POM Unit 6

WORK STUDY
Work study is the discipline of industrial engineering that uses various techniques to quantitatively measure or estimate work to increase the amount produced from a given quantity of resources, by improving the use of existing resources. In the process, work study establishes the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance, called the standard time. Work study, not only measures but also provides information about the processes involved. The primary objective of work study is the elimination or reduction of ineffective production time. It uses work measurement as the basis to eliminate or reduce the ineffective use of productive resources. Properly executed, work study results in improvements in productivity without further large capital investments.

Work Study is divided into two areas:

(i) (ii)

Method Study (or) Motion Study, whose purpose is to simplify the job and to develop better methods of working; and Work Measurement (or) Time study, whose purpose is to quantitatively measure work. METHOD STUDY

Method Study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs. Process of Method Study There are six steps in the process of method study: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) SELECT RECORD EXAMINE DEVELOP INSTALL MAINTAIN

STEP 1: SELECT (i) (ii) Here, the job be studied is selected. Economic and technical considerations are the basic criteria to be taken into account while selecting a job for method study. Using these as the guidelines, one should first examine bottle-neck operations such as operations involving movement of material over long distances and operations involving repetitive tasks.

STEP 2: RECORD (i) (ii) (iii) The next step, after selecting the job to be studied, is to record all the facts relating to the existing job, by direct observation. Using recording techniques, commonly known as charts and diagrams, the facts are recorded. The recording may trace the movement of men, material or details of various processes. The success of the whole procedure depends upon the accuracy with which facts are recorded. Records must, therefore, be clear, concise and correct.

POM Unit 6

STEP 3: EXAMINE This step aims to: (i) (ii) (iii) eliminate the activity altogether if it is unnecessary; combine with other activities; and change the sequence of activities so that work delay is reduced and the activity is simplified to reduce the work content or time consumed.

Here, the following questions are asked:

(a) PURPOSE : What is the purpose of this activity? Why is it necessary? What else could be done? (b) PLACE : Where does the activity take place? Why there? Where else could it be done? (c) SEQUENCE : When does it occur? Why then? When else could it be done? (d) PERSON : Who carries out the work? Why that person? Who else could do it? (e) MEANS : How is the purpose achieved? Why that particular way? How else could it be done?
STEP 4: DEVELOP Based on the questions asked in the examine stage and the subsequent examination, number of alternatives would emerge. The final alternative, which gives the best answers to the following questions, is chosen: Purpose: What should be done? Place: Where should it be done? Sequence: When should it be done? Person: Who should do it? Means: How should it be done? STEP 5: INSTALL After the system is developed, the management is apprised of the costs and benefits of the new system. After the management is convinced, the system is installed. The employees are trained in the running or functioning of the system.

STEP 6: MAINTAIN The newly installed system is maintained. Periodical preventive maintenance measures for the equipment and machinery are undertaken. Employees are encouraged to make the most of the new system.

POM Unit 6

CHARTS & DIAGRAMS USED IN RECORDING

Charts (1) Operations flow chart (2) Flow process chart (3) Two-handed process chart (4) Multiple activity chart (5) Man-machine chart

Information Recorded Activities of men, materials or equipment are analyzed into operation, inspection, transportation, temporary storage (delay), permanent storage and recorded Movement of two hands of the operator Simultaneous / Inter-related activities of operators and / or machines on a common time-scale

Diagrams (1) Flow diagram (2) String diagram

Information Recorded Path of men, materials and equipment on a scale model Same as the flow diagram except for the variation that it uses a string to trace the path Information Recorded Movement of hand obtained by exposing a photographic plate to the light emitted from small bulbs attached to operators fingers

Photographic Aids Cycle graph and chrono- cycle graph

On a process chart, facts about a job or operation are recorded using five symbols which together serve to represent all types of activity.

SYMBOL

ACTIVITY Operation (Action Step) Inspection (Decision required) Transport Temporary Storage (Delay) Permanent Storage

DESCRIPTION Indicates that the material, part or product concerned is modified or changed during the operation Indicates an inspection for quality and/or check for quantity Indicates either transportation of material or movement of the employee from one location to another Indicates a delay in the sequence of events such as jobs waiting between consecutive operations or any object laid aside temporarily Indicates a storage activity such as storing raw material that is brought into the factory, storing a sub-assembly during the manufacturing process. This symbol represents non-value added activity. So, it should be the focus of any streamlining efforts

POM Unit 6

Areas of Application of Method Study (1) Improved layout of office, working areas of factories. (2) Improved design of plant and equipment. (3) Improved use of materials, plant, equipment and manpower. (4) Most effective handling of material. (5) Improved flow of work. (6) Standardization of methods and procedures. (7) Improved safety standards. (8) Better working conditions.

WORK MEASUREMENT Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the work content of a specified task by determining the time required for carrying out the task at a defined standard of performance by a qualified worker.

The amount of time that a job is expected to take is expressed as time standard, work standard, labour standard, production standard or standard time. The standard time is the amount of time a qualified worker, working at a normal rate of speed, will require to perform the specified task. It may be expressed as minutes/unit of output or units of output/hour. A qualified worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, possessing the required intelligence and education, and having acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality. Benefits of work measurement Work measurement helps: (1) To develop a basis for comparing alternate methods developed in method study by establishing the work content in each method; (2) To prepare realistic work schedules by accurate assessment of human work; (3) To set standards of performance for labour utilization by establishing labour standards for an element of work, operation or product under ordinary working conditions; (4) To compare actual time taken by the worker with the allowed time (standard time) for proper control of labour; (5) To assist in estimation of labour cost; and

POM Unit 6
(6) To provide information related to estimation of tenders, fixation of selling price and assessment of delivery schedule. DIFFERENT METHODS OF WORK MEASUREMENT (1) TIME STUDY In this method, the actual time taken by the operator to perform each element of the job is measured using a stopwatch. Procedure for measuring the time STEP 1: Select the job to be studied. Breakdown the work content of the job into smallest possible elements. Inform the worker and define the best method. STEP 2: Observe the time for appropriate number of cycles (such as 25 to 50 cycles) using a stop-watch. STEP 3: STEP 4: STEP 5: Determine standard time (ST) ST = NT X AF where AF = Allowance factor AF = 1/ (1 - % allowance) Determine normal time (NT) NT = CT X PR where PR = Performance Rating Determine the average cycle time (CT) CT = (Times) / Number of cycles.

Here, allowance factor is to be calculated taking the following allowances into consideration: (a) Relaxation allowance: Time needed for physical needs and physical and mental fatigue involved (10 to 15 %) (b) Contingency allowance: Time needed for non-repetitive activities such as sharpening of tools, getting materials from stores etc. (5 %) (c) Special allowance: Interference allowance is given when a worker is looking after 2 or 3 machines. (d) Periodic activity allowance: Time needed for setting up a tool on a machine.

Stop-Watch The stop-watch used to measure the time in the above method can be of two types:

POM Unit 6
(i) In the ordinary type stop-watch, there is a long hand, which makes one revolution per minute. The small hand makes one revolution in 30 minutes. When it is pressed once, both hands start moving. When it is pressed a second time, both hands stop. (ii) When two elements are to be timed successively, the split-hands type stop watch is used. This watch has two hands. As one element is completed, pressing the knobs makes one hand to stop while the other hand keeps moving. After the time taken for the first element is recorded on the observation sheet, a second pressing of the knob restarts the stopped hand and the two hands move together. Example for Time Study The following are the cycle times observed:

Cycle Time Number of Observations (Minutes) 20 6 24 8 29 10 32 1 Total No. of 25 observations The worker is rated at 120%. Allowance = 15 %. Determine the standard time. Cycle Time = CT = (Times) / Number of cycles = (20X 6 + 24 X 8 + 29 X 10 + 32 X 1) / 25 = 25.36 minutes. Normal Time = NT = CT X PR where PR = Performance Rating = 25.36 X 120 % = 30.432 minutes. Standard Time = ST = NT X AF where AF = Allowance factor AF = 1/ (1 - % allowance) = 30.432 X 1 / (1-0.15) = 35.80 minutes.

(2) SYNTHESIS METHOD Synthesis is a technique of work measurement for building up the time required to do a job at a defined level of performance by synthesizing or totalling elemental time values obtained from previous time studies on other jobs containing similar job elements or from standard data. Standard Data Standard data is a catalogue of normal time values for different elements of jobs. This catalogue is prepared by compiling the timings of a number of standard elements.

POM Unit 6
Since many similar elements or movements are involved in many jobs, it is always economical to use the standard data. Once the standard data catalogue is built up, one requires to list the job elements of an operation, refer to the standard data catalogue and obtain the normal time for each element and add (= synthesize) them up. The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance factor.

(3) ANALYTICAL ESTIMATING METHOD Here, the estimator must have adequate experience of estimating, motion study, time study and the use of standard data. Steps: (1) Find out the job details such as: (i) Job duration; (ii) Standard procedure to do the job; (iii) Job conditions: Illumination Poor / Bright Temperature - High / Low Environment Hazardous / Safe Availability of tools (2) Break the job into elements. (3) Select time values from standard data catalogue for as many elements as possible. (4) Estimate the time values for the remaining elements from past knowledge and experience. (5) Add the time values obtained in steps (3) and (4) to get normal time. (6) The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance factor.

(4) PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME SYSTEM (PMTS) In this system, work measurement is based on the analysis of work into basic human movements such as: See, find, select, grasp, hold, transport (loaded), transport (empty), position, use, disassemble, inspect, preposition, release load, unavoidable delay, avoidable delay, plan, rest Tables of data provide a time, at a defined rate of working for each classification of each movement. Depending upon the movements in the job whose work is being measured, the times are noted and then added to come up with the normal time. The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance factor.

POM Unit 6
(5) WORK SAMPLING Work sampling does not involve stop-watch measurements. But it is based on simple random sampling techniques derived from sampling theory. It provides an estimate of what proportion of a workers time is devoted to work.

Steps for determining Standard Time by Work Sampling (1) Decide what activities are defined as working. (2) The worker is observed at selected intervals, recording whether he/she is working or not. (3) Proportion of a time a worker is working is calculated as follows: p = [number of observations during which working occurred] Total number of observations (4) Normal Time = p X Total Shift Time X PR. Units produced (5) The standard time is then determined by multiplying normal time with the allowance factor. Example Total number of observations = 400. Number of observations of working = 350. Number of working hours in the shift = 8 hours = 480 minutes. Number of units produced = 60 units. Performance rating = PR = 120%. Allowance factor = 15%. Solution: p = [number of observations during which working occurred] = [350/400] = = 0.875 Total number of observations Normal Time = p X Total Shift Time X PR.= 0.875 X 480/60 X 120% = 8.4 minutes Units produced

Standard Time = Normal Time X Allowance factor = 8.4 X 1/ (1-0.15) = 9.88 minutes.

POM Unit 6

POM Unit 6

STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL What is Quality?

Quality is defined as customer satisfaction in general and fitness for use in particular. The external consumers who buy the products and services as well as the internal consumers (the other divisions of the organization which use the output of a division) are interested in the quality.

Statistical process control (SPC) is an effective method of monitoring a process through the use of control charts. Control charts enable the use of objective criteria for distinguishing background variation from events of significance based on statistical techniques. Much of its power lies in the ability to monitor both process center and its variation about that center, by collecting data from samples at various points within the process. Variations in the process that may affect the quality of the end product or service can be detected and corrected, thus reducing waste as well as the likelihood that problems will be passed on to the customer. With its emphasis on early detection and prevention of problems, SPC has a distinct advantage over quality methods, such as inspection, that apply resources to detecting and correcting problems in the end product or service. In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product or service from end to end. This is partially due to a diminished likelihood that the final product will have to be reworked, but it may also result from using SPC data to identify bottlenecks, wait times, and other sources of delays within the process. Process cycle time reductions coupled with improvements in yield have made SPC a valuable tool from both a cost reduction and a customer satisfaction standpoint.

An X-bar and R (range) chart is a pair of control charts used with processes that have a subgroup size of two or more. The standard chart for variables data, X-bar and R charts help determine if a process is stable and predictable. The X-bar chart shows how the mean or average changes over time and the R chart shows how the range of the subgroups changes over time. It is also used to monitor the effects of process improvement theories. As the standard, the X-bar and R chart will work in place of the X-bar and s or median and R chart. Use X-bar and R charts when you can answer yes to these questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. Do you need to assess system stability? Is the data in variables form? Is the data collected in subgroups larger than one but less than eleven? Is the time order of subgroups preserved?

10

POM Unit 6

X-bar and range chart: What does it look like? The X-bar chart, on top, shows the mean or average of each subgroup. It is used to analyze central location. The range chart, on the bottom, shows how the data is spread. It is used to study system variability.

11