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It will take a 100 Afuse approximately 500 seconds to clear this It will take a 100 A fuse approximately 500 seconds to clear this
fault (3 x 69.44 A = 208.32 A). The capacitor case will rupture
long before the fuse clears the fault.
The solution is using smaller units with individual fusing.
Consider five (5) 100 kVAR capacitors per phase, each with a ( ) p p p ,
25 A fuse. The clear time for a 25 A fuse @ 208.32 A is below
the published capacitor rupture curve.
Capacitor Protection
Why is the Current 3 x Nominal Line Current for a Phase-to-
Neutral Fault on a Wye-Ungrounded Capacitor Bank?
A
B
A
B
V
A
C
N
A
N
V
NG
C
C
I 3 0
Since V = I*Z, where Z is
t t ( i f 60 h )
I
A
= 3.0 p.u.
constant (assuming f = 60 hz)
If voltage across capacitor is
increased by 1.732, the current
also increases by factor of 1.732 y
Capacitor Protection
Minimum Conductor Size
It was noted that capacitors are rated 135% of rating. This
requires the conductor to be sized 135% of the nominal capacitor
rating rating.
Capacitor Protection
Unbalance Protection
As single-phase units in a multiple unit/phase installation fail and
are removed from service the remaining units are experience an are removed from service, the remaining units are experience an
overvoltage condition. IEEE Standard 1036 provides
overvoltage limitations.
Duration
Max Voltage
(x rated RMS)
6 cycles 2.20
15 c cles 2 00 15 cycles 2.00
1 s 1.70
15 sec 1.40
1 min 1.30 1 min 1.30
An unbalance protection scheme must by implemented to prevent
the failure of the overvoltaged units. g
Capacitor Protection
Capacitor Protection
Neutral Voltage Unbalance with Unbalance Compensation
Capacitor Protection
V
A
V
V
V
N
V
G
V
NG
Normal Conditions
V
N
= V
G
V
AN
= V
BN
= V
CN
V
C
V
B
V
AN
V
BN
V
CN
Capacitor Protection
Ungrounded or Impedance
Grounded System
V
A
V
V
V
N
V
G
V
NG
Normal Conditions
V
N
= V
G
V
AN
= V
BN
= V
CN
= 1.0 p.u.
V
C
V
B
V
AN
V
BN
V
CN
.0 p.u.
Capacitor Protection
VV
NG
Phase to Neutral Fault Phase to Neutral Fault
V
NG
= V
LN
V
AN
= V
BN
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
Capacitor Protection
V
A
V
V
N
V
G
V
NG
One Can Removed
V
NG
= 0.2 p.u.
V = 1 2 p u
V
C V
B
V
CN
= 1.2 p.u.
Capacitor Protection
Ungrounded or Impedance
Grounded System
V
A
V
V
V
N
V
G
V
NG
Normal Conditions
V
N
= V
G
V
AN
= V
BN
= V
CN
= 1.0 p.u.
V
C
V
B
V
AN
V
BN
V
CN
.0 p.u.
Capacitor Protection
Ungrounded or Impedance
Grounded System
V
A
V
Gnd
V
N
V
NG
V
C
V
B
Ground Fault
V
NG
= V
LN
V = V = V = 1 732 p u
V
C
=V
G
Ground Fault at Cap Bank or
A h h S
V
AG
= V
BG
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
Anywhere on the System
Capacitor Protection
Wye-Ungrounded:
Voltage Between
Capacitor Bank Neutral
and Ground vs. Percentage
of Capacitor Units
Removed from Series
Group
Capacitor Protection
Wye-Ungrounded:
Voltage on Remaining
Capacitor Units in Series
Group vs. Percentage of
Capacitor Units Removed
from Series Group
Capacitor Protection
Wye-Grounded:
Neutral Current vs
Percentage of
Capacitor Units
Removed from Series
Group
Capacitor Protection
Wye-Grounded or Delta:
Voltage on Remaining
Units in Series Group vs.
Percentage of Capacitor
Units Removed from
Series Group
Capacitor Protection
Double Wye-Ungrounded,
Neutrals Tied Together:
Neutral Current vs.
Percentage of Capacitor
Units Removed from
Series Group
Capacitor Protection
Double Wye-Ungrounded,
Neutrals Tied Together:
Voltage on Remaining
Capacitor Units in Series
vs. Percentage of
Capacitor Units Removed
from Series Group
Capacitor Protection
A phase
B phase
C phase
P: Number of
units in group units in group
(P=6)
S: Number of S: Number of
series groups
(S=4)
Reference Figure for Calculations to Follow
Capacitor Protection
# of Series Groups Grounded Y or Delta Ungrounded Y
Split Ungrounded Y
(equal sections)
1 - 4 2 1 4 2
2 6 8 7
3 8 9 8
4 9 10 9
5 9 10 10
6 10 10 10
7 10 10 10
8 10 11 10
9 10 11 10
10 10 11 11
11 10 11 11
12 and over 11 11 11
Minimum recommended number of units in parallel per series
Group to limit voltage on remaining units to 110% with one unit out
Capacitor Protection
Many more configurations and
calculations shown in IEEE C37.99
Day 2 Day 2
Capacitor Fundamentals
Further discussion on capacitor voltage ratings:
On a ungrounded or impedance grounded system, a ground fault
on one phase will cause the other two phases will be elevated by
1 732 1.732.
Does this mean that capacitors must be rated phase-to-phase?
Certainly nothing wrong with this, but cost will be significantly
higher. g
Capacitor Fundamentals
Recall:
X
V
S
2
=
C
X
This means that a 150 kVAR 12470 V unit applied at 7200 V This means that a 150 kVAR, 12470 V unit applied at 7200 V
will provide only 50 kVAR.
] [ 50
] [ 150
] [ 12470
] [ 7200
2
2
kVAR S
kVAR
V
V
S
NEW
=
] [ 50 kVAR S
NEW
=
Capacitor Fundamentals
Using 12470 V capacitors on a 12470 V Ungrounded or
Resistance-Grounded System will require 3x more cans. y q
It should be noted that the 12470 V cans will also be larger than
the 7200 V cans the 7200 V cans.
Results in a much larger and more costly installation.
This solution would be required if a ground fault could be
maintained for extended periods of time. p
Capacitor Fundamentals
Perhaps a 150 kVAR or 200 kVAR, 7620 V or 7960 V units
applied at 7200 V would be a better solution.
] [ 150
] [ 7620
] [ 7200
2
2
kVAR
V
V
S
NEW
=
] [ 200
] [ 7620
] [ 7200
2
2
kVAR
V
V
S
NEW
=
] [ 134
OR
kVAR S
NEW
=
] [ 178
2
OR
kVAR S
NEW
=
] [ 123
] [ 150
] [ 7960
] [ 7200
2
2
kVAR S
kVAR
V
V
S
NEW
=
] [ 163
] [
] [ 7960
] [ 7200
2
2
kVAR S
kVAR
V
V
S
NEW
=
=
] [ 123 kVAR S
NEW
=
Note that the 7620 V unit provides an additional 6%
The 7960 V unit provides an additional 11%
] [ 163 kVAR S
NEW
=
The 7960 V unit provides an additional 11%
Capacitor Fundamentals
Explusion Fuses:
Provides a means of disconnecting a failed capacitor from the circuit by melting a
tin-lead low current link. The shorted capacitor unit causes a large increase in the
current through the fuse. The current is limited only by the power system
reactance and the other capacitor units in series with the failed capacitor unit. The reactance and the other capacitor units in series with the failed capacitor unit. The
pressure is generated by the hot arc making contact with the fiber lining of the
fuse tube. The link is cooled and stretched as it is forced out the tube. The fuse
continues to conduct until a natural current zero occurs. The current zero is
d b th t f lt t i If th it caused by the power system fault current crossing zero. If other capacitors are
connected in parallel with the failed unit, all the stored energy in these capacitors
will be absorbed in either the fuse operation or the failed capacitor unit. Most of
the energy is absorbed in the failed capacitor. gy p
Capacitor Fundamentals
Current Limiting Fuses:
Uses a long uniform cross section element. This configuration makes the fuse a
current chopping fuse. The fuse develops a back voltage per inch of element
across the entire length of the element. When this voltage exceeds the available
voltage across the fuse, the fuse forces the arc to extinguish. The result is that a voltage across the fuse, the fuse forces the arc to extinguish. The result is that a
trapped voltage may and probably will remain on the other capacitors in the
series group. The fuse by its design avoids absorbing all of the available energy
on the series group. This fuse is used for capacitor banks with a large number of
ll l it It b d li ti ith ti ll i fi it ll l parallel capacitors. It can be used on applications with essentially infinite parallel
stored energy, as long as sufficient back voltage can be developed to force the
current to extinguish. This is the fuse we apply to series, large shunt, and DC
banks.
Because of the high back voltage that is developed, this fuse must be used with
several capacitors in parallel to limit the voltage build up or a flashover may
occur elsewhere in the capacitor rack occur elsewhere in the capacitor rack.
Capacitor Fundamentals
Current Limiting Fuses vs Expulsion Fuses:
C Li i i F
Expulsion Fuse
Current Limiting Fuse
Capacitor Fundamentals
Current Limiting Fuses vs Expulsion Fuses:
Expulsion Fuses
Operate mechanically and provide a visual indication
Require additional space for operation Require additional space for operation
Typically applied for outdoor application due to ionized gas release.
C bi ti l i ith t li iti h t i ti f b d i Combination expulsion with current limiting characteristic fuses can be used in
indoor metal-enclosed equipment.
Less expensive p
Capacitor Fundamentals
Capacitor Fundamentals
Current Limiting Fuses
Do not emit ionized gases during operation Ionized gases are undesirable Do not emit ionized gases during operation. Ionized gases are undesirable
because they can cause bushing and insulator flashovers that result in additional
damage. Do not require ventilation.
Fast current-limiting operation
High interrupting capacity, noiseless operation
Can be specified for indoor and outdoor applications .
No pressure build-up, therefore, no vents or special reinforced compartments are
i d required.
More expensive
Capacitor Fundamentals
Note no pigtail and blown fuse indication
Capacitor Fundamentals
Current Limiting with Expulsion
Capacitor Fundamentals
What about arresters? How and where should they be
applied? applied?
Depending on application, environment, exposure to
switching etc arresters may be necessary switching, etc, arresters may be necessary.
We recall that when a travelling wave meets a high
impedance, the wave can double in size. For this reason,
arresters (if used) should be installed as close to the capacitor
bank as possible. Installation of arresters at the breaker p
feeding the capacitor bank will not do much for protection of
the capacitor bank.
Capacitor Protection
A basic three (3) arrester method is shown below. This is
typical for solidly grounded systems and wye-grounded typical for solidly grounded systems and wye grounded
capacitor banks.
Capacitor Protection
Depending on type of installation, system parameters and
level of protection required, a six(6) arrestor method may be level of protection required, a six(6) arrestor method may be
applied.
Capacitor Protection
For an ungrounded system or a high-impedance grounded
system, a four (4) arrestor grounding method might be system, a four (4) arrestor grounding method might be
considered an wye ungrounded bank.
Phase to Neutral Fault
V
NG
= V
LN NG LN
V
AN
= V
BN
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
Ground Fault
V
NG
= V
LN
V
L
L
V
L
L
Arr
NG LN
V
AG
= V
BG
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
If faults can be maintained,
Arr
N
V
Arr
PH
Arr
PH
must be rated V
LL
Arr
N
must be rated V
LN
The effective arrester MCOV
N
is V
LL
+ V
LN
Capacitor Protection
Note that if a basic three (3) arrester method is applied to an ungrounded bank, the arresters
must be rated high enough to sustain a temporary overvoltage condition during a phase-to-
ground fault on the system. This may not provide an adequate level of protection for the
capacitors.
Phase to Neutral Fault
V
NG
= V
LN
V V V 1 732 V
AN
= V
BN
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
Ground Fault
V
NG
= V
LN
V V V 1 732
V
L
L
V
L
L
V
AG
= V
BG
= V
LL
= 1.732 p.u.
If faults can be maintained, Arresters
must be rated V
LL
V
Arresters do not provide protection
across the capacitor bushings. Note
that the BIL applies to bushing-to-
i l ti case insulation.
Capacitor Protection
Good Presentations on Capacitor Arrester Applications
G id li f S l ti f S A t f Sh t Guidelines for Selection of Surge Arresters for Shunt
Capacitor Banks ABB Technical Information
Surge Arrester Application of MV-Capacitor Banks to
Mitigate Problems of Switching Restrike CIRED 19
th
International Conference on Electricity Distribution Vienna International Conference on Electricity Distribution, Vienna,
21-24 May 2007.
B th f th l dd h t h t Both of these papers also address phase-to-phase arrester
connections.
Harmonics
Harmonics
Recall that the impedance of a capacitor is inversely
proportional to the system frequency proportional to the system frequency.
fC C
X
C
t e 2
1 1
= =
fC C t e 2
Harmonics flow to the point of lowest impedance. The higher
the harmonic the lower the impedance of the capacitor the harmonic, the lower the impedance of the capacitor.
As capacitors absorb harmonics, the capacitor heats up and
th lif t i d d Th lt h i t the life expectancy is reduced. The voltage harmonics stress
the capacitor dielectric and reduce the life expectancy of the
capacitor.
Harmonics
Harmonics
Where do harmonics come from?
Power Electronics (drives, rectifiers, computer power
supplies, etc)
Arcing Devices (welders, arc furnaces, florescent lights, etc) g ( , , g , )
Iron Saturating Devices (transformers)
Rotating Machines (Generators)
Parallel Resonance (between cap bank and power Parallel Resonance (between cap bank and power
equipment)
IEEE Std 519 provides recommended limits of harmonic
distortion at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC) with the
utility. y
Harmonics
Harmonics
Harmonics
Resonance
When a number of harmonic current sources are injecting currents
into the supply and the frequency of one of the harmonics coincides
with the resonant frequency of the supply transformer and with the resonant frequency of the supply transformer and
Power Factor Correction capacitor combination, the system
resonates and a large circulating harmonic current is excited
between these components The result of this is that a large between these components. The result of this is that a large
current at this harmonic flows in the supply transformer, this
resulting in a large harmonic voltage distortion being imposed upon
the load voltage.
Harmonics
A study should be performed to determine levels of harmonics on a y p
system to determine if any filters are necessary when installing a
capacitor bank.
Care should be taken to determine if the filtered capacitor bank will
introduce any resonance problems. If resonance problems exist, the
fil d i b dj d filter design must be adjusted.
Harmonics
An example of a 13 8 kV harmonic filter An example of a 13.8 kV harmonic filter
Capacitor Bank Design Considerations
Design Considerations
So how do we size a capacitor bank?
D t i i l Determine your primary goal
Voltage support
Lower utility bill (avoid penalties)
Increase capacity of system
It can be all three, or any combination of the above. It can be all three, or any combination of the above.
Note that correcting to unity power factor at maximum load is
tl d t b costly and may not be necessary.
Design Considerations
For a 20 MVAload at 0 88 power factor (17 6 MW 9 5 MVAR) For a 20 MVA load at 0.88 power factor (17.6 MW, 9.5 MVAR)
To achieve 95% power factor, a 3.72 MVAR bank is required
To achieve 98% power factor, a 5.93 MVAR bank is required
To achieve unity power factor, a 9.50 MVAR bank is required
Design Considerations
Determine if current limiting reactors or tuning reactors are Determine if current limiting reactors or tuning reactors are
required.
Harmonics and resonance may dictate tuning reactors
Back-to-back switching may require current limiting reactors Back to back switching may require current limiting reactors
(unless another method is used to mitigate the switching surges,
i.e. pre-insertion closing resistors/reactors, zero-crossing
breakers etc) breakers, etc)
Design Considerations
Determine the proper voltage.
Capacitors are very susceptible to voltage transients and
harmonics. Increasing the rated voltage increases the protective
margin on the insulation. margin on the insulation.
The voltage at the capacitor terminals will be higher than bus
lt if t tili d It i i t t t t f thi voltage if reactors are utilized. It is important to account for this
voltage difference.
Determine the voltage swing of the system. Will the capacitors
remain on-line while the facility is lightly loaded.
Design Considerations
We listed some reasons for specifying higher than bus nominal We listed some reasons for specifying higher than bus nominal
rating of capacitors. However, care must be taken to ensure that
the kVAR rating is properly adjusted as a result.
Three (6) 150 kVAR, 7960 V wye-connected capacitors provide a
nominal 901 kVAR when connected to a 13.8 kV bus.
Three (6) 150 kVAR, 8320 V wye-connected capacitors provide a
nominal 825 kVAR when connected to a 13 8 kV bus nominal 825 kVAR when connected to a 13.8 kV bus
Design Considerations
Determine optimal size and number of stages.
D di i i l t l d i l b k i d f f ll Depending on swing in plant load, a single bank sized for full
plant capacity may not be the answer.
IEEE 1036 recommends limiting the voltage change to 2-3%. The
delta voltage can be estimated by:
MVAR
Switch of a capacitor applies high stresses to the insulation
% 100 = A
SC
MVA
MVAR
V
Switch of a capacitor applies high stresses to the insulation.
Limiting the number of stages and limiting the frequency of
switching will increase the life. Ideally, a capacitor is switched
on and left on.
Design Considerations
Determine best location for the installation The most effective Determine best location for the installation. The most effective
placement for power factor correction capacitor banks is at the
load. However, this is not always practical or cost effective.
Typically, a capacitor bank is installed on each bus of a main-tie-
main switchgear. main switchgear.
If capacitors are installed at the motor pecker head (running
capacitors) ensure that the capacitor VAR rating does not exceed capacitors), ensure that the capacitor VAR rating does not exceed
90% of the motor no-load VAR. Otherwise, it is possible to
damage the motor by overexcitation.
Design Considerations
Use caution when sizing motor running capacitors.
Logic would suggest that installation of a power factor
correction capacitor at the motor terminals sized to provide
unity power factor makes sense. y p
THIS IS NOT THE CASE. Do not exceed 90% of the
motor no load kVAR demand Exceeding this value can motor no-load kVAR demand. Exceeding this value can
result in damage to the motor insulation as a result of
overexcitation.
Design Considerations
As an example for a 4000 V, 4000 hp motor:
100% load current = 495 A @ 89.7% pf
100% load kVAR = 1516 kVAR
No load current = 117 A @ 6.3 % pf
No load kVAR = 809 kVAR
Max size of running capacitor is 0 90 x 809 kVAR = 728 kVAR Max size of running capacitor is 0.90 x 809 kVAR = 728 kVAR
Design Considerations
M: Motor Magnetizing Curve M: Motor Magnetizing Curve
C1: Capacitor size at 100% motor mag current
C2: Capacitor sized > 100% motor mag current
C4: Capacitor sized < 100% motor mag current
If the capacitive reactance of the capacitor is less less than that of the motor reactance (this occurs
when to large of a capacitor is chosen). This combination of reactance will result in a resonant
frequency below 60 hertz Therefore as the motor slows in speed the frequency of the motor frequency below 60 hertz. Therefore, as the motor slows in speed, the frequency of the motor
terminal voltage will decrease from a value of near 60 hertz toward zero. When the motor's terminal
voltage frequency passes through the resonant frequency setup between the capacitor reactance and
the motor reactance, the terminal voltage will become very high, only limited by the properties of the
iron Depending on the inertia of the motor this resonance (or high voltage) may be present for a iron. Depending on the inertia of the motor, this resonance (or high voltage) may be present for a
considerable period of time.
Design Considerations
Determine the most optimal type of installation Determine the most optimal type of installation.
Will the capacitor bank be installed within a fenced substation?
Metal-enclosed, pad mount, or open rack may be good choices
Will the capacitor bank be installed in a process area? Will the capacitor bank be installed in a process area?
Metal-enclosed or pad mount may be good choices
Will the capacitor bank be pole mounted on a distribution line? Will the capacitor bank be pole mounted on a distribution line?
Bank Failures
Design Considerations
Consider the impact to personnel safety adjacent equipment when
deciding between a metal-enclosed and open-rack system.
Porcelain can resemble shrapnel when a capacitor bushing fails.
Design Considerations
Determine the most optimal configuration.
Higher reliability costs more.
2400 kVAR, 13800 V, wye-grounded (1) 800 kVAR per phase , , y g ( ) p p
bank will be a smaller footprint and cost less than
2400 kVAR 13800 V wye ungrounded (8) 100 kVAR per 2400 kVAR, 13800 V, wye-ungrounded (8) 100 kVAR per
phase bank.
H h li bili f h d d b k i However, the reliability of the wye-ungrounded bank is
significantly higher
Design Considerations
Determine the switching equipment
When breakers are used for switching capacitors (single bank
or back-to-back switching), the breakers must be rated for
capacitor switching. p g
IEEE C37.99 provides the equations for calculating the inrush
current and frequency current and frequency.
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Consider a single 4800 kVAR wye-ungrounded bank switched
(with nominal inductance from equipment):
3253A pk @ 600 Hz, the product is 0.20 x 10
7
Switching a second similar bank on the same bus without
current limiting reactor:
24,058 A pk @ 7.66 kHz, the product is 18.4 x 10
7
B ddi 100 H li i i h i h i By adding a 100 mH current limiting reactor, the inrush is:
7254 A pk @ 2.31 kHz, the product is 1.7 x 10
7
p @ , p
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Energization of a single capacitor bank.
Design Considerations
B k b k i hi f h i Back-to-back switching of the same unit.
Design Considerations
E l f b k i h i i i Example of breaker with pre-insertion resistor.
Design Considerations
Another application. Another application.
Design Considerations
A Pre-Insertion Manufactures Perspective. p
Design Considerations
Another concern is voltage amplification as a result of switching a
second capacitor bank.
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Consider other accessories:
Disconnect switch
Grounding switch
Kirk-key interlock y
Ventilation requirements
Control power
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Design Considerations
Be aware that larger medium voltage motors may include
surge packs. g p
The surge pack will decrease the crest voltage and rate of
rise of the impending surge High rates of rise damage end rise of the impending surge. High rates of rise damage end
turns while high crest voltage damage winding to core
insulation.
Typically the capacitance of the is small enough that it can
be neglected, but this should be verified. g
Design Considerations
Typical Surge Pack Application
Design Considerations
Do not confuse Harmonic Filter Banks with Power Factor
Correction Banks Correction Banks.
The voltage ratings of harmonic filter banks are substantially
higher because they are connected on the back end of a tuning
reactor where the voltage is substantially higher. As a result of
the higher voltage, the installed kVAR can be anywhere from e g e vo ge, e s ed V c be yw e e o
25% to 40% higher than nominal design.
The capacitor cans must be capable of this output The capacitor cans must be capable of this output.
Grounding of Wye Banks
If multiple wye-grounded banks are in close proximity, use
peninsula grounding or single-point grounding. p g g g p g g
Single-Point Grounding
The neutrals of all banks of a given voltage are connected The neutrals of all banks of a given voltage are connected
together with insulated cable/bus and tied to the ground
grid only at one point. This prevents high-frequency
(d b k b k i hi ) f fl i i currents (due to back-to-back switching) from flowing into
the ground grid.
Grounding of Wye Banks
Peninsula Grounding
One or more isolated ground grid conductors are carried g g
underneath the capacitor rack of each phase and tied to the
station ground grid at one point at the edge of the capacitor
area All capacitor bank neutral connections are made to area. All capacitor bank neutral connections are made to
this isolated peninsula ground grid conductor.
Grounding of Wye Banks
Grounding of Wye Banks
References
IEEE Std. 18
IEEE C37.99
NEMA CP-1
IEEE Std 1036
IEEE Std 399 (Brown Book) IEEE Std 399 (Brown Book)