Analysing Soaps &Detergent Soaps. 1)Soaps are made from animal fats or vegetable oils.

2)Animal fats or vegetable oils are natural esters that are made from fatty acids ang glycerol. 3)In making of soap,the vegetable oils is boiled with an alkali such as concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide salt of fatty acids. 4)General fomula for soap is RCOO- Na+ or RCOOK-K+,where R is along chained of alkyl group. SAPONIFICATION 1)Soap is made by boiling a mixture of the following fats or vegetable oil and concentrated alkali solution(sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) 2)Saponification involves alkaline hydrolysis of fats or vegetable oil catalysed by concentrated alkali solution. Fats+sodium hydroxide boil soap+glycerol

Vegetable oil+sodium hydroxide boil

soap+glycerol

The cleansing action of soap and its effectiveness 1)When a soap dissolves in water the soap is ionized to form sodium cation and anions of soap. 2)Anions of soap has structure consist of two components,which are the long chained hydrocarbon component which is hydrophobic and the ionized component is hydrophilic. 3)The hydrophobic component dissolves in grease or oil,but not in water.The hydrophilic component dissolves in water,but not n grease or oil. 4)Both of these properties of the anions of soap enable the soap to clean a surface effectively.

5)The anions of soap plays the following 2 roles: -Reduces the tension of the water surface,hence helping water to wet surfaces. -Enables oil or grease droplets to spread in the water without combining by forming emulsion solution. DETERGENTS. 1).Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained frompetroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals .2).Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge on thedetergent ion.a ) A n i o n i c d e t e r g e n t s w h e r e t h e h e a d o f t h e d e t e r g e n t p a r t i c l e c o n t a i n s a negatively charged ion. Example:R-O-SO3-Na+(sodium alkyl sulphate) b)Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains positively charge ion. Example: R-N(CH3)3+BRc)Non ionic detergent example=R-O-CH2CH2OH 3.There are two types of anionic detergents : a)Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as sodium alkylbenzenesulphate. PREPARATION OF SOAP

1)The detergent,sodium alkyl sulphatecan be prepared from alcohols with chainlengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.

Steps 1:Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Steps 2:Neutralisation with sodium hyroxide solution 2)An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan -1-o,CH3(CH2)10CH2OH 3 ) T h e detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPACname) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-So3- Na+ 3) Sodium alkyl benzene sulphates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH2,obtained from cracking petroleum Steps 1=alkylation.

Steps 2=sulphonation b)Alkyl benzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to form alkyl benzene sulphuric acid. b)Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3 to an organic molecule to form sulphuric acid c)Step 3 : Neutralisation

Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide toform sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate.

CLEANSING ACTION OF DETERGENT 1)Lik soap,detergent also helps water in cleaning effectively. 2)When detergent dissolves in water,ionized to sodium cation and anions of detergents,which are the alkybenzene sulphonate ion or the alkyl sulphate ion. 3)The hydrophobic component dissolves in grease or oil,but not in water.The hydrophilic component dissolvesin water,but not in grease or oil. ADDITIVES IN DETERGENT The examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows:

Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate a)Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, ions and Mg2+ are removed. b)Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In t h i s w a y , muddy dirt can be removed.

Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perboratea a)Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process.When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.

Biological enzymes :( Amylase, lipase, and proteasea) a)Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed bythe ordinary detergents because these types of satins are insoluble in water. b)Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat a n d p r o t e i n molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol& a m i n o a c i d s produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing

Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate a)Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate are used as drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition. Stabilisers. In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop t h e p u m p working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are made using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam. FOOD ADDITIVES Food additives are used : a)To retard food spoilage and to preserve food (longer shelf life). b)To make food taste better or smell better. c)To add colouring to food so that the food looks fresher, more interesting or more appealing.

FUNCTION OF FOOD ADDITIVES. Preservatives 1.Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored for a long time. #Sodium nitrate ~To preserve meat, cheese and dried fish. ~To prevent food poisoning in canned foods. ~To maintain the natural colour of meatand to make them look fresh #Benzoic acid&Sodium benzoate ~To preserve sauce (olyster, tomato or chilli), fruit juice, jam and margarine. #Sulphur dioxide &Sulphur sulphite ~Used as bleaches and antioxidants toprevent browning in fruit juices. ~Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables.

~To prevents the growth of yeast.

#Antioxidants 1.Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fat sand oils by oxygen in the air. 2.Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air. 3)When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with foul odours (for example , butanoic acid, 4.Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.

#Flavouring Agent 1.)There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour enhance .They are added to foods to make them taste better .2)Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food 3).An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to enhance the flavours of other foods. 4).Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners. 5)Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhance the sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is banned in many countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin asthe artificial sweetener or choice. 6)Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as arti ficial flavour.

#DyesDyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.

2)Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing. The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to : a)Restore the colour of food lost during food processing. b)Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods .c)Give colour to foods that do not have colour.

3)Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared.The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds. 4)The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds. 5)Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the di azo group, - N = N -, and are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphentyl compounds are organic compounds containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5,and are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.

MEDICINES.

GARLIC ~For preventing flu attack ~For reducing high blood pressure GINGER ~For treating stomach pain due to wind in thestomach ~For supplying hea tenergy to keep thebody warm ~For preventing flu attack ALEO VERA ~For preventing itchy skin ~For treating burns(scalding) on the skin LEMON ~For treating boils orabcesses on the skin ~For preventing flu attack ~For treating skin diseases QUININE ~For treating malaria

For preventing muscle cramps GINSENG ~As a tonic to improve the overall health of human beings ~For increasing energy, endurance and reducing fatigue L E M O N ~Has antibacterial andantifungal properties ~For treating cough

Modern medicine 3.)Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics,antibiotics, psychotherapeutic drugs. 4)Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. Forexample, the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold underdifferent brand names such as Caprin and Disprin. Similarly,paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the trade name of Panadol. 5)Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of activeingredients prepared in different forms, such as capsules, pills,solutions or suspensions. For example, AlkaSeltzer (used asan antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate,citric acid and aspirin.It is the sodium bicarbonate then neutralizes the excess stomach acid. Fucntion of each type of modern drug: Analgesics 1.Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of analgesics are aspirin, paracetamol, and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called painkillers. 2.Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeineis powerful painkillers. 3.Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.

4.Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory actiona)The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature. .b ) U s e s o f a s p i r i n -reduces fever and inflammable. (ii)Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches ( i i i ) T r e a t a r t h r i t i s , a d i s e a s e c a u s e d b y i n f l a m m a t i o n o f the joints ( i v ) A c t a s a n a n t i c o a g u l a n t . I t p r e v e n t s t h e c l o t t i n g o f blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack and strokes. 5.Paracetamol a)Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature. b)Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is ,reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce inflammation .c)Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such as fever, bone aches and runny nose. 6.Codeine a)Codeine is an organic compound that contains the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. b)Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs. c)Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing coughs. 7.Penicillin a)Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum. b)Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria,such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.

.c)Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.