Introduction Definition of Acid Rain Acid rain is a popular term for the atmospheric wet deposition of acidified rain

, snow, sleet, hail, acidifying gases and particles, as well as acidified fog an d cloud water. The term covers both wet and dry depositions. The increased acidi ty of these depositions, primarily from the strong acids, both sulfuric and nitr ic, is generated as a by-product of the combustion of fuels containing sulfur or nitrogen, especially fossil fuel power plants. The heating of homes, electricit y production, and driving vehicles all rely primarily on fossil fuel energy. The sulfur and nitrogen containing species along with reactive hydrocarbons are mixed, transported, reacted and finally removed from the air back to the surface . Nitrogen oxides species, NOx and sulfur dioxide, SO2 can react quickly with hy droxyl radicals in the atmosphere to produce sulfur trioxide gases, SO3 which re acts in turn with water to become nitric acid, HNO3 and sulfuric acid, H2SO4. It may also be moved hundreds of kilometers downwind before such reactions occur. Some may be deposited directly onto the surface as dry deposition while some may be absorbed in clouds to become sulfuric acid via various chemical pathways in the liquid phase. This acid may be removed via precipitation, or injected into t he gas phase via evaporation Figure 1.1 Formation of acid deposition. (Likens, 2010) Acid Rain in Asia and North East Asia An Overview Scientists and policymakers, including ordinary citizens have long suspected tha t acid rain is also a problem in the Asian region. Localized impacts in Asian me gacities, high economic and associated energy consumption growth rates and appar ent transport of acid rain across national borders have generated a perception t hat acid rain affects Asia as badly, or maybe even worse, than in Europe or Nort h America. Indeed, one early estimate suggests that Asian SO2 emissions may surpass those o f Europe and US combined early in the next millennia, rising to 75 million tonne in 2010. Systematic monitoring of forests in Japan, South Korea (ROK), North Korea (DPRK) , and China (PRC) has revealed already degradation that is prima facie evidence of direct damage from acid rain. Preliminary assessments by regional institution s such as the Asian Development Bank surmised that acid rain is already a major problem, but could muster little hard data to press the case for action to mitig ate the driving emissions. Early data from monitoring show that acidity of rainf all has indeed rose in some areas, but some Asian ecosystems may be less suscept ible to such deposition than European or North American ecosystems. Moreover, determining liability--that is, ascertaining whose acid rain is respon sible for the damage--is a highly political issue that has slowed the pace of re gional cooperation on the issue. The definition of a region used in assessment of environmental impacts is driven by purpose rather than by "natural" boundaries. As is well known, Northeast Asi a (NEA) is not a political region per se. Given deep and abiding animosities bet ween the states of NEA, the region could be well termed the NEA "anti- region." Indeed, the national political cultures of NEA largely define themselves by virt ue of their differences and in relation to their opposition against their neighb ors. Security dilemmas at the geopolitical level bind the states of NEA into ongoing conflicts over a variety of issues including territorial disputes, ethnic issues and military threat projection. Tran border air pollution in Northeast Asia has the potential to add to these al ready existing problems as well as to promote cooperation between states to solv e them. Acid rain is the single most important regional air pollution affecting interstate relations, apart from greenhouse gas emissions, "yellow dust," and ra dioactive contaminations are other actual or potential regional air pollution is

sues. Moreover, sub-regional economic integration in NEA around what have been c alled "natural economic territories" implies an increasing level of environmenta l as well as political-economic interdependence within NEA. Source of the Problem The main sources of acid rain in NEA are high levels of sulfur emissions from co al- burning power plants and factories in the PRC, DPRK, and elsewhere in the re gion. The north and south eastern regions of the PRC have especially high levels of sulfur dioxide emissions. One study of the PRC's largest coal-fired power pl ant, for example, showed that sulfur dioxide concentrations frequently exceed th e legally permissible releases because the coal that is burned contains more tha n two percent sulfur. Even low sulfur coals can result in high levels of sulfur dioxide emissions when the coal is burned in inefficient plants. Acid rain may d ecrease biomass productivity and thereby reduce its carbon uptake, degrading exi sting forests and causing the recipient country's carbon emissions to increase. Many scientists in the ROK, DPRK, and Japan believe that they suffer from transf rontier acid rain originating from northeastern PRC. Some have also noted that M ongolia may receive acid rain originating over its northwestern border with Russ ia. Depending on the time of year, some countries may be originators and recipie nts of acid rain, especially the DPRK. In winter (January), the air flows are ge nerally from the Asian land mass to the ocean, while in summer (July), the oppos ite is the case. According to an early study by the Asian Development Bank and recent interim rep orts of the RAINS-ASIA project, Northeast China, Japan and the two Koreas are re latively vulnerable to acid rain degradation due to the combination of high depo sition and sensitive soils, vegetation, and materials. The scale and impact of transfrontier acid rain deposition remains unclear, in p art due to the lack of monitoring stations and ecological studies. Initial studi es indicate, however, that the levels may be on a par with Europe. China itself has noted the possibility that acid rain may be transmitted long distances and h as seriously affected areas of China. In the area adjacent to the Yellow Sea, Ch inese industry has been estimated to emit about 700,000 tonne of sulfur dioxide per year, some of which could be transported across the Yellow Sea to Korea by t he predominantly northwesterly winds. Fortunately, the problem is amenable to te chnological controls at source: a modern power plant with glue-gas desulfurizati on equipment can remove more than 90 percent of the emissions. Countries in the region are also establishing facilities to monitor acid rain deposition. Much re mains to be done, however, in terms of establishing common monitoring methodolog ies, comprehensive baseline monitoring, and ecosystem impact studies. Adverse Effects of Acid Rain Surface Waters and Aquatic Animals The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic, or wat er, environments, such as streams, lakes, and marshes. Acid rain flows into stre ams, lakes, and marshes after falling on forests, fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats. Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, although some lakes are naturally acidic even without the e ffects of acid rain. Acid rain primarily affects sensitive bodies of water, whic h are located in watersheds whose soils have a limited ability to neutralize aci dic compounds, called buffering capacity . Lakes and streams become acidic when the wat er itself and its surrounding soil cannot buffer the acid rain enough to neutral ize it. In areas where buffering capacity is low, acid rain releases aluminum fr om soils into lakes and streams; aluminum is highly toxic to many species of aqu atic organisms. Acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce fish population numbers, completely eliminate fish species from a waterbody, and decrease biodiversity. As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminu

m is released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that watershed. S o, as pH in a lake or stream decreases, aluminum levels increase. Both low pH an d increased aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels cause chronic stress that may not kill individual fish , but leads to lower body weight and smaller size and makes fish less able to co mpete for food and habitat. Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others, how ever, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the you ng of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. A t pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. So me acid lakes have no fish. Forests Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have noted a slowed growth of some forests. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be gre en and healthy. In extreme cases, individual trees or entire areas of the forest simply die off without an obvious reason. After much analysis, researchers now know that acid rain causes slower growth, i njury, or death of forests. Acid rain has been implicated in forest and soil deg radation in many areas of the eastern U.S., particularly high elevation forests of the Appalachian Mountains from Maine to Georgia that include areas such as th e Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountain National Parks. Of course, acid rain is no t the only cause of such conditions. Other factors contribute to the overall str ess of these areas, including air pollutants, insects, disease, drought, or very cold weather. In most cases, in fact, the impacts of acid rain on trees are due to the combined effects of acid rain and these other environmental stressors. A fter many years of collecting information on the chemistry and biology of forest s, researchers are beginning to understand how acid rain works on the forest soi l, trees, and other plants. Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to we aken trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, o r exposing them to toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death of trees is a result of these effects of acid rain in combinatio n with one or more additional threats. Scientists know that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals i n the soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to grow. At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances that are t oxic to trees and plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Scientists believe th at this combination of loss of soil nutrients and increase of toxic aluminum may be one way that acid rain harms trees. Such substances also wash away in the ru noff and are carried into streams, rivers, and lakes. More of these substances a re released from the soil when the rainfall is more acidic. However, trees can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Fo rests in high mountain regions often are exposed to greater amounts of acid than other forests because they tend to be surrounded by acidic clouds and fog that are more acidic than rainfall. Scientists believe that when leaves are frequentl y bathed in this acid fog, essential nutrients in their leaves and needles are s tripped away. This loss of nutrients in their foliage makes trees more susceptib le to damage by other environmental factors, particularly cold winter weather. Materials Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of metals such as bronze and the deterioration of paint and stone such as marbl e and limestone. These effects significantly reduce the societal value of buildi ngs, bridges, cultural objects such as statues, monuments, and tombstones, and c ars. Dry deposition of acidic compounds can also dirty buildings and other structures , leading to increased maintenance costs. To reduce damage to automotive paint c

aused by acid rain and acidic dry deposition, some manufacturers use acid-resist ant paints, at an average cost of $5 for each new vehicle (or a total of $61 mil lion per year for all new cars and trucks sold in the U.S.). EPA s Acid Rain Program will reduce damage to materials by limiting SO2 emissions. The benefits of EPA s Ac id Rain Program are measured, in part, by the costs now paid to repair or preven t damage the costs of repairing buildings and bridges, using acid-resistant paints o n new vehicles, plus the value that society places on the details of a statue lo st forever to acid rain. Human Health Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake , is no more dangerous than walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pol lutants that cause acid rain sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) do damage hu man health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitr ate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep i nto people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific s tudies have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis. Based on health concerns, SO2 and NOx have historically been regulated under the Clean Air Act, including the Acid Rain Program. In the eastern U.S., sulfate ae rosols make up about 25 percent of fine particles. By lowering SO2 and NOx emiss ions from power generation, the Acid Rain Program will reduce the levels of fine sulfate and nitrate particles and so reduce the incidence and the severity of t hese health problems. When fully implemented by the year 2010, the public health benefits of the Acid Rain Program are estimated to be valued at $50 billion ann ually, due to decreased mortality, hospital admissions, and emergency room visit s. Decreases in NOx emissions are also expected to have a beneficial impact on huma n health by reducing the nitrogen oxides available to react with volatile organi c compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on human health include a number of mo rbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation, including asthma and emphysema.