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VOLUME 2
POWER TRANSFORMERS
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
VOLUME 2
Po""er Transformers
Authors A. W Goldman and C. G. Pebler
Written by
Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation
245 Summer Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02107
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304
EPRI Project Manager'
D. K. Sharma
Ordering Information
Requests fat copies of this series should be directed
to Research Reports Center (RRC), P.O. Box 50490,
Palo Alto, CA 94303, (415) 965-4081.
For further information on EPRI's technical pro-
grams contact the EPRI 'Technical Information Divi-
sion at (415) 855-2411, or write directly to EPRI's
'Technical Information Center at P.O. Box 10412, Palo
Alto, CA 94303.
EL-5036, Volume 2
Project 2334
ISBN 0-8033-5001-5 volume
ISBN 080335015-5 series
Topics: Power transformers
'Iransformer ratings
Taps and connections
Station auxiliary systems
Installation and maintenance
Voltage regulation
Copyright 1987 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Reprinted in 1998 by Energy Conversion Division,
Steam-Turbine, Generator, Balance-of-Plant Target.
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered
service marks of Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Notice
This series was prepared by Stone &. Webster Engineering
Corporation as an account of work sponsored by the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRI). Neither EPRI,
members of EPRI, Stone &. Webster Engineering Corpora-
tion, nor any person acting on behalf of any of them:
(a) makes any warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process
disclosed in this series or that such use may not infringe
privately owned rights, or (h) assumes any liabilities with
respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the
use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process dis-
closed in this series.
FOREWORD
In the past, several electrical equipment manufac-
turers published reference books dealing with
specific technical areas. Many utilities have stated
that these reference books have been very useful
to them in dealing with plant emergencies and in
making decisions on design, system planning, and
preventive maintenance.
Unfortunately, manufacturers today seldom
publish or update reference books on electric
power apparatus, mainly because of tighter bud-
get constraints. Until now, utilities have had no up-
to-date industrywide practical reference manual
covering the various electric power apparatus and
electrical phenomena commonly encountered in
power plants. The Power Plant Electrical Refer-
ence Series was planned to fill this need.
EPRI believes that the series will save utilities
time and money. It will aid plant engineers in
Prevention of forced outages through proper
installation, application, and protection of
station auxiliary equipment
Recognition of potential problems and their
prevention
Selection of appropriate methods of main-
tenance to ensure trouble-free equipment
operation
Reduction of equipment installation time and
expense
Proper specification of equipment being
ordered
Better coordination and integration of system
components
This volume deals with power transformers. A
power transformer connects the generator to the
high-voltage transmission system. Another power
transformer connects the generator to the plant
medium-voltage auxiliary power system. 'Trans-
former impedance is the major factor in the volt-
age regulation of the auxiliary power system, as
well as in the short-circuit duty of the switchgear.
Selection of transformers for use in power stations
requires knowledge of the power system and var-
ious parameters.
A wealth of information about transformers is
available in the transactions of the IEEE and in the
ANSI!IEEE standards and applications guides. EPBI
has also published a great deal of information on
transformers, including studies of transformer life
characteristics (EL-2622), dielectrics, accessories, and
monitoring equipment. The purpose of this book is
to bring out the concepts that are most useful to
power plant personnel, without requiring an under-
standing of the rigorous engineering analysis
necessary for the basic design transformers.
D. K. Sharma
Electrical Systems Division
Electric Power Research Institute
ABSTRACT
The unit transformer in a generating station con-
nects the electric power output of the generating
unit to the high-voltage electric transmission grid;
the unit auxiliaries transformer, station service
transformer, and secondary-unit substation trans-
formers supply the electric auxiliaries required for
operation of the power plant. In the lower range
of sizes, power transformers may be of standard
design types, but many of the transformers used
in power plants and all of the larger ones are
custom-designed-similaIj but seldom identical, to
others built previously. This volume covers the
practical aspects of the selection, specification
l
in-
stallation, operation, testing, and maintenance of
these power transformers.
1t'ansformer designs of particular interest to
power plant operators include liquid-immersed,
dry-type, and vapor-cooled transformers ranging
in size from 500 kVA to 1200 MVA. The function
and application of each design are described in
detail, from load considerations to noise criteria.
Photographs show the various types of oil-
preservation systems, transformer connectionsl
and bushings. A variety of gages, monitors, and
indicators may be provided for liquid-immersed
transformers; these accessories are also discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the help they
received from many technical publications pre-
pared by people in the industry. They also express
their appreciation to the following people for their
reviews) suggestions) and guidance in general.
Electric Power Research Institute
D. K. Shanna) Project Manager
R. Steiner, Associate Director, Electrical Systems
Division
J C. White) Program Manager
G. Addis) Project Manager
Stone & Webster Engineering
Corporation
G. O. Buffington) Project Manager
P. Garfinkel
A. R. Fitzpatrick
A. P. Stakutis
EPRI Review Committee
J. R. Boyle, Thnnessee Valley Authority
L. E. Brothers) Southern Company Services
J. Erlingsson, Pacific Gas and Electric Company
R. G. Farmer, Arizona Public Service Company
R. G. Hodgson) Los Angeles Department of Water
&.. Power
J. A. Maxwell) Georgia Power Company
\'\T. L. Nait Jr., Mississippi Power &.. Light Company
D. G. Owen) Duke Power Company
B. K. Patet Southern Company Services
R. A. Schaefer, Public Service Company of
Oklahoma
J. E. Stoner) Jr.) Duke Power Company
D. M. Van lassell, Jr., Florida Power &.. Light
Company
J. E. White) Thmpa Electric Company
The authors owe special thanks to \tY. J. McNutt,
General Electric Company, member of the 'Irans-
fonners Committee of IEEE, who reviewed the final
manuscript.
SECTION
CONTENTS
PAGE SECTION PAGE
_Figures 2-xi
Tables 2-xiii
Executive Summary 2-xv
Acronyms &
Abbreviations 2-xvii
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Definition of Terms 2-1
2.3 General ~ p e s 2-3
Liquid-immersed 'Iransformers 2-3
Dry-type Transformers 2-3
2.4 Rating Basis and
Temperature Rise 2-4
2.5 Insulation Level 2-5
2.6 Cooling Methods-Single--,
Dual-, and 'n'lple-rated
Transformers 2-5
Liquid-immersed 'Iransformers 2-5
Water-cooled 'Iransformers 2-7
Dry-type Transformers 2-7
2.7 Losses 2-7
Evaluation method 2-7
Application of Loss Values 2-8
2.8 Oil Preservation Systems 2-8
SealedThnk System 2-8
Inert Gas System 2-9
Modified Conservator System 2-9
2.9 Transformer Connections .... 2-10
UTh 2-11
UATh 2-12
SSTh 2-12
Secondary Unit Substation
'Iransformers 2-14
Grounding Transformers 2-14
2.10 Taps 2-14
No-Load Thp Changers 2-14
Load Thp Changers (LTCs) 214
2.11 Bushings 215
2.12 Accessories 2-18
Liquid Level Gage 2-18
Thmperature Indicators 218
Flow Indicator ., 2-20
Bushing Current Transformers .. 2-20
Resistance Thmperature
Detectors 2-20
Sudden Pressure Relay 2-20
Gas Detector Relay 2-21
Fault Gas Monitor 2-21
Pressure Relief Device 221
Lifting Eyes and Jack Bosses 2-22
Lightning Arresters 2-22
2.13 Application
Considerations 222
Maximum Sustained Load 222-
Altitude 225
Ambient Thmperature 2-25
Number of Windings 2-25
Voltage Ratings and
Overexcitation 2-25
'Transient Overvoltage ~ - 2 6
Load Current Waveform 226
Harmonic Current Derating 227
Impedance Voltage and
Regulation 2-28
Impedance and Through-Faults .. 229
Phasing Out Three-Phase
Circuits 2-29
Loss Evaluation 2-30
Noise Criteria 2-30
2.14 Shipping Considerations ... . 2-32
2-x CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
2.15 Specific Applications 232
UTs 2-32
DATh 245
SSTh ., 246
Load Center Substation
1tansformers 247
Auxiliary 'Iransformers 247
Grounding 'Iransformers 2-47
2.16 'n'ansformer Testing .. , 2-48
Shop Thsting '.' 2-48
Field Thsting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
2.17 Foundations 2-51
2.18 Provision for Oil Spills 251
2.19 Fire walls and Barriers ..... 251
2.20 Water-Spray Fire
Protection 251
2.21 Installation 2-52
Liquid-immersed 1tansformers .. 252
Dry-type'Iransformers 2-5a
2.22 Maintenance 253
Visual Inspection 2-53
Oil Conditioning 2-54
Gasing 2-54
Dryout 2-54
Cleaning Bushings 2-54
Appendix A: Loss Evaluation .. 2-55
References 259
Bibliography 261
Index 2-65
FIGURE
FIGURES
PAGE FIGURE PAGE
2-1 - Transformer With a Sealed-Tank
Oil Preservation System 2-9
2-17 Reactive Capability Curves for
Steam Turbine Generator Unit .... 2-34
2-2 Transformer With Inert Gas Oil
Preservation System 2-10
2-3 Transformer With Modified Con-
servator Oil Preservation System .. 2-11
2-18 Base Case 2-35
2-19 Voltage and Power Profiles 2-36
2-20 Increased Real Power 2-37
2-4 Transformer Terminal Designation
in Accordance With ANSI Standard
C57.12.70-1978 2-12
2-5 Typical Transformer Phase
Relationships , 2-13
2-6 Power Transformer With LTC .... 2:'16
2-7 Apparatus Bushing of the Paper-
Oil Capacitor (POC) Type 2-17
. 2-8 EVH Bushing 2-18
2-9 HighCurrent Type-A Bushing
25-kV, Class-4500 A and Above ... 2-19
2-10 Temperature Indicator Relay ..... 2-20
2-11 Sudden Pressure (Fault Pressure)
Relay 2-21
2-12 Gas Detector Relay ' 2-21
2-13 Fault Gas Monitor 2-22
2-14 Pressure Relief Device 2-23
2-15 General Guide for Permissible
Short-Time Overexcitation of
Power Transformers (Rated Volts
per Hertz = 100% Excitation) .... 2-26
2-16 Bar Chart, Factory Noise Measure-
merits of Large General Electric
Power Transformers (Early 1970s) .. 2-31
2-21 Higher Secondary Tap 2-38
2-22 lOO-MVAR Export at Design
Center 2-39
2-23 Oversize Transformer 2-40
2-24 High Impedance 2-41
2-25 Half-Power Operation 2-42
2-26 Simplified Equivalent Circuit and
Phasor Diagram 2-44
TABLE
TABLES
PAGE
2-1 .Forced-cooled Ratings .26
2-2 Approximate Voltage Regulation ... .229
23 TI-ansformer Thsts .249
A-1 TI-ansformer Loss Energy
Evaluation 258
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Power transformers are used in generating sta-
tions to connect the main generator to the high-
voltage transmission system and to connect
sources of electric power to distribution sub-
systems for operation of plant auxiliary electrical
equipment at medium- and low-voltage levels. The
proper selection of transformers for each appli-
cation requires a knowledge of the types available
and their range of applicability. It also requires a
knowledge of terms, conventions, tolerances, and
factory tests as established in industry standards.
Background
Power plant electrical equipment operating at ac
voltages of 120,460, 575, 4000, 6600, or 13,200 V
receives its power from higher-voltage sources: the
main generator and the switchyard. 'fransformers,
which are located near the load (where possible),
interconnect the voltage levels. Although the
smaller sizes of power transformers may be of
standard design tyPes, the larger ones are custom-
designed and s i m i l a ~ but seldom identicaL to
others. This book provides practical guidance in
the selection of this equipment.
Objectives
This volume will provide power station engineers
with a background of transformer knowledge that
will enable them to apply transformers correctly,
assist in understanding existing standards and the
various options required for power transformer se-
lection, and provide guidance to power plant per-
sonnel in planning insPeCtion and testing programs.
Approach
Anational survey of utility requirements yielded
pertinent information, and a search of available
literature. on power transformers identified spe-
cific information pertaining to power plant
applications. The EPRI Review Committee, with
members from 11 utilities throughout the United
States, and other industry experts reviewed the
material for accuracy and completeness. The
resulting information was the basis for this volume
of the Power Plant Electrical Reference Series.
Results
The information in this volume will help in the
selection of power transformers in sizes from
500 kVA to 1200 MVA for power plant use. Spe-
cific application information will aid the engineer-
ing and operations departments of generating
facilities in selecting new and replacement
equipment.
ACRONYMS
&
ABBREVIATIONS
AA transformer cooling method: ventilated
ac alternating current
ANSI - American National Standards Institute
BIL
Btu
CI
cm
dB
dBA
dc
E
EHV
f
FA
FOA
FOB
FOW
g
hp
h
HV
HVAC
Hz
I
IEEE
IROR
k
kV
kVA
kW
LTC
LV
m
mg
MVA
MVAR
N
Nl
basic lightning impulse insulation level
British thermal unites)
present worth of outlay in the year of first
commercial operation (Eq. A-I)
centimeter(s)
decibeHs)
adjusted decibeHs)
direct current
voltage (Eq. 2-1)
extra-high voltage
annual inflation rate (decimal) (Eq. A-I)
transformer cooling method: oil immersed,
forced-air cooled
transformer cooling method: oil immersed,
forced-oil cooled with forced-air cooler
free on board
transformer cooling method: forced-water
cooled
gram(s)
horsepower
hour(s)
high voltage
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
hertz
current (Eq. 2-1)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
internal rate of return
internal rate of return expressed as a
decimal rather than as a percentage (Eq. A-I)
kilovolt(s)
kilovoltampere(s)
kilowatt(s)
load tap changer
low voltage
meter(s)
milligram(s)
megavolt-ampere(s)
megavolt-ampere(s)-reactive
newton(s)
number of years between the price year
and the year of first commercial operation
(Eq. A-I)
N2
OA
OSHA
P
PCB
PF
pac
psig
R
REG
mv
rms
SCR
SST
VAT
UT
V
Z
1 greater than the number of years between
commercial operation and payment (Eq. Al)
transformer cooling method: oil immersed,
self-cooled
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
quoted or estimated price, valid in the price
year (Eq. AI)
polychlorinated biphenyl
load power factor (Eq. 2-8)
paper-oil capacitor
pounds per square inch gage
resistance
transformer regulation
radio influence voltage
root-mean-square
short-circuit ratio
station service transformer
unit auxiliaries transformer
unit transformer
volt(s)
transformer impedance voltage
VOLUME 2
POWER TRANSFORMERS
A. W. Goldman and C. G. Pebler
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Power-transformers are used in power plants to
connect the main generator to the high-voltage
(HV) transmission system and to connect sources
of auxiliary power to distribution subsystems for
plant auxiliary electrical equipment at lower volt-
age levels. Since they are basically static devices,
they require less maintenance than most of the
other apparatus. It is important, however, (1) that
each transformer be selected properly for the in-
tended application; (2) that it be protected from
voltage surges, external short circuits, and
prolonged overload; and (3) that it be inspected,
maintained, and tested on a routine basis.
The power transformers of particular interest
to the designers and operators of power plants
range in size from 500 kVA to 1200 MVA in three-
phase designs and from 500 kVA to 550 MVA in
single-phase designs. lransformers installed inside
a building may be dry-type, resin encapsulated,
or liquid immersed in high-fire point or low-heat
release insulating fluids. lransformers installed
outdoors are generally mineral oil immersed.
In the lower size range the transformers may
be of repetitive design, but many of the transform-
ers used in power plants and all of the larger ones
are custom designed-similar, but seldom identi-
cal, to others built previously.
lransformer power and energy losses, though
relatively small, are of interest to the user for two
reasons: They cause increased fuel consumption,
and they result in heat release. The fuel consumed
in generating the loss of energy is an important
item in operating cost. The heat must be removed
and dissipated by some combination of conduc-
tion, convection, and radiation. "Self-cooled" trans-
formers do not require any power-driven cooling
auxiliaries. Forced-cooled transformers employ
forced-water or forced-air cooling and may also
use pumps to circulate the insulating fluid. The
addition of rotating machinery to an otherwise
static device reduces the physical size and initial
cost of the transformer for a specific output
rating, but it may also reduce reliability and in-
crease maintenance cost and losses.
Oil-immersed transformers require oil preser-
vation systems to exclude oxygen and water vapor;
this retards sludging and deterioration of dielec-
tric properties. Gas formation under oil may indi-
cate local hot spots or decomposition of solid
insulating materials. For this reason gas monitors
are often installed to detect and collect generated
gases for laboratory analysis. 'Iransformer oil
should be sampled and tested at regular intervals.
The analysis of both the collected gas and the oil
samples provides warning of abnormal conditions.
Power transformers are factory tested to ensure
quality of design and manufacture and to demon-
strate their ability to meet performance require-
ments. Data obtained during such tests may also
provide benchmarks for later field tests.
A large transformer may be damaged by im-
proper handling during loading, shipment, on-site
storage, testing, or installation. These operations
warrant meticulous attention.
The application of the above material to unit
transformers (U'IS), unit auxiliaries transformers
(VATs), station service transformers (SSTs), and
secondary unit substation transformers is covered
under appropriate headings in this volume.
2.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Basic lightning impulse insulation level (SR.) A
specific insulation level, expressed in kilovolts, of the
crest value of a standard lightning impulse.
Basic switching impulse insulation level A
specific insulation level, expressed in kilovolts, of the
crest value of a standard switching impulse.
Chopped-wave impulse A voltage impulse that is
terminated intentionally by sparkover of a gap.
Decibel (dB) See Sound pressure level.
Demand factor The ratio of the maximum demand
of a system to the total connected load of the system.
Diversity factor The ratio of the sum of the individ-
ual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of
a system to the maximum demand of the whole system.
Eddy-eurrent loss Power dissipated due to eddy cur-
rents. This includes the eddy-current losses of the core,
windings, case, and associated hardware.
Front-oi-wave lightning impulse test A voltage
impulse with a specified rate of rise that is terminated
intentionally by sparkover of a gap that occurs on the
2-2 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
rising front of the voltage wave with a specified time
to sparkover and a minimum crest voltage. Complete
front-of-wave tests involve application of the following
sequence of impulse waves: (1) one reduced full wave;
(2) two front of waves; (3) two chopped waves; (4) one
full wave.
Graded insulation The selective arrangement of the
insulation components of a composite insulation system
to equalize more nearly the voltage stresses through-
ou! the insulation system.
Harmonic factor The ratio of the root-mean-square
(rms) value of all the harmonics to the rms value of the
fundamental.
harmonic factor = .JE ~ + E ~ + E ~ + + E ~
(for voltage) E
1
harmonic factor _ .J/5 + l ~ + I ~ + + / ~
(for current) - II
Hot spot temperature The highest temperature in-
side the transformer winding. It is greater than the aver-
age temperature (measured using the resistance change
method) of the coil conductors.
Hysteresis loss The energy loss in magnetic material
that results from an alternating magnetic field as the
elementary magnets within the material seek to align
themselves with the reversing magnetic field.
Impedance voltage The voltage required to circulate
rated current through one of two specified windings
of a transformer when the other winding is short-
circuited, with the windings connected as for rated volt-
age operation. It is usually expressed in per unit, or per-
cent, of the rated voltage of the winding in which the
voltage is measured.
Insulation level An insulated strength expressed in
terms of a withstand voltage.
Insulation power factor The ratio of the power dis-
sipated in the insulation, in watts, to the product of
effective voltage and current, in voltamperes, when
tested under a sinusoidal voltage and prescribed
conditions.
Lightning impulse insulation level An insulation
level, expressed in kilovolts, of the crest value of a light-
ning impulse withstand voltage.
Liquid-immersed transformer A transformer in
which the core and coils are immersed in an insulating
liquid.
Load tap changer (LTC) A selector switch device,
which may include current-interrupting contactors,
used to change transformer taps with the transformer
energized and carrying full load.
Noload tap changer Aselector switch device used
to change transformer taps with the transformer
deenergized.
Oil-immersed transformer Atransformer in which
the core and coils are immersed in an insulating oil.
Overload Output of current, power, or torque by a
device in excess of the rated output of the device on
a specified rating basis.
Overvoltage A voltage above the normal rated volt-
age or the maximum operating voltage of a device or
circuit.
Primary winding The winding on the energy input
side.
Partial discharge An electric discharge that only par-
tially bridges the insulation between conductors and
that mayor may not occur adjacent to a conductor. Par-
tial discharges occur when the local electric field inten-
sity exceeds the dielectric strength of the dielectric
involved, resulting in local ionization and breakdown.
Depending on intensity, partial discharges are often
accompanied by emission of light, heat, sound, and radio
influence voltage (with a wide frequency range).
Radio influence voltage A radio frequency voltage
generally produced by partial discharge and measured
at the equipment terminals for the purpose of deter-
mining the electromagnetic interference effect of the
discharges.
Secondary unit substation A unit substation in
which the low-voltage (LV) section is rated 1000 V or
below.
Secondary winding The winding on the energy
output side.
Sound level Aweighted sound pressure level obtained
by the use of metering characteristics and the weight-
ings A, B, or Cspecified in American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) Standard Sl.4.
Sound pressure level The sound pressure level, in
decibels, is 20 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the
ratio of the pressure of the sound to the reference pres-
sure of 2 times 10-
5
N/m
2
(0.00002 microbar), also
written 20 N/m
2
I'-.
r--
r---
r-
110
'j( 130
125
....
120
'u
x
UJ '15
140
135
UTs and VATs, all of which, in the absence of a
generator breaker, are connected directly to a
may be subjected to transient overvolt
age during a load rejection. On a unit trip gener-
ator excitation is removed at the instant of trip.
Although generator air-gap flux does not decay
instantly under these conditions, the transient
overvoltage applied to the transformers is not
usually a matter of concern.
Other forms of load rejection may not cause
immediate removal of generator excitation and
may produce significant transient overvoltage. A
disturbance that separates the generator from a
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE
In the case of transformers directly connected
to generators, a load rejection may produce tran-
sient overvoltages at or near a power frequency
having magnitudes as great as 135% for a few
seconds (longer if the voltage regulator is not in
automatic operation). Under these conditions stray
flux in magnetic paths outside the core may pro-
duce intense local heating, which can cause
cumulative degradation of transformer insulation.
It is for this reason that volts-per-hertz protection
is often installed for transformers exposed to such
transients.
Figure 2-15 is one major manufacturer's esti-
mates of the overexcitation withstand capability
of a large power transformer. Th pick a single point
on that curve for illustration, at 130% V/Hz, the
transformer could withstand this amount of exci-
tation for about 16 s at each exposure.
A high-impedance transformer may require
more than 110% of nominal primary voltage to
produce 105% of rated secondary voltage at full
load, 0.8 power factor lag. That condition would
not qualify as overexcitation under industry stan-
dards. Nevertheless, some transformer designers
are not comfortable with that interpretation. Any
application in which this condition can be recog-
nized as a requirement should be brought to the
attention of the transformer manufacturer. For
similar reasons transformer specifications should
not stop at identifying one winding as HV and an-
other as LV: One of them must be designated as
the secondary.
The UT for a pumped-storage hydroelectric
power plant is a special case. Since the electric
machine requires more power when pumping
than it can deliver when generating, the trans-
former LV winding should be designated as the
secondary.
POWER TRANSFORMERS 2-27
The third step is to determine the transformer
stray-load losses at full load (sinusoidal). Stray-load
losses are the difference between load losses and
p.R de loss. Load losses, in turn, are the differ-
ence between full-load loss and no-load loss. Full-
load current, full-load loss, no-load loss, and R dc
are all recorded in the factory test report.
The fourth step is to find the amount of sinusoi-
dalload that can be added to the distorted wave-
form load without exceeding the load loss on
which transformer temperature rise is based.
An example 'Will illustrate how such a calcula-
tion would be made.
load on a transformer secondary, transformer de-
rating for harmonics will be negligible. In fossil
fuel plants, however, variable-speed drives are
sometimes used for boiler feedpumps and for
forced-draft and induced-draft fans. These are the
largest electric drives in the plant. Their harmonic
currents and reactive power requirements cannot
be safely ignored. Amethod of calculating derating
is explained below.
The first step in calculating the harmonic (de-
rating) factor for current is to obtain from the sup-
plier of the variable-speed drive package the
magnitude at full load of the fundamental and of
all harmonics of current drawn from the system
up to the twenty-fIfth harmonic. The magnitude of
each harmonic is usually expressed in percent of
fundamental current. Frequently, the drive pack-
age filters out the lower harmonics, third through
ninth, so that these components do not flow
through the windings of the supply transformer.
The second step is to determine the root-mean-
square (rms) value of the total load current, which
is the square root of the sum of the squares of fun-
damental and all harmonics, as noted in
Alternating-Current Circuits by Kerchner and Cor-
coran (19).
third-2.5%; twenty-fifth-2%. Note that there are
no even harmonics and that the fifteenth and
twenty-first (multiples of 3) are absent. The P
equivalent for the harmonics is:
is the ratio of the effective value of all the harmon
ics to the effective value of the fundamental. The
effective value of all the harmonics is the square
root of the sum of the squares of the effective
values of the individual harmonics.
If the load to be served by a transformer in-
cludes large rectifiers or large solid-state variable-
speed drives, an analysis should be made to
determine whether the harmonic factor of load
current under transformer full-load conditions is
likely to exceed 0.05. If so, that "unusual" service
condition should be explained in the transformer
procurement specification.
HARMONIC CURRENT DERATING
Certain electrical loads, such as large rectifiers and
variable-speed drives, may draw current that
departs significantly from sinusoidal waveform
and may include a large reactive power compo-
nent. The departures from sinusoidal waveform
can be described in terms of their Fourier series
equivalents-harmonics of fundamental power
frequency. The reactive power component lowers
system power factor and increases voltage regu-
lation. The harmonic currents, if allowed to cir-
culate beyond the drive package, produce extra
heating in the windings of transformers supply-
ing power to such loads and may require that the
transformer be derated in order to remain within
rated temperature rise. As of September 1985 an
ANSI document .on this. subject, Standard
C57.110/D7-1985 (18), was in preparation under
the sponsorship of the IEEE 'Transformers Com-
mittee. This document presents a recommended
practice for establishing transformer capability
when applying nonsinusoidalload current.
The extra heating is caused by two effects: the
PR dc loss produced by total harmonic current
and the increased stray loss due to the higher fre-
quency of these harmonic components.
For loads that are a small fraction of the total
Example
The transformer rating is 16 MVA. Full-load second-
ary current is 2221 A. Of the total load loss, 25.9%
is straylosses. Stated another waYi the total loadloss
is 1.35 times the PR loss [11(1.0 - 0.259) = 1.35].
For the drive package) total fundamental (power
frequency) current is 1162 A and harmonics are
as follows: eleventh-8%; thirteenth-6.5%;
seventeenth-5%; nineteenth-4%; twenty-
I = .JIi + 1 ~ + I ~ + ... + I ~
(1162)2 [(0.08)2 + (0.065)2 + (0.05)2
+ (0.04)2 + <0.025)2
+ (0.02)2] = 21,266
(Eq.2-2)
(Eq.2-3)
2-28 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
That P equivalent will be used below in two
calculations.
The rros total current for the drive) including
fundamental and harmonics, is:
distorted-waveform load, the sinusoidal current
that can be added is found by solving the follow-
ing quadratic equation:
[(1162)2 + 21,266]Yz = 1171 A/phase (Eq.2-4)
1.35 x (l + 1162)2 + 21,266 + 1,592,211
= (2221)2 x 1.35 (Eq.2-6)
/
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/
V
/
....
r:
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........- 0.95 PF
/
V
I
/
V
./
_ 0.98 PF
/
V--
I--
--
---- 854.9 MW
"
r---...
r---... /
'\. "
.............
--......
r---...
j"'-oo..
r---
..... 0.95
limit 346 MVAR
, PF
'\
"-
........
.........
r--.....
'"
"'''''
"
0.90 PF
0.60 PF
0.70 PF 0.80 PF
I I I
1200 1000 800 600
MW
400 200 a
o
600
400
200
200
400
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Figure 2-17 Reactive Capability Curves for Steam Turbine Generator Unit
the auxiliaries load is supplied from another
source. This selection increases transformer
cost.
Half-Size un Failure of the UT will cause a
prolonged outage of the entire unit unless there
is an available spare transformer, preferably on
site. 1Wo half-size transformers may be selected
in place of a single full-size transformer in order
to reduce the cost of the spare or, in some cases,
to remain within shipping limitations. When this
is done, each transformer may be sized to carry
more than half the generator output, permitting
useful operation of the unit while one transformer
is being tested, maintained, repaired, or replaced.
In such cases both the Single-transformer and two-
transformer conditions should be investigated in
the initial selection process.
POWER TRANSFORMERS 2-35
Graphic Presentations of Performance Graphic
presentations of performance, such as are shown
in Figures 2-18 through 2-25, are useful in evalu-
ating initial selections of UT ratings. They are also
helpful in soliciting the comments of operating and
system planning personnel on the effects of the
initial selections.
Several variables are involved in the relationship
of a turbine generator, a m and a power system.
Some- of these are generator megawatts, genera-
tor megavolt-amperes-reactive, generator hydro-
gen pressure, generator voltage, transformer
output megawatts, transformer output megavars,
and transformer output voltage. Four transformer
parameters have to be determined in the trans-
former selection process:
Megavolt-ampere rating
Impedance voltage
Secondary voltage rating
Primary voltage rating
The ratings selected will determine the relation-
ships among these variables. There is some lati-
tude in the selection of each rating. For that reason
it is useful to present the results of a set of selec-
tions in graphic form.
The generator reactive capability curve is a plot
of generator megavolt-amperes-reactive versus
generator megawatts, often in a family of curves,
one curve for each cardinal value of generator
hydrogen pressure. Separate curve sheets may be
presented, one for each value of generator voltage.
947 MVA transformer 23.131-345.000 kV
impedance with 1005.8 MVA,
854.9 MW generator
52.37 MVA unit auxiliaries load
Tap System
Transformer limit
Generator voltage 95.0';
Generator voltage
"- Generator voltage
Generator voltage 97.5%
100
200
____....... Tr ansf ormer iimi t
400 Generator overexcited limit
700 ..........
600
500
-100 Generator unity power factor
Generator voltage 100.0::':
300
-700
-600
-800
-300
Generator underexcited limit
-500
-400
-200
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-900
-1000
330 362
Bus (kV)
Figure 2-18 Base Case
2-36 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
Figure 2-19 VOltage and Power Profiles
I
I
418.71 MVAR
voltage} either of which could be selected as the
independent variable for a family of performance
curves. When generator voltage is selected as the
independent variable, a separate curve can be
drawn for each cardinal value of switchyard volt-
age. When switchyard voltage is selected as the
independent variable} a separate curve can be
drawn for each cardinal value of generator
voltage.
Separate curves for each generator voltage are
clearer. This type is therefore used in Figures 2-18
through 2-25. It will be useful to examine these
eight figures before considering the selection
method.
Figures 2-18 through 2-25 showthe performance
of a 1005.8-MVA, O.BS-power factor generator, with
52.37-MVA} O.81-power factor auxiliaries load, con-
nected to a 34S-kV transmission system through
six slightly different UTs. The differences in per-
formance illustrate the effects of changes in four
transformer parameters: megavolt-ampere rating}
impedance} secondary voltage rating} and primary
voltage rating. Most of these figures represent the
unit operating at 854.9 MW Figures 2-20 and 2-25
are included to show the effects of changes in real
power output. The graphs were developed with
the aid of a computer program} but the informa-
tion they present can be derived with the data
from load-flow studies for the transmission
system.
The terms design center and system voltage refer
to a set of system conditions around which most
of the hours of unit operation are expected to be
clustered. The fact that the unit will not be at full
power during all of this time is of small importance
in this analysis. At reduced power the generator
can deliver more reactive power, but the trans-
former load will be reduced. The design center
is identified in each figure by a small circle.
System voltage will generally be held far enough
below the circuit breaker maximum voltage rating
to allow for random excursions, but it is not likely
to be set deliberately in the lower portion of the
range} there being no economic incentive for ex-
porting power at low voltage.
Abnormal system conditions may result in low
bus voltage} but it is reasonable to assume that this
unit will be called on at such times for maximum
reactive power support and that the support will
raise voltage.
For all eight figures it was arbitrarily assumed
that a system voltage of 356 kV at the switchyard
bus would be the design center value. The primary
(LV) winding voltage rating of each transformer
98.34l1; V
Load losses
g
356 kV
0
I I
I
Rating I
Rating
I
23.13-345 kV
I
362 kV
I
I I
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r Base I Base I Base
., 1 ~ 3 . 1 3 k ~ 1 ~ 4 5
kV I 362
kV.
j
1107.65% VI
"1--
I
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VI
UAT loed
812.48 MW
499.29 MVAR
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103.75l1; V
In the selection of transformer ratings it is only
the limiting values of generator megawatts} gener-
ator megavolt-amperes-reactive, and generator
hydrogen pressure that are of interest, not their
interrelationships in other portions of their
ranges.
Rating selections have little effect on trans-
former output megawatts. TI-ansformer real power
output is very nearly equal to the real power in-
put in all cases, although the power losses} which
make up the difference, have important economic
value. The rating selection has significant effect
on the relationship between output megavolt-
amperes-reactive and voltage and on the limits of
output megavars, which limits may be determined
by the capabilities of the generator, the trans-
former, or the HV circuit breakers (voltage limit).
Attempts have been made to display the effects
of transformer selection as additional lines on the
generator reactive capability curve sheet. These
attempts fail because there is no voltage scale and
because they conceal the reactive power losses in
the transformer, which are significant.
More information can be presented by plotting
values on the secondary (system) side of the trans-
former on a different set of axes.
When the generator is at maximum power} the
reactive power transfer to the system (dependent
variable) is determined by rating selections and by
the variables' generator voltage and sWitchyard
Rating UAT
2 4 k ~
Auxiliary
bus
I" Base 24 kV
,
I
854.9 MW )
809.82 MW
53 a MV AR L.--__--;- --_-=-:..:.:..:.,=-.:.:.:..:.:...__
I
/1.X loss
POWER TRANSFORMERS 237
955 MVA transformer 23.123-345.000 kV
9.17" impedance with 1005.8 MVA,
897.7 MW generator
52;37 MVA unit auxiliaries load
Top System
Generator voltage 95.0"
Generator voltage 100.0X
Generator voltage 102.5"
362
'---t--Generotor underexcited limit
.....-+--Generator voltage 97.5"
.....-+---Generator voltage 105.0"
limit
100
200
600
400
500
-100 unity power factor
overexcited limit
300
-900
-700
-600
L limit
-500
-800
-300
-200
-400
-1000 L..- -L- ...J..-_---'
330
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700 ..........-----.,.....---r---.......--....-----,
Bus (kV)
Figure 2-20 Increased Real Power
was therefore selected to place generator voltage
at nameplate value, 100%, when bus voltage was
356 kv and reactive power flow from the UT to
the switchyard bus was either zero or some other
preselected value. Note that the zero reactive
power flow condition is different from unity
power factor at the generator terminals.
It was also assumed that the UT must not limit
generator output within its reactive capability
limits, overexcited, but that generator thermal
capability in the underexcited region, often par-
tially denied to the system by automatic control
devices because of stability considerations, need
not be fully accommodated.
In each figure generator-plus-transformer per-
formance is presented graphically in terms of sys-
tem quantities: reactive power flow to or from the
switchyard bus versus bus voltage. Since system
quantities; in this context, are also UT secondary
quantities; the transformer limits may be shown
directly. Also, with transformer secondary quan-
tities known at every point on the chart, trans-
former input quantities can be derived for every
point, and generator limits can be shown.
None of these figures shows bus voltages below
330 kV: Although bus voltage, under abnormal
conditions; could drop to 328 kV (5% undervoh
age); it is not likely to remain below 330 kV when
this unit is delivering 300 or 400 MVAR to the bus.
Base Case Figure 2-18 may be.. considered the
base case. It depicts performance of a 947-MVA,
9.17% impedance transformer, the smallest trans-
former of that impedance that will meet the
2-38 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
969 MV A transformer 23.703-.353.600 kV
impedance with 1005.8 MVA,
854.9 MW generator
52.37 MVA unit auxiliaries load
Tap System
700
Generator voltage 95.0
lt
Generator voltage 100.0';
Generator voltage 102.5';
r--+-- Generator voltage 97.5';
"---+--- Transformer limi t
.-.---+---Generator voltage
'--+-- Generator underexcited limit
limit
100
600
200
500
400 overexcited limit
300
-100 Generator unity power foetor
-900
-500
-700
-800
-200
-600
-300
-400
E
o
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I.L.
E
(Ii
.-
VI
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.....
362
-1000 L..- ..I--..L.-_--'
330
Bus (kV)
Figure 2-21 Higher secondary Tap
desired criteria. The secondary (HV) windinghas the
lowest voltage rating, 345 k\0 that will pennit oper-
ation under load at a maximumsustainedbus voltage
of 362 which is the circuit breaker (maximum)
voltage rating. It is also the upper limit for this volt-
age level in ANSI Standard C84.1-1982. ANSI Stan-
dard C57.12.00-1980 (5) requires that a transformer
be capable of delivering full kilovoltampere output
continuouslyat 105%of rated secondary voltage and
rated frequency. At 362 kV on the 345-kV tap, sec-
ondary voltage is slightly less than 105%.
The voltage profile in Figure 2-19 is for the base
case transformer \Vith the generator at full power:.
at its overexcitation limit, and with 356 kV at the
'switchyard bus. This operation point, though not
marked, can be located in Figure 2-18. The voltage
profile is drawn on a changing voltage base to
show the relationships of actual primary and
secondary voltages to the voltage ratings of the
connected apparatus. It shows that the impedance
voltage drop has been offset by selecting a primary
voltage rating lower than the generator nameplate
voltage. The result, under these conditions, is that
transformer primary voltage is 107.65% of the
winding voltage rating. However, this condition is
of no concern. 'fransformer overexcitation is de-
fined in terms of conditions at the secondary ter-
minals, in this case, the HV terminals. The voltage
there is 103.19% of tap rating, well within the
range permissible at full load. Figure 219 also
shows real power and reactive power profIles from
genera,tor to switchyard.
The transformer limit lines in Figure 218 show
that transformer capability droops at bus voltages
POWER TRANSFORMERS 2-39
947 MVA transformer 22.925-345.000 kV
impedance with 1005.8 MVA.
854.9 MW generator
52.37 MVA unit auxiliaries load
Tap System
700 r---.........
Generator voltage 95.0:;
Generator voltage 97.51,;
Generator voltage 102.5:>;
362
,-+--Tronsformer limit
Generator voltage 100. a:>;
,,-Ioo--t---Generator voltage 105.0:>;
Generator unity power foetor
a
100
200
Transformer limit
400 Generator overexcited limit
500
600
-100
-900
-600
-300
-400
r Ge ner a tor underexci ted limi t
-500 t:
-800
-700
-200
-1000 '-- -1- ..1-_---1
330
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300
Bus (kVl
Figure 2-22 JOO-MVAR Export at Design Center
below 345 kV. despite the fact that this is a "full
kVA" tap. ANSI Standard C57.12.00-1980 (5) reo
quires that tap to deliver rated kilovoltamperes at
rated tap voltage but not at lower voltages, where
the tap current rating intervenes.
At 330 kV. the generator and the transformer
both reach their thermal limits at a reactive power
flow to the system of approximately 410 MVAR}
with generator voltage at approximately 97% of
nameplate value. A higher generator voltage
would produce output beyond the thermal limits
unless it also produced an increase in switchyard
bus voltage.
The generator cannot quite reach its capability
limit} overexcited, when bus voltage is 362 k\Z That
corner of the chart would require generator volt-
age greater than 105%. Similarly, the generator
cannot reach its reactive capability limit, underex-
cited, when bus vohage is less than 354 kV. be-
cause that condition would require generator
voltage below 95%. It is highly unlikely that oper-
ation in either of these portions of the domain
would ever be desired. However, in the vicinity of
system voltage-in this case 356 kV-the full range
of generator reactive capability can be used to
maintain the desired bus voltage without violat
ing generator full-power voltage limits. The ex'
pected result is that generator voltage will remain
close to 100% most of the time.
Changes described below for succeeding figures
are from the base case; they are not cumulative.
Greater Real Power Output For Figure 2-20
generator maximum real power output was
2-40 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES
975 MVA transformer 23.136-345.000 kV
9.17:l: impedance with 1005.8 MVA,
854.9 MW generator
52.37 MVA unit auxillories load
Top System
7aa .---.r----,......--..---.......---r-----,
Generator voltage
Generator voltage
Generator voltage 102
362
.r--+-- Generator voltage 97
Generator voltage
--........ Transformer limit
__ Transformer limit
100
200
-100 Generator unity power foetor
-900
-700
-600
Generator under excited limit
-500
-300
-200
-800
-400
-1000
330
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