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Askia J Little AIL 601 Theories Model Papers Behaviorism Behaviorism is the attitude or doctrine that argues that the way in which people and animals behave is mandated by predicting and controlling their behavior. It based on three basic claims. The first is that rather than being a science of the mind, psychology is the science of behavior. Secondly, behavior can be described without any reference to the mental processes, events or any internal psychological process. All behavior is external and a direct product of the environment rather than the mind. Thirdly, if for some reason mentally related terms are used to describe behavior they should be taken out or rephrased to lend themselves toward behavioral concepts (Graham, 2007). Furthermore, Graham (2007) divides behaviorism into three types. The writings of John Watson describe methodological behaviorism as a theory concerned with how humans and animals behave. He was also the first to use the term behaviorist. His theory maintained that psychology should not deal with mental states or with any information that would be considered internal. It discounts any relevance that organisms beliefs or desires contribute to their behavior. It describes these mental states as being private and not proper for scientific research. The second type of behaviorism is psychological behaviorism. This type was studied by three men that were the most well know for this theory: Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner. Of the three, Skinner was the most influential on this particular type of behaviorism. Psychological behaviorism explains behavior in terms of reactions to stimuli, reinforcements, responses, and learning histories.

Little 2 Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning as a way to explain the stimulus-response relationship. Operant behavior was emitted by the organism spontaneously, rather than being elicited by particular stimuli as in the classical conditioning demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. (Capshew, 1996 p. 131). Consequently, he was able to either discourage or encourage some sort of response and considered that finding the foundation of all behavior. This theory was similar to Thorndikes law of effect which explained how positive reinforcement promoted stronger learning. This is similar to how educators are encouraged to use positive reinforcement to control the behavior of students in their classrooms. Although behaviorism was a popular theory in its time, it did not come without criticism. In an article by Kendra Van Wagner (2007), she lays out three main criticisms of behaviorism. The first is that it is a one-dimensional approach that does not account for feelings, beliefs, and moods. The second is that the theory discounts learning that occurs without a stimulus such as reinforcement or punishment. Thirdly, even if a certain behavior has been reinforced, organisms can adapt that behavior when new learning occurs. The major positives derived from behaviorism are that research is easier to conduct on observable behaviors that can be quantified and the theory has been proven to be successful in intensive behavior intervention. References Capshew, J.H., (1996). Engineering behavior: Project pigeon, world war II, and the Conditioning of B.F. Skinner. In L.D. Smith & W.R. Woodward (Eds.), B.F. Skinner and behaviorism in American culture. (pp 128-150). London: Associated University Presses, Inc.

Little 3 Graham, G. (2007) Behaviorism. Retrieved October 25, 2007 from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Website: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/ Wagner, K.V., (2007). What is behaviorism? Retrieved October 25, 2007 from http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm

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Information Processing According to the Sci-Tech Dictionary (2007), information processing is the coding, retrieval, and combination of information in perceptual recognition, learning, remembering, thinking, problem solving, and performance of sensory-motor acts. In short, it is a theory that focuses on how people think about and process the information they receive. In the field of education, the students are engaged in this processing, storing, and retrieving of information, however the theory itself can be traced as far back at the 1920s when Edward Tollman, a behaviorist, conducted experiments on rats to determine if constant reinforcement would be more effective than delayed reinforcement. He concluded that rats in a particular group had developed a cognitive map through experience without reinforcement which led to a description of behavior that dealt with a non-observable process. Consequently, cognitive psychology was born (Hall, n.d.). With the dawn of computer technology, the information processing theory became even more popular. There was now a tool that could reliably represent these non-observable processes. Hall (n.d) related the computer to the human brain in that the sensory buffer was synonymous with a temporary buffer that briefly stores information. Short term memory was synonymous with the computers RAM and long term memory with the hard drive. There are two ideas that are critical to the understanding of the information processing model. They are chunking and TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit) (Miller, 1956). Miller (1956) describes chunking as the capacity of the working memory. In is research, he found that the short term memory could hold 5-9 chunks of information depending on the size of the chunk. A chunk could take on various forms but could be described as any

Little 5 meaningful unit. The second idea was that a TOTE was the basic unit of behavior measurement. In it, information was processed in order to reach a desired goal. If the goal was not reached, the cycle was repeated until it was either reached or deserted. Some of the most well-know research in the area of information processing was done in 1968 by Atkinson and Shriffin. Their model of information processing was based on two stages of memory. The short term memory consisted of sensory and working memory. The other stage was long term memory. The working memory is responsible for managing and manipulating the information and the long term memory stores infinite amounts of information for an indefinite period of time. In order for this model to be successful and learning occur, the information must be transferred from one type of memory to the next (Lohr, 2003). According to Underwood (1978) long term memory is stored in one of three ways. The declarative structure includes basic facts and general information. The procedural structure contains how to procedures. The imagery structure stores pictures. Refrences Hall, R.H. (nd). Information processing theory. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://medialab.umr.edu/rhall/educational_psychology/2001/vl2a/info_new.html Lohr, L. L. (2003). Creating graphics for learning and performance: Lessons in visual literacy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall. Miller, G.A. (1956). The magic number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/ Sci-Tech Dictionary (2007). Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://www.answers.com/topic/information-processing?cat=biz-fin

Little 6 Underwood, G. (1978). Concepts in information processing theory. In G. Underwood (Eds), Strategies of information processing. New York: Academic Press.

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Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method designed around real life, open ended problems (Fogarty, 1997). The problem, however, is not usually very well formed. Fogarty (1997) describes the problem or situation as being confusing or complex. The situation can be presented though a myriad of ways and can take the form of a journal article, a factual entry, a nonfiction piece or a short scenario. One of the major components of PBL is that the students have ownership of the problem and the way the investigation unfolds through life situations. Although full implementation of a PBL instructional strategy is recommended, most users implement a post holding method of the strategy in which parts of the curriculum are infused with the strategy to deepen students understanding of certain concepts and skills that have been previously taught. According to Fogarty (1997), PBL takes on a distinctive flow. Students must first determine actually what the problem is. This can be done though role playing, creating videos, reading, or any creative method. After the problem had been discovered, students must define the problem based on what is already known. In some cases, students come up with multiple definitions. The next step is to gather the factual information. Students accomplish this task by using prior knowledge, generating questions, collaboration with peers, and analyzing what they know and need to know. After a significant amount of factual information has been gathered, students must then generate a hypothesis. During this step in the process they focus on what they need to do. The come up with theories and express and discuss their thoughts with their peers. The ultimate goal of this portion of the process is to generate questions that will prove or disprove their hypotheses and lead to research. The

Little 8 problem-based model is a an experimental one in which students deal with real life situations through their diverse profiles of intelligence. (Fogarty, 1997, p 5). After significant research has been completed, students then have the task of reforming or restating the question in a more precise manner. The final step is to come up with alternatives, solutions, and justifications for their findings. Although the students have a considerable amount of responsibility and control over learning in the PBL method, Fogarty (1997) stresses that it is not a substitute for explicit teaching. In short, Engel (2000) defined PBL as an approach to structuring learning so that it involves providing students with problems from practice that stimulate learning. The origins of PBL can be historically dated back to John Deweys work with experimental education. He was convinced that such an approach would create the highest level of learning among children by tapping their interest, previous knowledge, and connection to their own world of meaning (Lambros, 2003 p. viii). Writings in the area of higher order thinking skills, gifted education, and Renzullis work can also be linked to the PBL model (Fogarty, 1997). In the area of medicine at Wake Forest University School of Medicine, PBL models have been used in actual clinical cases and are the focus of the program. Numerous conferences, including a 2000 conference at Samford University in Birmingham, Alabama addressed educators interest in using this model of learning. In the past decade, numerous schools and colleges have included PBL in their teaching methodology. (Lambros, 2002) References Engel, C.E., (2000). What is problem based learning? In D. Boud & G. I. Feletti (Eds), The challenge of problem-based learning (2nd Edition). London: Kogan Page

Little 9 Limited Fogarty, R. (1997). Problem based learning & other curriculum models for the multiple Intelligences classroom. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training and Publishing, Inc. Lambros, A. (2002). Problem-based learning in the K-8 classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

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Constructivism Constructivism is an educational philosophy that is centered on four main principals. The first is that learning is a search for meaning and therefore must revolve around concepts and issues in which the students are attempting to construct meaning. The second is that learning is not based on isolated facts, but rather whole concepts of which parts are understood in context. Thirdly, in order for meaningful instruction to take place, it is imperative that the mental models students use to understand the world are also understood by the instructor. Finally, we must realize the driving force behind learning is for the student to construct his or her own meaning and not simply memorize a list of facts for recall on an assessment. The assessment must be built in to the learning process so the students have information on how well they are learning (Funderstanding, 2001). According to Funderstanding (2001), Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences. In essence, a constructivist learning environment provides realworld or problem-based learning situations that are focused on authentic learning ( Jonassen, 1994). The theory of constructivism can be traced to several theorists. Bruners theoretical frameworks asserts that learning is active and that learners are constantly building on prior knowledge, making hypotheses, decisions, and using their knowledge to expand upon the information they find. The role of he instructor is to help the learner form meaning based on

Little 11 the learners level of understanding. The curriculum, therefore, builds upon what has already been learned. (Kristinsdttir, 2007). Jean Piagets constructivist theory of cognitive and affective development centered around the idea that students begin with a blank slate and construct meaning based on their schema. Students schemata are the physiological structures that help them to adapt to and understand their environment. As with Bruners model, Piagets model supports a problem based model of instruction in which the students are allowed to discover the information rather than being explicitly taught. The main difference between the two theorists is that Bruner believed that all learners have some degree of previous knowledge upon which to build meaning whereas Piaget believed that all learners began with no previous knowledge. (Wadswordh, 1996). Vygotskys theory of social constructivism differs in the role of the teacher. Moll (1990) asserts that Vygotsky emphasized that what children can perform collaborative or with assistance today they can perform independently and competently tomorrow (p. 3). This concept is directly related to the model that Vygotsky defines as the zone of proximal development and can also be related to scaffolding. In essence, the teacher has more opportunity to be involved in the learning process in Vygotskys social constructivism model. Constructivism as a learning theory reforms the traditional method of instruction and promotes instruction that is student led, problem based, and centered on real world issues. References Funderstanding (2001). Constructivism. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfm

Little 12 Jonassen, D. (1994). Thinking technology: Towards a constructivist design model. Educational Technology, 34(4), 34-37. Kristinsdttir, S. B. (2007). Constructivist Theories. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://starfsfolk.khi.is/solrunb/construc.htm Moll, L.C. (1990). Vygotsky and education: Instructional applications of sociohistorical psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wadsworth, B. J. (1996). Piagets theory of cognitive and affective development. (5th edition). White Plains, N.Y.: Longman Publishers.

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Learning Styles Learning styles is a phrase that concerns itself with the notion that people learn in different ways. Judith Reiff (1992) proposes that this idea is not a new one but rather dates as far back as times of Aristotle where he discussed the individual differences in young children and their specific talents. In the early 1900s learning style theories were further promoted and the relationship between memory and visual or oral instruction was researched. Later, the research on learning styles began to take the backburner as more emphasis was placed on the relationship between a persons I.Q. and achievement. However, in the late 1900s the idea of learning styles and teaching based on individual differences began to resurface. Funderstanding (2001) provides a working definition of learning styles that emphasizes the fact that individuals perceive and process information in very different ways. The learning styles theory implies that how much individuals learn has more to do with whether the educational experience is geared toward their particular style of learning than whether or not they are "smart."(p.1) Wilson and Peterson (2006) assert that this myriad of differences comes in various forms including intelligence, interest, race, ethnicity, culture, and gender. They further go on explain that although the United States had improved in moving toward the goal of high quality education, the amount of differences has dramatically increased. Built upon the two common tenants that all children can learn but that they learn in different ways and at different paces, the structure of learning styles and the changes that policymakers make are comprised (Lewis, 1991). There are many ways to classify the types of learning styles. They are usually described as patterns that give direction to a particular way of teaching or learning. Reiff

Little 14 (1992) breaks down the learning styles into three broad categories. They are cognitive, affective, and physiological. Cognitive styles include such theories as brain dominance, conceptual tempo, mindstyles, modality, multiple intelligences, and psychological differentiation. Affective learning styles include conceptual levels, and psychological types such as thinkers, feelers, sensors, and intuitors. The physiological deal with the elements of environment, emotions, and socializations. The broad category of psychological differentiation encompasses the widely researched theories of field dependence and field independence. These concepts were made famous by Herman Witkin who is known as its father. His theory asserts that field dependent individuals are easily distracted by complex figures and have problems isolating parts from a whole. On the other hand, field independent individuals tend to me more analytical because they have little problem isolating parts of a figure from a whole figure. Although the field was originally only concerned with visual perceptions, personality and social factors were later researched. Field independent individual were less likely to be influenced by their social surroundings than field dependent individuals. Field dependent individuals were described at global whereas field independent individuals were described as being analytical (Reiff, 1992). One of the most famous proponents of learning styles was Howard Gardener. His theory of multiple intelligences suggested that there were at least seven ways in which individuals interact with and process information. Each way was labeled as an intelligence. His intelligences included verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spacial, bodykinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal (Funderstanding, 2001). References

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Funderstanding (2001). Learning Styles. Retrieved October 16, 2003, from http://www.funderstanding.com/learning_styles.cfm Funderstanding (2001). Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved October 16, 2003, from http://www.funderstanding.com/multiple_intelligence.cfm Lewis, A., & Steinberger, E. (1991). Learning styles: Putting research and common sense into practice. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators. Reiff, J.C. (1992). Learning styles. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association Wilson, S.M., & Peterson, P.L. (2006). Theories of learning and teaching: What do they mean for educators?. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

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Systems Theory Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence. It investigates both the principles common to all complex entities, and the (usually mathematical) models which can be used to describe them (Heylighen & Joslyn, 1992, p.1). In order to understand what systems theory encompasses, it is imperative to actually understand what a system is. From a psychological and social perspective, Cattell (1980) defines a system as a set of people whose behaviors are so interrelated that most members contribute positively to satisfactions of other members, who stay in the group because of those satisfactions (p. 463). Systems theory came about in the 1940s by a biologist named Ludwig von Bertalaniffy and was expounded on by Ross Ashby. Bertalaniffy proposed that authentic systems interact with their environment and consequently, develop new properties through materialization. Rather than focus on how a particular part functions, systems theory aims to focus on how the parts are arranged together and their relationships and interdependence on each other much like the systems of the human body are interrelated. Although Bertalaniffy is credited with the systems theory approach, Vincent (2002) proposes that Lanwrence Henderson and Walter Cannon were the forerunners who did preparatory work for the theory at Harvard University. The origins of systems theory can be linked to field of cybernetics and system science as well. According to Heylighen, Joslyn, and Turchin (1999) Systems theory or systems science argues that however complex or diverse the world that we experience, we will always find different types of organization in it, and such

Little 17 organization can be described by concepts and principles which are independent from the specific domain at which we are looking. Hence, if we would uncover those general laws, we would be able to analyse and solve problems in any domain, pertaining to any type of system (p.1) They further go on to assert that cybernetics and systems theory should be viewed as two angles on a single approach because separately, their structure cannot be understood. There are two distinct types of systems both open and closed. Vincent proposes that open systems are seen as highly complex, interdependent, and characterized by an expectation of change and uncertainty and change, internally and externally(p.1) whereas closed systems are the opposite and are independent and capable of being analyzed by observing the internal structure The systems theory model is very relevant for todays educational setting. Its tenants are seen in everything from the use of cross curricular planning to planning between grade levels. The development of minimum standards that address the parts that are to be completed at a certain stage are synonymous with a system. If the school is looked at as a system and the students as the individual parts of the system, in order to increase the effectiveness of the school (system), the relationship between its individual parts (students, teachers, administration) must be fostered. All the parts are interdependent upon one another to ensure the success of the school. References Cattell, R.B. (1980). Personality and learning theory: A systems theory of maturation and structured learning (Vol. 2). New York: Springer Publishing Company Heylighen, F., & Joslyn, C. (1992). What is systems theory?. Retrieved October 16, 2007,

Little 18 from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/SYSTHEOR.html Heylighen, F., Joslyn, C., &Turchin, V. (1999). What are cybernetics and system science?. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/CYBSWHAT.html Vincent, F.S. (2002). Systems theory. Retrieved October 16, 2007 from the International Encyclopedia of Justice Studies Web site: http://www.iejs.com/Management/systems_theory.htm