Projects for Std XII

Project No. 1 -Foaming Capacities of Soaps

Aim: To compare the foaming capacities of five different commercial soaps. Apparatus: 5 test tubes, 5 conical flasks (100 ml), test tube stand, Bunsen burner and stop watch. Chemicals Required: 5 different samples of soap and distilled water. Theory: The foaming capacity of a soap sample depends upon the nature of soap and its concentration. This can be compared for various samples of soaps by taking the same concentration of solution and shaking them. The foam is formed and the time taken for disappearances of foam in all cases is compared. The lesser the time taken by a solution for the disappearance of foam, the lower is its foaming capacity. Procedure: Five conical flasks (100 ml each) are taken and numbered 1 to 5. In each of these flasks equal amounts (say 5 gm) of the given samples of soap shavings or granules are taken and 50 ml of distilled water is added. Each conical flask is heated few minutes to dissolve all the soap completely. In a test-tube stand, five big clean and dry test tubes are taken and numbered 1 to 5. One ml of the five soap solution is then poured in the test tubes of corresponding number. 10 ml. of distilled water is then added to each test tube. Test tube no 1 is then shaken vigorously 5 times. The foam would be formed in the empty space above the container. Stop watch is started immediately and the time taken for the disappearance of foam is noted. Similarly the other test tubes are shaken vigorously for equal number of times (i.e., 5 times) with approximately with the same force and the time taken for the disappearance of foam in each case is recorded. The lesser the time taken for the disappearance of foam, the lower is the foaming capacity. Observation: Amount of each soap sample taken = 5 gm Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml. Volume of each soap solution taken = 1 ml. Volume of distilled water added = 10 ml. S. No. Name of the Soap Soap Sample Time taken for the disappearance of form (in secs) Result: The foaming capacities and hence the washing action of different soap samples are in the order:

Project No. 2 - Comparing solubilitys of saturated solutions.

Aim: To measure and compare solubilities of some common chemicals: Table salt (NaCl) Epsom salts (MgSO4) sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11). Introduction A good part of the substances we deal with in daily life, such as milk, gasoline, shampoo, wood, steel and air are mixtures. When the mixture is homogenous, that is to say, when its components are intermingled evenly, it is called a solution. There are various types of solutions, and these can be categorized by state (gas, liquid, or solid). The chart below gives some examples of solutions in different states. Many essential chemical reactions and natural processes occur in liquid solutions, particularly those containing water (aqueous solutions) because so many things dissolve in water. In fact, water is sometimes referred to as the universal solvent. The electrical charges in water molecules help dissolve different kinds of substances. Solutions form when the force of attraction between solute and solvent is greater than the force of attraction between the particles in the solute. Two examples of such important processes are the uptake of nutrients by plants, and the chemical weathering of minerals. Chemical weathering begins to take place when carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater. A solution called carbonic acid is formed. The process is then completed as the acidic water seeps into rocks and dissolves underground limestone deposits. Sometimes, the dissolving of soluble minerals in rocks can even lead to the formation of caves. If one takes a moment to consider aqueous solutions, one quickly observes that they exhibit many interesting properties. For example, the tap water in your kitchen sink does not freeze at exactly 0C. This is because tap water is not pure water; it contains dissolved solutes. Some tap water, commonly known as hard water, contains mineral solutes such as calcium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, calcium chloride, and iron sulfate. Another interesting solution property is exhibited with salt and ice. Another example comes from the fact that salt is spread on ice collected on roads in winters. When the ice begins to melt, the salt dissolves in the water and forms salt water. The reason is that with the addition of salt the melting point of water increases and as a result the snow melts away faster. Even some organisms have evolved to survive freezing water temperatures with natural antifreeze. Certain arctic fish have blood containing a high concentration of a specific protein. This protein behaves like a solute in a solution and lowers the freezing point of the blood. Going to the other end of the spectrum, one can also observe that the boiling point of a solution is affected by the addition of a solute. These two properties, namely freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation, are called colligative properties (properties that depend on the number of molecules, but not on their chemical nature).

Basic Concepts A saturated solution is a mixture in which no more solute can be practically dissolved in a solvent at a given temperature. It is said practical because theoretically infinite amount of solute can be added to a solvent, but after a certain limit the earlier dissolved solute particles start rearranging and come out at a constant rate. Hence overall it appears that no solute is dissolved after a given amount of solute is dissolved. This is known as a saturated solution. In an unsaturated solution, if solute is dissolved in a solvent the solute particles dissociate and mix with the solvent without the re-arrangement of earlier dissolved solute particles. Solubility depends on various factors like the Ksp of the salt, bond strength between the cation and anion, covalency of the bond, extent of inter and intramolecular hydrogen bonding, polarity, dipole moment etc. Out of these the concepts of H-bonding, covalency, ionic bond strength and polarity play a major role if water is taken as a solvent. Also physical conditions like temperature and pressure also play very important Materials and Equipment To do this experiment following materials and equipment are required: Distilled water Metric liquid measuring cup (or graduated cylinder) Three clean glass jars or beakers Non-iodized table salt (NaCl) Epsom salts (MgSO 4) Sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) Disposable plastic spoons Thermometer Three shallow plates or saucers Oven Electronic kitchen balance (accurate to 0.1 g) Experimental Procedure Determining Solubility 1. Measure 100 mL of distilled water and pour into a clean, empty beaker or jar. 2. Use the kitchen balance to weigh out the suggested amount (see below) of the solute to be tested. a. 50 g Non-iodized table salt (NaCl) b. 50 g Epsom salts (MgSO4) c. 250 g Sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) 3. Add a small amount of the solute to the water and stir with a clean disposable spoon until dissolved. 4. Repeat this process, always adding a small amount until the solute will no longer dissolve. 5. Weigh the amount of solute remaining to determine how much was added to the solution. 6. Try and add more solute at the same temperature and observe changes if any. 7. Now heat the solutions and add more solute to the solutions.

Observations: Salt NaCl (Non-iodized common salt) MgSO4 C12H22O11 (sucrose)

Amount of salt dissolved in 100mL water to make saturated solution. 36.8 grams 32.7 grams 51.3 grams

Moles dissolved 0.7 0.255 0.15

Adding more solute at the same temperature to the saturated solutions yielded no significant changes in NaCl and Epsom salt. However at all temperatures the saturation point of sucrose could not be obtained exactly as due to the large size of the molecule the solution became thick and refraction was more prominent. Neglecting this observation in the room for error, the experiments agreed with the theory. Adding more solute to heated solutions increased the solubility in all the 3 cases. The largest increase was shown by NaCl, followed by Epsom salt and sucrose. These facts too agreed with the theory as at high temperatures the kinetic energy of molecules increases and the collisions are more effective. Conclusions: The solubility of NaCl is the highest as it an ionic salt and easily dissociates in water. Also since the size of both the cation and anion are small, the collisions are more and hence probability of dissociation is high. The solubility of MgSO4 is also high as it is also an ionic salt, but due to a larger anion, collisions are not very effective. The solubility of C12H22O11 is the least as it a very large molecule due to which hydrogen bonding with the water molecules is not very effective. Also due to the large number of carbon and oxygen atoms, inter molecular H-bonding is more dominant than intramolecular Hbonding. Precautions: 1. While adding the solute to the solvent, the solution should be stirred slowly so as to avoid the formation of any globules. 2. Stirring should not be vigorous as the kinetic energy of the molecules might change due to which solubility can increase. 3. While stirring, contact with the walls of the container should be avoided as with every collision, an impulse is generated which makes the dissolved solute particles rearrange themselves. As a result solubility can decrease. 4. The temperature while conducting all the three experiments should be approximately same. 5. Epsom salt should be first dried in order to remove the water of crystallization (MgSO 4.7H2O). Result: The saturated solutions of NaCl, MgSO 4 and C12H22O11 were made and observed. The observations agreed with the related theory within the range of experimental error.

Project No. 3 - Adulterants in Food

Aim: To study some of the common food adulterants present in different food stuffs.. Introduction: Adulteration in food is normally present in its most crude form; prohibited substances are either added or partly or wholly substituted. Normally the contamination/adulteration in food is done either for financial gain or due to carelessness and lack in proper hygienic condition of processing, storing, transportation and marketing. This ultimately results that the consumer is either cheated or often become victim of diseases. Such types of adulteration are quite common in developing countries or backward countries. It is equally important for the consumer to know the common adulterants and their effect on health. Theory: The increasing number of food producers and the outstanding amount of import foodstuffs enables the producers to mislead and cheat consumers. To differentiate those who take advantage of legal rules from the ones who commit food adulteration is very difficult. The consciousness of consumers would be crucial. Ignorance and unfair market behavior may endanger consumer health and misleading can lead to poisoning. So we need simple screening, tests for their detection. In the past few decades, adulteration of food has become one of the serious problems. Consumption of adulterated food causes serious diseases like cancer, .diarrhoea., , .asthma., .ulcers., etc. Majority of fats, oils and butter are paraffin wax, castor oil and hydrocarbons. Red chilli powder is mixed with brick powder and pepper is mixed with dried papaya seeds. These adulterants can be easily identified by simple chemical tests. Several agencies .have been set up by the Government of India to remove adulterants from food stuffs. AGMARK acronym for agricultural marketing.this organization certifies food products for their quality. Its objective is to promote the Grading and Standardization of agricultural and allied commodities. To detect the presence of adulterants in fat, oil and butter. REQUIREMENTS Test-tube, acetic anhydride, conc. H2SO4, acetic acid, conc. HNO3. PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in ghee and oil are paraffin wax, hydrocarbons, dyes and argemone oil. These are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of paraffin wax and hydrocarbon in vegetable ghee Heat small amount of vegetable ghee with acetic anhydride. Droplets of oil floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicates the presence of wax or hydrocarbons. (ii) Adulteration of dyes in fat Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. sulphuric acid and 4mL of acetic acid. Appearance of pink or red colour indicates presence of dye in fat. (iii) Adulteration of argemone oil in edible oils To small amount of oil in a test-tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 and shake. Appearance of red colour in the acid layer indicates presence of argemone oil.

To detect the presence of adulterants in sugar REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, dil. HCl. PROCEDURE Sugar is usually contaminated with washing soda and other insoluble substances which are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of various insoluble substances in sugar Take small amount of sugar in a test-tube and shake it with little water. Pure sugar dissolves in water but insoluble impurities do not dissolve. (ii) Adulteration of chalk powder, washing soda in sugar To small amount of sugar in a test-tube, add few drops of dil. HCl. Brisk effervescence of CO2 shows the presence of chalk powder or washing soda in the given sample of sugar. To detect the presence of adulterants in samples of chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, conc. HCl, dil.HNO3, KI solution PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper are red coloured lead salts, yellow lead salts and dried papaya seeds respectively. They are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of red lead salts in chilli powder To a sample of chilli powder, add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of potassium iodide solution to the filtrate. Yellow ppt. indicates the presence of lead salts in chilli powder. (ii) Adulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder To a sample of turmeric powder add conc. HCl. Appearance of magenta colour shows the presence of yellow oxides of lead in turmeric powder. (iii) Adulteration of brick powder in red chilli powder Add small amount of given red chilli powder in beaker containing water. Brick powder settles at the bottom while pure chilli powder floats over water. (iv) Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper Add small amount of sample of pepper to a beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod. Dried papaya seeds being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the bottom. EXPERIMENT II PROCEDURE OBSERVATION Adulteration of Heat small amount of Appearance of oil paraffin wax and vegetable ghee with acetic floating on the hydrocarbon in anhydride. Droplets of oil surface. vegetable ghee floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicate the presence of wax or hydrocarbon.

Adulteration of dyes in fat Adulteration of argemone oil in edible oils Adulteration of various insoluble substances in sugar

Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. H2SO4 and 4mL of acetic acid. To small amount of oil in a test tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 & shake. Take small amount of sugar in a test tube and shake it with little water.

Appearance of pink colour. No red colour observed Pure sugar dissolves in water but insoluble impurities do not dissolve. No brisk effervescence observed. Appearance of magenta colour No yellow ppt.

Adulteration of chalk powder, washing soda in sugar Adeulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder Adulteration of red lead salts in chilli powder Adulteration of brick powder in chilli powder Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper

To small amount of sugar in a test tube, add a few drops of dil. HCl. To sample of turmeric powder, add conc. HCl. To a sample of chilli powder, add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of KI solution to the filtrate. Add small amount of given red chilli powder in a beaker containing water. Add small amount of sample of pepper to beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod.

Brick powder settles at the bottom while pure chilli powder floats over water.

Dried papaya seeds being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the bottom Selection of wholesome and non-adulterated food is essential for daily life to make sure that such foods do not cause any health hazard. It is not possible to ensure wholesome food only on visual examination when the toxic contaminants are present in ppm level. However, visual examination of the food before purchase makes sure to ensure absence of insects, visual fungus, foreign matters, etc. Therefore, due care taken by the consumer at the time of purchase of food after thoroughly examining can be of great help. Secondly, label declaration on packed food is very important for knowing the ingredients and nutritional value. It also helps in checking the freshness of the food and the period of best before use. The consumer should avoid taking food from an unhygienic place and food being prepared under unhygienic conditions. Such types of food may cause various diseases. Consumption of cut fruits being sold in unhygienic conditions should be avoided. It is always better to buy certified food from reputed shop.

Project No. 4 - Study of Diffusion of solids in Liquids

AIM Study of Diffusion of solids in liquids INTRODUCTION When substances are brought in contact with each other they intermix, this property is known as Diffusion. This property of diffusion takes place very rapidly in case of gases and to a lesser extent in case of liquids, whereas solids do not show this process of diffusion with each other. But what we can observe in case of solids is that the diffusion of solids in liquids takes place at a very slow rate. If a solid is kept in contact with an excess of solvent in which it is soluble, some portion of the solid gets dissolved. We know that this process is known as dissolution of a solid in liquid and this process has taken place due to the diffusion of solid particles into liquid. Molecules of solute are in constant random motion due to the collision between molecules of solute and that of the solvent. OBJECTIVE Rate of diffusion depends upon:Temperature: As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the particles increases so the speed of particles also increases which thus increases the rate of diffusion. Size of the particle: As the size of particle increases, rate of diffusion decreases. Mass of the particle: As the mass of the particle increases the rate of diffusion decreases. EXPERIMENT 1 To study diffusion when copper sulphate is brought in contact with water (liquid) REQUIREMENTS: Copper sulphate crystals, 100ml beaker. PROCEDURE:

Take about 2g of copper sulphate crystals in 100ml beaker. Add about 50ml of water and allow it to stand for few minutes. Note the development of blue colour in water.

Allow to stand further till it is observed that all copper sulphate disappears. Note the blue colour change in water.

CONCLUSION: When solids such as copper sulphate, potassium permanganate are brought in contact with liquids such as water, intermixing of substances, i.e. diffusion takes place. EXPERIMENT 2 To study the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion of solids in liquids REQUIREMENTS: Copper sulphate crystals, 200ml beaker, watch glass, wire gauge, burner, tripod stand, thermometer and stop watch. PROCEDURE:

Take 5g of copper sulphate each in three beakers. Pour 100ml of distilled water slowly in one of the beakers. Cover this beaker with a watch glass. Pour 100ml of cold water in a second beaker slowly. Place a third beaker containing 100ml of water on a tripod stand for heating. Observe the diffusion process which begins in all the beakers. Record the time taken for the dissolution of copper sulphate in all the three cases.

OBSERVATIONS: S.No. 1. 2. 3. CONCLUSION: The Rate of diffusion of copper sulphate in water is in the order of Beaker 3 > Beaker 1 > Beaker 2. Thus, the rate of diffusion varies directly with temperature. EXPERIMENT 3 To study the effect of size of particles on the rate of diffusion of solids in liquids REQUIREMENTS: Graduated 100ml measuring cylinders, copper sulphate crystals of different sizes, stop watch Temperature of water 25 0C 10 0C 70 0C Time Taken in Minutes 15 Min. 20 Min. 10 Min.

PROCEDURE:

Add 50ml of water to each of the three cylinders. Take 5g each of big size, medium size, small size crystals of copper sulphate and add them separately in three cylinders. Allow to stand for sometime. Note the time taken for blue colour to reach any fixed mark in each of the cylinders and note the observations.

OBSERVATION: S.No. 1. 2. 3. CONCLUSION: Small particles undergo diffusion more quickly than bigger particles. RESULT

Crystal size Big Medium Small

Time Taken in Minutes 20 Min. 15 Min. 10 Min.

When solids such as copper sulphate, potassium permanganate are brought in contact with liquid such as water, intermixing of the substances, i.e. diffusion takes place. The rate of diffusion varies directly with temperature. Small particles undergo diffusion more quickly than bigger particles.

Project No. 5 - Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks

*Introduction* The era of cold drinks began in 1952 but the industrialization in India marked its beginning with launching of Limca and Goldspot by parley group of companies. Since, the beginning of cold drinks was highly profitable and luring, many multinational companies launched their brands in India like Pepsi and Coke. Now days, it is observed in general that majority of people viewed Sprite, Fanta and Limca to give feeling of lightness, while Pepsi and Thumps Up to activate pulse and brain. *Theory* Cold drinks of different brands are composed of alcohol, carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, phosphate ions etc. These soft drinks give feeling of warmth, lightness and have a tangy taste which is liked by everyone. Carbon dioxide is responsible for the formation of froth on shaking the bottle. The carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in water to form carbonic acid which is also responsible for the tangy taste. Carbohydrates are the naturally occurring organic compounds and are major source of energy to our body. General formula of carbohydrates is CX (H2O)Y. On the basis of their molecule size carbohydrates are classified as:Monosaccharide, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides. Glucose is a monosaccharide with formula C6H12O6 .It occurs in Free State in the ripen grapes in bones and also in many sweet fruits. It is also present in human blood to the extent of about 0.1%. Sucrose is one of the most useful disaccharides in our daily life. It is widely distributed in nature in juices, seeds and also in flowers of many plants. The main source of sucrose is sugar cane juice which contain 15-20 % sucrose and sugar beet which has about 10-17 % sucrose. The molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11. It is produced by a mixture of glucose and fructose. It is non-reducing in nature whereas glucose is reducing. Cold drinks are a bit acidic in nature and their acidity can be measured by finding their pH value. The pH values also depend upon the acidic contents such as citric acid and phosphoric acid. *Aim* Comparitive Study and Qualitative Analysis of different brands of Cold Drinks available in market. *Apparatus* Test Tubes Test Tube Holder

Test Tube Stand Stop Watch Beaker Bunsen Burner pH Paper Tripod Stand China Dish Wire Gauge Water Bath

*Chemicals Required* Iodine Solution Potassium Iodide Sodium Hydroxide Lime Water Fehlings A & B Solution Concentrated Nitric Acid Benedict Solution Ammonium Molybdate *Detection Of pH* Experiment Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and put on the pH paper. The change in colour of pH paper was noticed and was compared with standard pH scale. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 5 Inference Soft Drinks are generally acidic because of the presence of citric acid and phosphoric acid. pH values of cold drinks of different brand are different due to the variation in amount of acidic content. *Test For Carbon Dioxide* Experiment As soon as the bottles were opened, one by one the samples were passed through lime water. The lime water turned milky. Name Of The Drink Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta Colour Change Pinkish Dark Orange Light Orange Orange pH Value 23 3 4 34

Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Inference All the soft drinks contain dissolved carbon dioxide in water. The carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, which is responsible for its tangy taste. Chemical Reaction Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) *Test For Glucose* Experiment Glucose is a reducing sugar acid. Its presence is detected by the following test:1.Benedicts Reagent Test Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and a few drops of Benedicts reagent were added. The test tube was heated for few seconds. Formation of reddish color confirmed the presence of glucose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Name Of The Drink Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta Observation Reddish Colour Precipitate Reddish Colour Precipitate Reddish Colour Precipitate Reddish Colour Precipitate Conclusion Glucose is Present Glucose is Present Glucose is Present Glucose is Present Name Of The Drink Time Taken Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta (sec) 28 20 38 36 Conclusion CO2 IS PRESENT CO2 IS PRESENT CO2 IS PRESENT CO2 IS PRESENT

Inference All the samples gave positive test for glucose with Benedicts reagent. Hence all the drinks contain glucose. 2. Fehlings Solution Test Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and a few drops of Fehlings A solution and Fehlings B solution was added in equal amount. The

test tube was heated in water bath for 10 minutes. Appearance of brown precipitate confirmed the presence of glucose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Inference All samples gave positive test for glucose with Fehlings (A & B) solutions. Hence all the cold drinks contain glucose. *Test For Phosphate* Experiment Small samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate test tubes and Ammonium Molybdate followed by concentrated Nitric Acid (HNO3) was added to it. The solution was heated. Appearance of canary-yellow precipitate confirmed the presence of phosphate ions in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Inference All the soft drinks samples gave positive test for phosphate ions. Hence all the cold drinks contain phosphate. *Test For Alcohol* Experiment Name Of The Drink Observation Coca Cola Canary Yellow Precipitate Sprite Canary Yellow Precipitate Limca Canary Yellow Precipitate Fanta Canary Yellow Precipitate Conclusion Phosphate is Present Phosphate is Present Phosphate is Present Phosphate is Present Name Of The Drink Observation Coca Cola Reddish Brown Precipitate Sprite Reddish Brown Precipitate Limca Reddish Brown Precipitate Fanta Reddish Brown Precipitate Conclusion Glucose is Present Glucose is Present Glucose is Present Glucose is Present

Small samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate test tubes and Iodine followed by Potassium Iodide and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution was added to each test tube. Then the test tubes were heated in hot water bath for 30 minutes. Appearance of yellow coloured precipitate confirmed the presence of alcohol in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Name Of The Drink Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta Observation Yellow Precipitate Yellow Precipitate Yellow Precipitate Yellow Precipitate Conclusion Alcohol is Present Alcohol is Present Alcohol is Present Alcohol is Present

Inference All the cold drinks samples gave positive test for alcohol. Hence all the cold drinks contain alcohol. Chemical Reaction CH3CH2OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH CHI3 + HCOONa + 5Na + 5H2O *Test for Sucrose* Experiment 5 ml samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate china dishes and were heated very strongly until changes occur. Black coloured residue left confirmed the presence of sucrose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 Inference All the brands of cold drinks contain sucrose. But amount of sucrose varies in each brand of drink. Fanta contains highest amount of sucrose. *Result* Name Of The Drink Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta Observation Black Residue Black Residue Black Residue Black Residue Conclusion Sucrose is Present Sucrose is Present Sucrose is Present Sucrose is Present

After conducting several tests, it was concluded that the different brands of cold drinks namely: 1. 2. 3. 4. Coca Cola Sprite Limca Fanta

All contains glucose, alcohol, sucrose, phosphate and carbon dioxide. All cold drinks are acidic in nature. On comparing the pH value of different brands Coca Cola is the most acidic and Limca is least acidic of all the four brands taken. Among the four samples of cold drinks taken, Sprite has the maximum amount of dissolved carbon dioxide and Fanta has the minimum amount of dissolved carbon dioxide.

*Precautions* Some of the precautions which need to be taken care of are Concentrated solutions should be handled with immense care. Hands should be washed thoroughly after performing each experiment. If possible, one should wear hand gloves to prevent from any possible damage. If chemicals come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with copious amounts of water. Never leave burners unattended. Turn them off whenever you leave your workstation. Never point a test tube or any vessel that you are heating at yourself or your neighbour.

*Conclusion* DIS-ADVANTAGES OF COLD DRINKS 1. Soft drinks are little more harmful than sugar solution. As they contain sugar in large amount which cause problems in diabetes patients. 2. Soft drinks can cause weight gain as they interfere with the bodys natural ability to suppress hunger feeling. 3. Soft drinks have ability to dissolve the calcium so they are also harmful for our bones. 4. Soft drinks contain phosphoric acid which has a pH of 2.8. So they can dissolve a nail in about 4 days. 5. For transportation of soft drinks syrup the commercial truck must use the hazardous matter place cards reserved for highly consive material.

6. Soft drinks have also ability to remove blood so they are very harmful to our body. USES OF COLD DRINKS 1. Cold drinks can be used as toilet cleaners. 2. They can remove rust spots from chrome car humpers. 3. They clean corrosion from car battery terminals. 4. Soft drinks are used as an excellent detergent to remove grease from clothes. 5. They can loose a rusted bolt. *Bibliography*

Project No. 6 - Make a Battery from Potato

Introduction: Batteries generate electricity through a chemical reaction between two different electrodes and one electrolyte. Use of Copper and Zinc electrodes and Sulfuric acid as electrolyte is a proven method for this process. We are wondering if we can use any other liquid as electrolyte? This gave us the idea of using a potato as electrolyte. After all a fresh potato has a lot of juice that may serve our purpose as electrolyte. Can Potato be used to generate electricity? Potato juice contains many water soluble chemicals that may cause a chemical reaction with one or both of our electrodes. So we may get some electricity from that. Material: For this experiment we use: A fresh potato Copper Electrode Zinc Electrode A Digital or Analog Multimeter to measure Voltage or Current of produced electricity. Alligator clips/ Leads

Procedure: We insert copper and zinc electrodes in to the potato, close but not touching each other. We use Clip leads to connect our electrodes to the Multimeter to measure voltage between two electrodes or current passing through the multimeter. For this experiment we removed the shell of a broken AA battery for our Zinc electrode. (Make sure to test your multimeter by connecting its Positive and Negative wires to each other that should show no current and no voltage). Record And Analyze Data:

A digital multimeter showed 1.2 volts between the electrodes, but the analog multimeter showed a much smaller value. In other words even though the voltage between electrodes is 1.2 Volts, the speed of production of electricity is not high enough for an analog multimeter to show the exact voltage. (Analog multimeter gets its power from our potato to show the voltage, but digital Multimeter gets its power from an internal battery and does not consume any of the electricity produced by our potato, that is why it shows a larger and more accurate value). We repeated this experiment with some other fruits and all resulted almost the same. In all cases the produced voltage is between 1 and 1.5 volts, and in all cases they do not produce enough current to turn on a small light. Another thing that we learned from this experiment is that creating electricity and making a battery is easy, the main challenge is producing a battery that can continue to produce larger amount of electricity for larger amount of time.

By connecting multiple potato batteries you can make enough electricity to light-up a super bright light emitting diode (Included in the kit).

Project No. 7 - Rainbow in a Glass Density Demonstration

Aim: To separate coloured sugar solutions prepared at various densities. Apparatus: 5 medium size glasses or clear plastic cups, table spoon. Chemicals: Sugar, food colouring, Proceedure: 1. Line up five glasses. Add 1 tablespoon (15 g) of sugar to the first glass, 2 tablespoons (30 g) of sugar to the second glass, 3 tablespoons of sugar (45 g) to the third glass, and 4 tablespoons of sugar (60 g) to the fourth glass. The fifth glass remains empty. 2. Add 3 tablespoons (45 ml) of water to each of the first 4 glasses. Stir each solution. If the sugar does not dissolve in any of the four glasses, then add one more tablespoon (15 ml) of water to each of the four glasses. 3. Add 2-3 drops of red food coloring to the first glass, yellow food coloring to the second glass, green food coloring to the third glass, and blue food coloring to the fourth glass. Stir each solution. 4. Now let's make a rainbow using the different density solutions. Fill the last glass about one-fourth full of the blue sugar solution. 5. Carefully layer some green sugar solution above the blue liquid. Do this by putting a spoon in the glass, just above the blue layer, and pouring the green solution slowly over the back of the spoon. If you do this right, you won't disturb the blue solution much at all. Add green solution until the glass is about half full. 6. Now layer the yellow solution above the green liquid, using the back of the spoon. Fill the glass to three-quarters full. 7. Finally, layer the red solution above the yellow liquid. Fill the glass the rest of the way.

Tips:

1. The sugar solutions are miscible, or mixable, so the colors will bleed into each
other and eventually mix. 2. If you stir the rainbow, what will happen? Because this density column is made with different concentrations of the same chemical (sugar or sucrose), stirring would mix the solution. It would not un-mix, like you would see with oil and water. 3. Try to avoid using gel food colorings. As you can see in my photo, it is difficult for young children to mix them into the solution. 4. If your sugar won't dissolve, an alternative to adding more water is to nuke the solutions for about 30 seconds in the microwave or to use warm water in the first place. If you heat the water, use care to avoid burns. 5. If you want to make layers you can drink, try substituting unsweetened soft drink mix for the food coloring, or four flavors of sweetened mix for the sugar plus coloring.

Project No. 8 - Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar

AIM Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar by Titration with an Indicator Solution Objective The goal of this project is to determine the amount of Acetic Acid in different types of vinegar using titration with a coloured pH indicator to determine the endpoint. Introduction Vinegar is a solution made from the fermentation of ethanol (CH3CH2OH), which in turn was previously fermented from sugar. The fermentation of ethanol results in the production of acetic acid (CH3COOH). There are many different types of vinegar, each starting from a different original sugar source (e.g., rice, wine, malt, etc.). The amount of acetic acid in vinegar can vary, typically between 4 to 6% for table vinegar, but up to three times higher (18%) for pickling vinegar. In this project, we will determine the amount of acid in different vinegars using titration, a common technique in chemistry. Titration is a way to measure the unknown amount of a chemical in a solution (the titrant) by adding a measured amount of a chemical with a known concentration (the titrating solution). The titrating solution reacts with the titrant, and the endpoint of the reaction is monitored in some way. The concentration of the titrant can now be calculated from the amount of titrating solution added, and the ratio of the two chemicals in the chemical equation for the reaction. To measure the acidity of a vinegar solution, we can add enough hydroxyl ions to balance out the added hydrogen ions from the acid. The hydroxyl ions will react with the hydrogen ions to produce water. In order for a titration to work, we need three things: 1. a titration solution (contains hydroxyl ions with a precisely known concentration), 2. a method for delivering a precisely measured volume of the titrating solution, and 3. a means of indicating when the endpoint has been reached. For the titrating solution, well use a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Sodium hydroxide is a strong base, which means that it dissociates almost completely in water. So for every NaOH molecule that we add to the solution,we can expect to produce a hydroxyl ion. To dispense an accurately measured volume of the titrating solution, we will use a burette. A burette is a long tube with a valve at the bottom and graduated markings on the outside to measure the volume contained in the burette. The burette is mounted on a ring stand, directly above the titrant solution (as shown in the picture).

Solutions in the burette tend to creep up the sides of the glass at the surface of the liquid. This is due to the surface tension of water. The surface of the liquid thus forms a curve, called a meniscus. To measure the volume of the liquid in the burette, always read from the bottom of the meniscus. In this experiment, we will use an indicator solution called phenolphthalein. Phenolphthalein is colourless when the solution is acidic or neutral. When the solution becomes slightly basic, phenolphthalein turns pinkish, and then light purple as the solution becomes more basic. So when the vinegar solution starts to turn pink, we know that the titration is complete. Materials and Equipment To do this experiment we will need the following materials and equipment: Vinegar, three different types. Distilled water Small funnel 0.5% Phenolphthalein solution in alcohol (pH indicator solution) 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution 125 mL Conical flask 25 or 50 mL burette 10 mL graduated cylinder Ring stand Burette clamp

Theory Required amount of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be calculated using the following formula: W _ Molarity x Molarmass x Volume(cm ) _ 1000 Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol = 0.5 x 40 x 500 / 1000 = 10 g

The acetic acid content of a vinegar may be determined by titrating a vinegar sample with a solution of sodium hydroxide of known molar concentration (molarity). CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) (acid) + (base) > (salt) + (water) At the end point in the titration stoichiometry between the both solution lies in a 1:1 ratio. Strength of acid in vinegar can be determined by the following formula: Strength of acetic acid = NCH3COOH x 60

Indicator:- Phenolphthalein End Point:- Colourless to pink Experimental Procedure Performing the Titration 1. Pour 1.5 ml of vinegar in an Conical flask. 1. Add distilled water to dissolve the vinegar so that the volume of the solution becomes 20 mL. 2. Add 3 drops of 0.5% phenolphthalein solution. 1. Use the burette clamp to attach the burette to the ring stand. The opening at the bottom of the burette should be just above the height of the Conical flask we use for the vinegar and phenolphthalein solution. 2. Use a funnel to fill the burette with a 0.1 M solution of sodium hydroxide. 3. Note the starting level of the sodium hydroxide solution in the burette. Put the vinegar solution to be titrated under the burette. 4. Slowly drip the solution of sodium hydroxide into the vinegar solution. Swirl the flask gently to mix the solution, while keeping the opening underneath the burette. 5. At some point we will see a pink colour in the vinegar solution when the sodium hydroxide is added, but the colour will quickly disappear as the solution is mixed. When this happens, slow the burette to drop-by-drop addition. 1. When the vinegar solution turns pink and remains that colour even with mixing, the titration is complete. Close the tap (or pinch valve) of the burette. 2. Note the remaining level of the sodium hydroxide solution in the burette. Remember to read from the bottom of the meniscus. 3. Subtract the initial level from the remaining level to figure out how much titrating solution we have used. 4. For each vinegar that we test, repeat the titration at least three times. EXPERIMENT 1 I. Take the household vinegar in the conical flask and do the titration with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as mentioned. OBSERVATIONS S.no 1. 2. 3. Volume of vinegar solution 20 20 20 Burette Reading Initial (in mL) 0 0 0 Final (in mL) 27 27 27 Volume of NaOH solution used 27 27 27

Concordant volume = 27 mL CALCULATIONS

We know that,
M

CH 3 COOH x VCH 3 COOH = M NaOH x VNaOH

MCH3COOH = M NaOH VNaOH V CH3COOH = 0.5 x 27/ 20 = 0.675 mol/L Strength of acetic acid=0.675 x 60 =40.5 g/L EXPERIMENT 2 I. Take the wine vinegar in the conical flask and do the titration with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as mentioned. OBSERVATIONS S.no 1. 2. 3. Volume of vinegar solution 20 20 20 Burette Reading Initial (in mL) 0 0 0 Final (in mL) 48 48 48 Volume of NaOH solution used 48 48 48

Concordant volume = 48mL CALCULATIONS We know that, We know that,

M

CH 3 COOH x VCH 3 COOH = M NaOH x VNaOH

MCH3COOH = M NaOH VNaOH V CH3COOH = 0.5 x 48/ 20 = 1.2 mol/L Strength of acetic acid=1.2 x 60 =72 g/L

EXPERIMENT 3 I. Take the fruit(Persimmon) vinegar in the conical flask and do the titration with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as mentioned. OBSERVATIONS S.no 1. 2. 3. Volume of vinegar solution 20 20 20 Burette Reading Initial (in mL) 0 0 0 Final (in mL) 32 32 32 Volume of NaOH solution used 32 32 32

Concordant volume = 32 mL CALCULATIONS We know that,

M

CH 3 COOH x VCH 3 COOH = M NaOH x VNaOH

MCH3COOH = M NaOH VNaOH V CH3COOH = 0.5 x 32/ 20 = 0.8 mol/L Strength of acetic acid=0.8 x 60 =48 g/L Result > > > Strength of acetic acid in household vinegar = 40.5 g/L. Strength of acetic acid in wine vinegar = 72 g/L. Strength of acetic acid in fruit vinegar = 48 g/L.

Graphically plotting various vinegar samples in accordance with the amount of acetic acid present in them we present a stunning find: Household Vinegar Wine Fruit Vinegar

Order of amount of acetic acid in different samples of vinegar is: Wine > Fruit vinegar > Household vinegar

Precautions > Transference of measured vinegar into a measuring flask should be done very carefully. > > Measuring must be performed carefully. Look at the meniscus of solution at eye level to avoid parallax.

> Look at the lower meniscus in the light coloured solution and upper meniscus in the dark coloured solution because of visibility. > Do not forget to add distilled water to the vinegar.

Project No. 9 - Determination of the Rate of Evaporation of Liquids

Introduction It is seen that when a volatile liquid such as Acetone or diethyl ether is left in an open container for some time, it evaporates and passes into vapor state leaving behind nothing. This is why the bottles containing such liquids are immediately stoppered after use. But on the other hand, if water is left for hours together, practically no significant change in its volume is observed. Have you ever wondered why is it so? Let us try to understand this from a molecular point of view taking the help of kinetic theory. It is a well-known fact that the molecules in liquid state are in constant motion and possess certain average kinetic energy. Some of the molecules may also possess considerably high energy as a result of which they escape from the surface of the liquid and pass into the vapor state. This escape of molecules results in the decrease of temperature and hence the average kinetic energy of the molecules. Furthermore, molecules possessing higher energy than the average kinetic energy escape from the liquid surface and this process continues till no liquid is left behind. This process of conversion of liquid into vapor state is known as evaporation. This process is quite fast in the case of low boiling liquids and slow in the case of high boiling liquids. In high boiling liquids, the number of molecules escaping in the vapor state are same as condensing back to the liquid state and thus an equilibrium state is established between the two phases. The rate of evaporation, that is the amount of liquid evaporating per unit time depends on the temperature and surface area of the liquid exposed to the atmosphere. With the increase in temperature and surface are, the rate of evaporation of different liquids is also different depending upon the boiling point of the liquid under consideration. The rate of evaporation also depends on the flow of air currents over the surface of liquids. This takes the molecules of the substance in the vapor state away from the surface of the liquid, thereby preventing any chances of their condensation. Experiment 1 Aim: To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of liquids. Apparatus Required: China dish (50 ml), beaker (250 ml), boiling tube (50 ml), measuring cylinder of 50 ml capacity and digital stop watch. Chemicals Required: Diethyl ether. Theory: The rate of evaporation of a liquid at a constant temperature also depends upon the surface area of the liquid in contact with the atmosphere. Greater the surface area of a liquid, more is rate of evaporation. Procedure: Take three pieces of apparatus of different sizes viz., china dish (50 ml), beaker (250 ml) and boiling tube (50 ml). Measure 20 ml of diethyl ether with the help of a measuring cylinder and pour in each of these apparatus. Start the stopwatch immediately. After exactly 15 minutes measure the volume of diethyl ether left in each of these three containers separately by transferring them into the measuring flask immediately. The difference in the two volumes in each case (that is initially taken and

that left after 15 minutes) gives the amount (in ml) of diethyl ether evaporated in the same time. This volume will be found to be different in the three cases showing thereby that the rate of evaporation depends upon surface area. Greater the surface area, more is the evaporation.

Results: The rate of evaporation at a constant temperature depends upon the surface area and increases with the increase in surface area. Additional Notes: 1. The apparatus chosen for such studies should be such that it provides different surface area when the same quantity of liquid is poured into them. 2. The volume of liquids should be determined immediately without much loss of time in all the cases after evaporation. 3. If the vapor above the surface of liquid is continually removed by the movement of air, the evaporation process is further hastened. Related Exercises: 1. To study the effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation of a liquid: Place 20 ml of diethyl ether separately in two china dishes of the same size. Keep one China dish in a hot water bath (at a temperature 20 C higher than room temperature) and the other at room temperature. Note the time taken for diethyl ether to completely evaporate in both the dishes. It will be seen that diethyl ether in hot water bath evaporates faster than that kept at room temperature. 2. To study the effect of air current on the rate of evaporation of different liquids: Pour 10 ml of diethyl ether in each of the two petri-dishes of the same size. Keep one dish in a funnel cupboard and the second under a fan on the table. Note the time for the complete evaporation of diethyl ether in both the dishes. You will find that diethyl ether in the dish placed under the fan evaporates faster. This shows that the rate of evaporation increases with the flow of air current on the surface of the liquid. 3. To study the rate of evaporation of three different liquids under the same conditions: Take three China dishes, and in each of them pour diethyl ether, acetone and water in a fixed quantity i.e. 10 ml of each of these liquids. Keep these liquids in the open for half and hour. After half an hour, measure the volume of each of these liquids with a

measuring cylinder. You will find that the liquid having low boiling point evaporates faster than the one having a higher boiling point.

Dear Students, These are the projects which will be done in the laboratory. Please select the project and start working on it by doing the following: 1. Take a printout of the project that interest you. 2. go to the internet and find more information about the project which can be used as introduction. In the introduction you have to state Project No. 1 -Foaming Capacities of Soaps Project No. 2 - Comparing solubilitys of saturated solutions. Project No. 3 - Adulterants in Food Project No. 4 - Study of Diffusion of solids in Liquids Project No. 5 - Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks Project No. 6 - Make a Battery from Potato Project No. 7 - Rainbow in a Glass Density Demonstration Project No. 8 - Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar Project No. 9 - Determination of the Rate of Evaporation of Liquids