Pak. Seoul: Yekyong Publications, 1986.
Korea Foundation. Korean Cultural Heritage, Volume 1: Fine Arts. Seoul:
The Korea Foundation, 1994.
_____. Korean Cultural Heritage, Volume 2: Religion and Thought. Seoul:
The Korea Foundation, 1996.
_____. Korean Cultural Heritage, Volume 3: Performing Arts. Seoul:
The Korea Foundation, 1997.
_____. Korean Cultural Heritage, Volume 4: Traditional Lifestyles. Seoul:
The Korea Foundation, 1997.
Kwon Young-pil, ed. Fragrance of Ink: Korean Literati Paintings of the
Chosn Dynasty (13921910) from Korea University Museum. Seoul:
Korean Studies Institute, Korea University, 1997.
Lee Ki-baik. A New History of Korea. Translated by Edward W. Wagner
with Edward Shultz. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1984.
Lee, Kyong-hee. Korean Culture: Legacies and Lore. Seoul: The Korea
Herald, 1993.
Lee, Peter H., ed. Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, Volume One: From Early
Times to the Sixteenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press,
1993.
_____, ed. Sourcebook of Korean Civilization, Volume Two: From the Seven-
teenth Century to the Modern Period. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1996.
159
McKillop, Beth. Korean Art and Design: The Samsung Gallery of Korean Art.
London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1992.
Moes, Robert J. Auspicious Spirits: Korean Folk Paintings and Related Objects.
Washington, D.C.: International Exhibition Foundation, 1983.
_____. Korean Art from the Brooklyn Museum Collection. New York: Universe
Books, 1987.
Mowry, Robert D. Kory Celadons. Orientations 17, no. 5 (May 1986),
pp. 2439.
National Museum of Korea. Seoul: National Museum of Korea, 1998.
Nelson, Sarah M. The Archaeology of Korea. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1993.
Pak Youngsook. Illuminated Buddhist Manuscripts in Korea. Oriental
Art 33, no. 4 (198788), pp. 35774.
_____. The Origins of Silla Metalw o r k . O r i e n t at i o n s 19, no. 9 (Sep t e m b e r
1988), pp. 4453.
_____. Serenity and Composure: The Art of Korea at The Metropolitan
Museum of Art. Orientations 29, no. 8 (September 1998), pp. 5060.
Portal, Jane. Kory Dynasty Art in the British Museum. Orientations 29,
no. 8 (September 1998), pp. 6975.
_____. Korea: Art and Archaeology. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
Pratt, Keith, and Richard Rutt. Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary.
Durham: Dep a rtment of East Asian Studies, Unive rsity of Durham, 1999.
Reynolds, Valrae. Korean Folk Painting in The Newark Museum.
Orientations 17, no. 5 (May 1986), pp. 4046.
Strber, Eva. The Korean Collection at the Museum of East Asian Art in
Cologne. Orientations 28, no. 1 (January 1997), pp. 5661.
Turner, Jane, ed. The Dictionary of Art. Vol. 18, entry on Korea. London:
Macmillan, 1996.
Twitchett, Denis. Printing and Publishing in Medieval China. New York:
Frederic C. Bell, Publisher, 1983.
Watt, James C. Y., and Barbara Brennan Ford. East Asian Lacquer: The
Florence and Herbert Irving Collection. New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1991.
Whiteld, Roderick, and Roger Goepper. Treasures from Korea: Art
Through 5000 Years. London: British Museum, 1984.
Wood, Nigel, and Rose Kerr. Graciousness to Wild Austerity: Aesthetic
Dimensions of Korean Ceramics Explored through Technology.
Orientations 23, no. 12 (December 1992), pp. 3942.
Yi Sng-mi. Yi Chng: The Foremost Bamboo Painter of the Chosn
Dynasty. Orientations 29, no. 8 (September 1998), pp. 6168.
160
161
Periodicals in English:
Korea Journal
Korean Culture
Koreana
Oriental Art
Orientations
Selected Bibliography for Students
Back to Heaven: Selected Poems of Chn Sang Pyng. Translated by Brother
Anthony of Taize and Young-Moo Kim. Ithaca, NY: Cornell East Asia
Program/UNESCOPublishing, 1996.
H aboush, Ja hyun Kim. A Heritage of K i n g s. New York: Columbia Unive rs i t y
Press, 1988.
Han, Suzanne Crowder. Notes on Things Korean. Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym.
Hwang Sun-Won, et al. The Rainy Spell and Other Ko rean Stories. Tra n s l at e d
by Suh Ji Moon. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1998.
Koo, John H., and Andrew C. Nahm. An Introduction to Korean Culture.
Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym, 1998.
Korean Folk-Tales: Oxford Myths and Legends. Retold by James Riordan.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
New Il-Han. When I Was a Boy in Korea. Boston: D. Lothrop, 1928.
Pak Wan-So. My Very Last Possession: And Other Stories. Translated by
Chun Kyung-ja. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.
Songs of the Kisaeng. Tra n s l ated and introduced by Constantine Contog e n i s
and Wolhee Choe. Rochester, NY: BOA Editions, Inc., 1997.
Tae Hung Ha. Folk Tales of Old Ko re a . Seoul: Yonsei Unive rsity Press, 1998.
Ten Korean Short Stories. Translated by Kevin ORourke. Seoul: Yonsei
University Press, 1981.
The above titles for students can be obtained from the following:
Master Communications, Inc.
Asia for Kids
4480 Lake Forest Drive
Suite 302
Cincinnati, OH 45242
tel: 513-563-3100
www.afk.com
Asian-American Wr i t e rs Wo r k s h o p
16 West 32nd Street
Suite 10A
New York, NY 10001
tel: 212-494-0061
www.aaww.org
162
List of I m ag e s
1. Jar
Bronze Age (ca. 10thca. 3rd century B.C.), ca. 4th century B.C.
Burnished red earthenware; H. 5 in. (14.6 cm)
Gift of Hongnam Kim to commemorate the opening of the Arts of Korea
Gallery, 1998 (1998.212)
2. Bird-Shaped Vessel
Three Kingdoms period (57 B.C.668 A.D.), ca. late 2nd3rd century
Earthenware; H. 12 in. (32.7 cm), L. 13 in. (35.2 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1997 (1997.34.1)
3. Stand
Three Kingdoms period, Silla kingdom (57 B.C.668 A.D.), 5th6th century
Stoneware with traces of incidental ash glaze; H. 14 in. (37.5 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1997 (1997.34.23)
4. Pair of Earrings
Three Kingdoms period, Silla kingdom (57 B.C.668 A.D.) or Kaya
Federation (42562 A.D.), 6th century
Gold; H. 4 in. (10.5 cm)
Purchase, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1943 (43.49.5,6)
5. Standing Buddha
Unied Silla dynasty (668935), 8th century
Gilt bronze; H. 5 in. (14 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1912 (12.37.136)
6. Bottle with Flattened Side
Unied Silla dynasty (668935), 8th10th century
Stoneware; H. 9 in. (22.9 cm)
Purchase, Judith G. and F. Randall Smith Gift, 1994 (1994.226)
7A, B. Rafter Finial in the Shape of a Dragon Head and Wind Chime
L ate Unied Silla (668935) e a r ly Ko ry (9181392) dy n a s t y, 10th century
Gilt bronze; nial: L. 15 in. (39.4 cm); chime: H. 15 in. (38.7 cm)
Purchase, The Vincent Astor Foundation Gift, 1999 Benet Fund, and
The Rosenkranz Foundation Inc. Gift, 1999 (1999.263.a,b)
8. Mirror with Decoration of Figures in a Landscape
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Bronze; Diam. 7 in. (17.8 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1925 (25.219.4)
9. Incense Container
Kory dynasty (9181392), 10th12th century
Lacquer with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell inlay (over pigment) and
brass wires; H. 1 in. (4.1 cm), L. 4 in. (10.2 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1925 (25.215.41a,b)
10. Wine Ewer
Kory dynasty (9181392), early 12th century
Stoneware with incised and carved design of geese, waterbirds, and reeds
under celadon glaze; H. 10 in. (26.6 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27.119.2)
11. Oil Bottle
Kory dynasty (9181392), late 12th century
Stoneware with reverse inlaid design of peonies under celadon glaze;
H. 2 in. (5.7 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.175.9)
12. Melon-Shaped Wine Ewer
Kory dynasty (9181392), 12th century
Stoneware with carved and incised design of bamboo under celadon glaze;
H. 8 in. (21.6 cm)
Gift of Mrs. Roger G. Gerry, 1996 (1996.471)
13. Bottle
Kory dynasty (9181392), 13th century
Stoneware with inlaid design of chrysanthemums under celadon glaze;
H. 13 in. (34.6 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27.119.6)
163
14. Maebyng
Kory dynasty (9181392), late 13th early 14th century
Stoneware with inlaid design of cranes and clouds under celadon glaze;
H. 11 in. (29.2 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1927 (27.119.11)
(Poster A)
15. Unidentied artist (ca. 13th century)
Amitabha Triad
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk; 47 32 in. (121.6 81.9 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1930 (30.76.298)
16A, B, C. Unidentied artist (early 14th century)
Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk; 44 21 in. (113.7 55.3 cm)
Charles Stewart Smith Collection, Gift of Mrs. Charles Stewart Smith,
Charles Stewart Smith Jr. and Howard Caswell Smith, in memory of
Charles Stewart Smith, 1914 (14.76.6)
17A, B. Unidentied artist (14th century)
Illustrated Manuscript of the Lotus Sutra
Kory dynasty (9181392), ca. 1340
Folding book, gold and silver on indigo-dyed mulberry paper;
106 pages, each 13 4 in. (33 11.4 cm)
Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Fund, 1994 (1994.207)
18. Unidentied artist (late 14th century)
Kshitigarbha (Chijang)
Kory dynasty (9181392)
Hanging scroll, gold and color on silk; 33 14 in. (84.5 36.8 cm)
H. O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929
(29.160.32)
(Poster B)
19. Image Hall, Haein-sa Temple
South Kyngsang Province, October 1997
Photograph by Elizabeth Hammer
164
165
20. Stationery Box
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th century
Black lacquer with mother-of-pearl inlay; H. 3 in. (9 cm),
W. 14 in. (36.5 cm)
Promised Gift of Florence and Herbert Irving (L. 1992.62.3)
21. Flask-Shaped Bottle
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th century
Stoneware with sgrafto design of owers under punchng glaze;
H. 8 in. (21 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1986 (1986.305)
22. Wine Cup
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 15th century
White porcelain; H. 1 in. (4.1 cm), Diam. 4 in. (11.4 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1917 (17.175.1)
23. Jar
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 18th century
Porcelain with underglaze copper-red decoration of a grapevine;
H. 10 in. (25.5 cm)
The Harry G. C. Packard Collection of Asian Art, Gift of Harry G. C.
Packard, and Purchase, Fletcher, Rogers, Harris Brisbane Dick, and
Louis V. Bell Funds, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, and The Annenberg
Fund Inc. Gift, 1975 (1979.413.2)
24. Large Jar
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 18th19th century
White porcelain; H. 14 in. (37.5 cm)
The Harry G. C. Packard Collection of Asian Art, Gift of Harry G. C.
Packard, and Purchase, Fletcher, Rogers, Harris Brisbane Dick, and Louis
V. Bell Funds, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, and The Annenberg Fund Inc.
Gift, 1975 (1979.413.1)
25A, B. Unidentied artist (15th century)
Landscapes in the Style of An Kyn: Evening Bell from Mist-Shrouded Temple
and Autumn Moon over Lake Dongting
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Pair of hanging scrolls, ink on silk; Each 34 17 in. (88.3 45.1 cm)
Purchase, Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, and Mr. and Mrs. Frederick P. Rose
and John B. Elliott Gifts, 1987 (1987.278a,b)
166
26A, B. Unidentied artist (late 15th16th century)
Wild Geese Descending to Sandbar
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink on silk; 49 29 in. (126.4 48.5 cm)
Purchase, Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, John M. Crawford Jr. Bequest, and
The Vincent Astor Foundation Gift, 1992 (1992.337)
27. Mountains in Chirisan National Park
South Kyngsang Province, October 1997
Photograph by Elizabeth Hammer
28. Unidentied artist (16th century)
Grapevine in the Wind
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink on silk; 31 15 in. (80 40 cm)
Purchase, The Dillon Fund Gift and Friends of Asian Art Gifts, 1994
(1994.439)
29A, B. Unidentied artist (late 16th century)
Brahma (Pmchn)
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on hemp; 84 88 in. (214.6 224.8 cm)
Gift of Mrs. Edward S. Harkness, 1921 (21.57)
30. Unidentied artist (17th century)
Portrait of Ssan Taesa (Chnghdang, 15201604)
Chosn dynasty (13921910)
Hanging scroll, ink and color on silk; 59 30 in. (152.1 77.8 cm)
Seymour Fund, 1959 (59.19)
31. Rank Badge (Hyungbae) with Paired Tiger-Leopards
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 18th19th century
Silk and metallic thread; 10 10 in. (25.4 27 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1951 (51.40)
32. Box
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th century
Painted wood with attened ox-horn inlay; H. 6 in. (15.2 cm)
Promised Gift of Florence and Herbert Irving (L.1999.65)
167
33. Chng-ak Kayagm (Plucked Zither), ca. 1980
Made by Kim Kwang Ju, South Korea
Wood, silk, cotton; L. 65 in. (165 cm)
Gift of Korean Cultural Service, 1982 (1982.171.1)
34. Group of Musical Instruments
Changgo (drum)
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th century
Wood, hide, metal, rope; L. 25 in. (64.7 cm)
The Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889 (89.4.141)
Taepyngso (oboe)
Chosn dynasty (13921910), 19th century
Wood, metal, reed; L. 16 in. (41.9 cm)
The Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889 (89.4.147)
Ching (large gong)
20th century
Bronze; Diam. 15 in. (38.7 cm)
Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981 (1981.28.10)
Pak (clapper)
Ca. 1980
Wood; L. of each slab 14 in. (36.9 cm)
Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981 (1981.28.12)
Sogo (drum)
Mid-20th century
Wood, hide; L. 13 in. (33.1cm)
Gift of Dr. Won Kyung Cho, 1981 (1981.136)
Kkwaenggwari (small gong)
20th century
Bronze; Diam. 7 in. (19.7 cm)
Gift of Daewoo Group, 1981 (1981.28.11a,b)
35. Teukgyeong
Ca. 1981
Wood, marble, feather, beads, horn; H. 82 in. (210 cm)
Gift of Korean Cultural Service, 1982 (1982.171.3a,b,c)