Soil Physics I.

Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL PHYSICS
1.1. Definition of soil physics
Soil physics is the study of the physical properties of the soil and the
relation of these soil physical properties to agricultural, environmental and
engineering uses.
Other definitions include:-
the study of the state and transport of matter and energy in the soil.
the branch of soil science which deals with the physical properties of the
soil, as well as with measurement, prediction, and control of the physical
processes taking place in and through the soil.
The definition implies that:-
it is quantitative and mathematical in nature, and
it is primarily concerned with the fundamental properties of soils.
1.2. Areas of concern in soil physics
Over the years, the primary motivation of soil physics has been to obtain a
greater understanding of the physical processes of soil to ultimately aid in
agriculture, particularly in the production crops. Lately, this emphasis has
been expanded and supplemented to develop a greater understanding of :-
i) transport and retention of water soil or porous media
ii) transport of solutes, and
iii) heat flow in soil,
iv) hydrology and what flow,
v) various environmental and pollution concerns,
vi) spatial and temporal variability of soil properties in the
landscape, etc.

I.1 . 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
2. SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
2.1 Definition and Physical Constituents of Soil
Soil refers to the weathered and fragmented outer layer of the earths
land surface. It is formed initially from disintegration and decomposition of
rocks by physical and chemical processes, and is influenced by the activity
and accumulated residues of numerous biological species.
Soil constitutes:-
Mineral matter quartz, feldspar, silicates,
Organic matter plant and animal residues,
Soil-water solution giving the liquid phase,
Soil air N
2
, O
2
, water vapor, CO
2
, etc
Soil is a heterogeneous, polyphasic, particulate, disperse, and porous
system, in which the interfacial area per unit volume can be very large. The
disperse nature of the soil and its consequent interfacial activity gives rise
to such phenomena as adsorption of water and chemicals, ion
exchange, adhesion and cohesion, swelling and shrinking,
dispersion and flocculation, and capillarity.
States of soil: three phases of ordinary nature exist in the soil as well:
The solid phase- consists of the soil matrix (skeleton)
The liquid phase- consists of soil water, which always contains
dissolved substances so that it should properly called the soil
solution, and
The gaseous phase- the soil atmosphere.
The most important physical properties of soil are texture, structure,
surface area, thermal capacity, aeration, etc.
Q2.1
a) Suggest some situations where only two of the three phases occur
in soil, and
b) Is it possible for soil to consist of one phase?

I.1 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
The spaces between the solid particles are called soil pores. Soil pores are
cavities of different shape and size determined by the shape, size and
arrangement of the solid particles. Normally, the pores form a continuous
space through out the soil. Although larger pores are connected by narrow
channels, there are strictly speaking no discrete pores.
Q2.2
A surface soil in good conditions for plant growth may have the following
volume fractions: mineral matter (0.45), organic matter 0.05, soil solution
0.2-0.3 and soil air 0.3 0.2.
a)- what is the volume fraction of the pores in this surface soil?
b) what is the volume fraction of liquid phase required to saturate the
soil?
Q2.3
In the above problem, consider 1 m
3
of the surface soil.
a. What is the mass of water required to saturate it?
b. What is the mass of air in it when completely dry?
c. What is the mass of the solid phase?
d. What is the mass of the soil when it is saturated? And when dry?
e. What is the mass of the soil when the volume fractions of liquid
phase is only 0.25?
2.2. Soil texture
This is an expression of the predominant size or size ranges, of the
particles. Quantitatively, soil texture refers to the relative proportions of the
various sizes of particles in a given soil. It is static soil physical property,
The traditional method of characterizing particle sizes in soil is to divide the
particles into size ranges known as separates, and soil separate consists of
mineral particles between designated maximum and minimum diameters.

I.2 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
The International Soil Science Society Classification System
mm
m
Coarse sand 2-0.2 2000- 200
Fine sand 0.2- 0.02 200 20
Silt 0.02- 0.002 20 2
Clay < 0. 002 < 2
The USDA classification
Gravel > 2 mm
Sand 2-0.05 mm
Very coarse sand 2 1.0 mm
Coarse sand 1.0 0.5 mm
Medium sand 0.5 0.25 mm
Fine sand 0.25 0.10 mm
Very fine sand 0.10 0.05 mm
Silt 0.05 0.002 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm
Clay and humus form finer particles of the soil. They form the seat of
soil activity. Because of their extremely small particle size, clay and humus
have a large surface area per unit weight. Also they exhibit surface charges
that attract negatively and positively charged ions and water.
Since soils are a mixture of different size particles soils are classified using
the so-called soil textural triangle.

I.3 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
The horizontal lines mark percentages of clay (by mass). The lines angle
upwards to the right mark percentages of silt. The lines angled upwards to
the left mark percentages of sand. So the central point in the loam range is
about 20% clay, 40% silt and 40% sand.
Measuring soil texture textural analysis of soil
There are two stages of particle size analysis. First stage is the mechanical
analysis using sieves. This is used to separate soil particles whose diameter
is greater than 0.05 mm. The second stage is the process of separating
particles whose diameter is less than 0.05 mm. This based on the principles
of Stokes law (sedimentation).
According to Stokes law, for a soil dispersed, and mixed with water (soil
suspension), settling velocity of individual particles depends on particle

I.4 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
diameter, and the forces acting on soil particle are gravitation, buoyancy
and drag forces, all are functions of particle size.
Particle size determination can be made using either the pipette method or
the hydrometer method.
Pipette method is considered to be the most accurate it is based on
direct sampling of the density of the solution. Using a pipette, samples of
the suspension (usually 20 cm
3
) are withdrawn at a given depth after
various periods have elapsed after initiation of sedimentation.
At a depth L below the surface of the suspension and at time t, all
particles whose terminal velocity v is greater than L t will have passed
below this level e.g silt passes through but clay remains.
Stokes law of Sedimentation
The concept of mechanical equilibrium in the gravitational force field is
used in particle size analysis by sedimentation. Forces acting on soil
particle are gravitation, buoyancy and drag forces. When a soil particle is
suspended in water, it first accelerates due to the influence of gravity. As
the velocity increases, the drag force exerted by the water on the particle
due to the viscosity of the water also increases. The net force (weight
minus buoyant force), however remains constant when the drag force has
become equal to the net static force, the resultant force is zero and thus
also the acceleration. Then particle continues to move at a constant
velocity also called terminal velocity.
When a solid spherical particle of radius r and density

, moves through a
viscous liquid, the net static force acting downward is
( ) g r F
l s
s

3
3
4
Where
l

is the density of the liquid.

I.5 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
The drag force on a spherical particle under laminar conditions was shown
by Stokes to be
v r F
d

6
Where

is the viscosity of the liquid.

v

is the terminal velocity of the particle the ve sign indicates that

d
F
is
directed oppositely to
v

(and of course also to

s
F
). Laminar conditions will
persist as long as the Reynolds number which is calculated as

1
2

v r
R
e
remains smaller than about 0.1, which is true for particles
less than 50

m
The sum of forces is zero when the sedimentation velocity has reached the
value for which
( )
3
4
6 0
3
s d
s l
F F r g r v



r r
The terminal velocity, also known as settling velocity or sedimentation
velocity, is then
( )

9
2
1
2

s
r g
v

Since the particles attain a terminal velocity almost instantly, the radius of
particles that travel a distance (S) during a time interval t is then
2
1
1
) ( 2
9
1
]
1

t g
s
r
s

This sedimentation equation is based on a number of simplifying

assumption. When the equation is used for particle- size analysis, the
obtained radius is not actual radius but only an equivalent radius of the
particle. For non-spherical particles such as clays, r is the radius of a
hypothetical spherical particle with the same theoretical settling velocity.

I.6 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Viscosity of water is strongly dependent on temperature and has units of
poises or milliPascal- seconds. Values of viscosity of water at varies
temperatures is presented as shown below.
We usually work at 20
o
C in water and assume
p

= 2.65 g cm
-3

Substituting thus values, check the SI units of sedimentation equation
s
m
s m kg
s kg
s m kg
m kg m s m
s
m

1 1
2
1 1
3 2 2
. .
.
. .
. . . .
Q2.4
Calculate the rate of fall in water at 20
o
C of silt particle with a particle
diameter of 0.02 mm (i.e., 20

10
-6
) g. cm
-3
). Assume the density of the
particle is 2.65 g.cm
-3
and the density of water is 1.0 g .cm
-3
Q2.5
Calculate the terminal velocity corresponding to the upper size limit of the
clay fraction 2
m
, if the temperature is 20
o
C and the particle density is
2650 kg-m
-3
.
Comparing this example with previous example the terminal velocity of clay
is 100 times lower than the medium sized silt particle having a diameter 10
times larger. Assuming that the terminal velocity (v) is attained almost
instantly, we can calculate the time needed for the particle to fall thorough
a distance L in the cylinder to be

Temperature
(
o

C)
g/m.s.
(mPa-s)
0 1.787
10 1.308
20 1.002
30 0.798
40 0.653
50 0.547
I.7 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
0
1
2
) (
18

p
d g
L
t
The diameter of a particle can also be calculated from the sedimentation
equation as
2
1
1
) (
18
1
1
]
1

p
g t
L
d
=
5 . 0
) ( 980
130

'

1
1
]
1

t
L
w p

Since all terms except t are constant this can be written as

t
d

Q2.6
A soil simple was taken from a field for particle size analysis by
sedimentation. It was dried and by various means reduced to its primary
soil particles. The largest grain size were 3 mm and the total mass of solid
phase was 65 g. A 1250 cm
3
sedimentation cylinder filled with water at 20
o
C (

= 10
-3
P
a
s)and a 20 cm
3
pipette were used for estimation of grain
size distribution.
a. Outline briefly the steps for estimating the textural component of the soil
sample.
b. Which sieve sizes are required?
c. The mass of grains larger than 50

m and 2 mm were 15 g and 10 g,

respectively. The rest of the grains are dispersed in the cylinder. Give
the time of sampling after the commencement of sedimentation for a
few grain sizes, if samples are taken at 15 cm depth.
d. What is the textural classification of the samples taken at t = 6.82 min
and t = 682 min?
e. Is the silt content of the sample taken at t = 6.82 min the same as at t =
682 min?
f. If the mass of solid taken at times about 6.82 min and 682 min are
respectively, 0.3 and 0.1 g in 20 cm
3
, find the mass fraction of the
different textural fractions in the original soil sample.

I.8 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
g. What is the textural classification of the original soil sample
h. Justify the use of stakes law in the sedimentation method.

Q2.7
Determine the sedimentation time for a soil particle having a diameter of 2

m and a particle density of 2.60 g/cm

3
( 2.60 g cm
-3
). Assume that the
sampling was made at the 0.10 m depth and at temperature of 20
0
C.
Hydrometer method is less accurate but often used because of its
simplicity for taking measurements. It also depends on Stokes law.
Principle: Depth to the hydrometers center of buoyancy varies with the
density of the suspension and also with the particle size distribution. The
concentration, C, of the soil in suspension, in g/L, can be calculated from
the following equation:
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
p
w
w s
C

1
p

- density of particle ,
w

-density of water,
s

- density of suspension
The stem of the hydrometer is read in density units (g/L) on a scale of 0 to
60) or percentages
o
C
C 100
when the initial concentration, C
0
, is equal to
0.04 Mg/m
3
and
p

is 2.65 g cm
-3
The sampling time is arbitrary, but geometric progression of time intervals
provides a spread of data. For example, at 20
0
C with the Bouyoucos
hydrometer, sampling times of 40 seconds and 8 hour result in
concentration of silt + clay and clay, respectively.
2.3. Specific surface area of soil (s, m
2
/g)
Surface area of soil particles is one important physical property soil
affecting soil for water and solute retention movement. Specific surface

I.9 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
area depends of on shape of soil particles. For instance assuming spherical
shape (r=radius and

=density). surface area (a) of soil is

2
4 r and its
mass (m) is [ ] 3 4
3
r V . Thus the specific surface area of soil
r m a s 3 . It shows that it is inversely proportional to radius. Surface
area of soil affects its physical and chemical properties and is largely
determined by amount of clay present in soil:
Q2.8. Find the mass of 2 mm soil particle
The surface area of the soil is estimated assuming:-
A spherical shape of diameter (d) is:
The ratio of surface area to volume is
2
3/ 6
6
v
d
a
d d

The ratio of surface area to mass
6 2.3
m
s
a
d d

Particle
Effective
Diameter
[cm] Mass (g)
Area
(cm
2
)
Specific
Surface area
(cm
2
g
-1
)
Gravel 210
-1
1.1310
-2
1.310
-1
11.1
Sand 510
-3
1.7710
-7
7.910
-5
444.4
Silt 210
-4
1.1310
-11
1.310
-7
11.110
4
Clay* 210
-4
8.4810
-15
6.310
-8
7.410
6
*Thickness = 10
-7
cm
2.4. Soil Structure
This refers to the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil,
and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together in aggregates.
The aggregation creates intra-aggregate and inter-aggregate pore space,
thereby changing flow paths for water, gases, solutes and pollutants. The
effects on plant growth operate through: aeration, soil compaction, water
relations, soil temperature.


I.10 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Soil texture determines the pore size distribution within peds or aggregates
while structure determines pore size distribution between peds or
aggregates.
Amount and type of clay, as well as the exchangeable ions on the clay (also
water acts as bridge between clay particles). Amount and type of organic
matter, since it provides food for soil fungi and bacteria and their secretion
of cementing agents (polysaccharides); presence of iron and aluminum
oxides (cementing agents); binding between organic and inorganic
compounds (aluminum oxides, cations, clays), vegetation: produces OM,
roots act as holding soil together, and protects soil surface.
Types of soil structure: single grained (windblown particles such as silt;
sand) highly erodable; massive (heavy clays); aggregated (ideal soil
structure). Characterization of soil structure: ( mostly qualitative since it is a
function of time).
Size : particles (particle size distribution); aggregates ( dry-
sieving; water stability test by wet sieving); porosity
Morphological : blocky, plately, prismatic
Physical pore size distribution water desorption method.
Stable aggregate is caused by OM (arid soils) or oxides (humid soils).
Structural stability or resistance of soil to disintegrative forces (rain,
cultivation, soil swelling), depends on type of organic matter and its
changing from low to high C/N as a result of microbial breakdown of OM.
Soil structure deterioration causes soil compaction, reduced gaseous
exchange between atmosphere and soil (aeration), and reduction in
infiltration
The aggregate stability of a soil is the resistance of the soil structure
against mechanical or physico-chemical destructive forces. Soil structure is
one of the main factors controlling plant growth by its influence on root
penetration. Soil temperature and gas diffusion water transport and

I.11 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
seedling emergence and therefore it is an important soil characteristics to
farmers
2.5. Soil Layers
Soil is generated by the weathering of rock in layers that are often very
distinct. The bottom layer is the bedrock, or regolith. As this weathers,
usually by the action of wind and water, it breaks into smaller chunks in the
unconsolidated or C layer. This can be the gravel ground up by glaciers or
by simple freezing and thawing. Often the soil overlaying bedrock has been
deposited by wind, ice or water from bedrock much farther away. The B
layer is composed of particles that are mostly sand-sized or smaller. In this
layer weathering proceeds at a bit faster pace because smaller particles
have a much higher relative surface area upon which chemical can act.
Most of the plant root and biological activity occurs in the A layer above it.
Here weathering is faster yet, accelerated by the chemical and physical
action of life. It is here that the fine clay particles are produced in the
largest quantity. Because they are so small, they tend, along with
chemically soluble products such as carbonates, to be leached out of this
zone into the B layer. If the soil is biologically productive, as in a tall-grass
prairie, the top layer is almost entirely organic, consisting of root mats and
wilted leaves, some of which are decomposing

I.12 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
O1 Undecomposed litter
O Horizon
Organic Plant
Residues
O2 Partly decomposed debris
A1 Zone of humus accumulation
A2 Zone of strongest leaching
A Horizon
Zone of
eluviaiton
(leaching)
A3 Transition to B horizon
B1 Transition to A horizon
B2 Zone of strongest deposition
S
o
l
u
m
,

T
r
u
e

S
o
i
l

B Horizon
Zone of
illuviation
(deposition)
B3 Transition to C horizon
R
e
g
o
l
i
t
h
,

W
e
a
t
h
e
r
e
d

M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

C Horizon
Parent Material
C Unconsolidated rock
R Layer - Bedrock R Consolidated rock


I.13 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Sand Silt Clay

Property 0.05-2 mm 0.002-0.05 <0.002 mm

Means of observation Naked eye Microscope Electro-
microscope
Dominant minerals Primary Primary + second Secondary
Attraction of particles
to each other Low Medium High
Ability to hold chemical
nutrients and supply
them to plants Very low Low High
Consistency properties
when wet Loose, gritty Smooth
Sticky, plastic
Consistency properties
when dry Very loose, gritty Powdery Hard clods
some clods
2.6. Soil Pores and their Classification
One of the most important characteristics of a soil is its porosity (f), =
V
g
+V
w
)/V
t
. What chemical or physical soil processes that do not occur
inside the soil particles (like the transmission of heat), or on their surfaces
(like the retention and release of nutrients for plants) happens in the void
spaces, or pores, between the particles. It is here that air, water, biological
waste products and nutrients are transmitted from one part of the soil to
another. Here is where plant roots, bacteria, fungi, worms and nematodes
live, often changing or enlarging the pore spaces.
The total porosity of soil ranges from 0.3 to 0.6. Coarse-textured soils like
the sands tend to have larger pores but smaller porosities. Fine-textured
soils like clays have very small pores, often the spaces between platelets,
measured in Angstroms (10
-10
m) into which water can wick. These spaces

I.14 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
are called micropores, whereas the much larger voids made by roots and
worms and cracking soil are called macropores.
Storage, availability and transport of soil solution and soil air are not nearly
as much dependent on the porosity as such, as on how the total pore space
is partitioned, the so-called pore size distribution. Soil pores differ in size
and shape as a result of textural and structural arrangements. Based on the
diameter at the narrowest point, pores may be classified as follows:
Macropores > 100

m
Mesopores 30 1000

m
Micropores < 30

m
Although these limits are arbitrary, the functioning of these classes is
roughly the following.
Macropores:- conduct water only during flooding pending rain, etc. They
soon drain after cessation of such water supply. These they affect
aeration and drainage,
Mesopores:- are effective in conducting water also after the macropores
have become empty, such as during non- ponding rain, redistribution
of water, etc.
Micropores:- The remaining soil water solution is retuned or moves very
slowly within the micropores. Part of this water can be taken by plant
roots.
Soil porosity consists of gas filled porosity or aeration porosity
g

and liquid
filled porosity,
l

, which is equal to the volume fraction of liquid, , For

optimum plant growth the aeration porosity should be at least 0.10 0.12
within two to three days after irrigation or heavy rainfall.

2.7. Clay minerals
Primary and secondary minerals
Minerals that have persisted with little change in composition since they
were extruded in molten lava (e.g. quartz, micas and feldspars) are known
as primary minerals. They are most prominent in the sand and silt fractions.

I.15 BG. 2012
Tetrahedron
oxygen atoms
silicon inside
Octahedron
hydroxyls
aluminum, iron or
magnesium inside
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Other minerals, such as the silicates, clays and iron oxides, have been
formed by the breakdown and weathering of less resistant minerals as soil
formation progressed. These minerals are called secondary minerals. They
tend to dominate the clay and in some cases the silt fraction of soil.
Soil particles range in size from slightly larger than molecular size to
stones. The larger particles form the framework or skeleton of the soil,
while the smaller ones fill the space around the contact points and cover
the surfaces of the larger particles. The liquid phase in the soil pores is in
physical contact with the solid phase. At the contact surface, forces of
electrical nature cause phenomena such as swelling, shrinkage,
aggregation, flocculation and dispersion, which in turn influence transport
of air and soil solution. They are typical of soils containing clays and humus.
Clay minerals are formed of sheets of tetrahedral or octahedral basic
molecules, about 5 (10
-10
) m thick. In the 1:1 clays, one tetrahedral sheet
and one octahedral sheet bind tightly together in alternate layers to form a
larger particle. Water cannot penetrate between these sheets and can only
interact with the platelets at their outer edges and planes. In 2:1 clays,
each octahedral sheet is sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets.
Water can be drawn in between the adjacent tetrahedral sheets, causing
the clay to swell and have an extremely large specific surface, Sv. The
orientations of the sheets from one clay particle to the next is generally
random.

I.16 BG. 2012
1:1 clay
tetrahedral sheet
octahedral sheet
tetrahedral sheet
octahedral sheet
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
The specific surface area of clay minerals, which governs many soil
properties, varies from one mineral to another. It is
Montmorillonite 700 800 m
2
. g
-1

Vermiculite 3000 500 m
2
. g
-1
Mica - 100 300 m
2
. g
-1
Kaolinite - 5 100 m
2
. g
-1
The thickness of clay mineral layers varies from mineral to mineral. It is
about 1 nm for Montmorillonite, illite and mica 0.7 nm for kaolinite. The
planar extensions (i.e. length and width) of clay minerals layers varies from
100 nm to 2

m. The ratio thickness/planar extension varies between about

0.5

10
-3
and 10

10
-3
.
2.8 Surface charges of clay minerals
During the formation of clay minerals the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets
do not meet as already finished sheets. Rather, they grow together, unit by
unit. During growth, Si, Al and Mg are hardly ever present in the ideal ratios
required for the clay mineral. Therefore, if A1
3+
- ions are present in excess,
they may occupy S
i
4+ - sites in the crystal lattice. Similarly, Mg
2+
- ions
may occupy sites of A1
3+
- ions if there is a shortage of Al
3+
ions. This

tetrahedral sheet
octahedral sheet
tetrahedral sheet
tetrahedral sheet
octahedral sheet
tetrahedral sheet
water
2:1 clay
I.17 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
process leads to an excess negative charge in the crystal lattice, which
manifests itself as specific surface charge density.
Since overall electrical neutrality is always maintained in nature, the net
negative charge of a clay platelet is compensated by an equivalent positive
charge of cations, ions, such as Na
+
, K
+
, Ca
2+
Mg
2+
, H
+
which are either
adsorbed at the platelet surface or swarm in the surrounding solution.
These cations counteract the negative electrical charge of the clay platelet
towards its surroundings, and are, therefore, also called counter ions.
The charged surface of a clay platelet with its swarm of counter ions is
called a diffuse electrical double layer. The term double layer refers to the
spatial separation of the negatively charged clay platelet and positively
charged counter ions. The later can be divides into two layers:
a fixed layer, also called stern layer, and
a diffuse layer
The fixed layer consists of cations strongly adsorbed at the surface of the
clay platelet, where as the diffuse layer is the adjacent zone of more loosely
bound cations. The thickness of the fixed layer is little more than the
diameter of a single hydrated cation.
The extent of the double layer it is defined as the distance from the clay
surface at which the cation concentration reaches a unit form value or a
minimum. It is also the distance over which the electrical influence of the
clay platelet on its surroundings vanishes.

I.18 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Since the bulk solution is electrically neutral, it contains positive and
negative ions in equal concentration of ionic equivalents. In the double
layer, however, the anion concentration decreases towards the clay
surface. The difference between the total positive charge of the cations and
the total negative charge of the anions in the double layer is equal to the
negative charge of the clay platelet.
2.9. Particle density
Particle density is defined as the mass of soil particles divided by the
volume occupied by the solids, (i.e. excluding voids and water)
typical values for soils range from 2.5 - 2.8 g

cm
-3
with 2.65 g cm
-3
being representative of many soils.
quartz the dominant soil mineral has a value of about 2.65 g cm
-3
which is why this value is frequently given as representing all soils
(1.0 g cm
-3
)
organic matter (1.0 g cm
-3
) (is removed in determining the particle
density)

I.19 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Q2.10
To determine
s

a surveyor took 82 g of powdered dry soil at random, put it

in a glass bottle slightly larger than 100 cm
3
, and added deaerated water at
room temperature. After ascertaining that all the air in the soil was driven
out, he filled the bottle to exactly 100 cm
3
. A bottle with which this can be
done with great accuracy is called a pychnometer. The mass of the water
and the soil was 151 g.
a. Calculate
s

b. Why was it necessary to drive out all the air?

Characteristics of bulk soil
Many of the important transport and retention processes in the soil are
influenced strongly by the composite properties of the soil matrix, which
are sometimes called bulk soil properties. These properties are
commonly characterized with samples that contain many individual soil
particles, void spaces, and water films. Hence, the bulk soil properties are
sold to be volume averaged.
2.10. Volume and mass relationships in soil.
Solid phase - under field conditions, the solid phase occupies from 30
60% of the total soil volume. Ideally the solid phase occupies 50% of the
soil by volume.

I.20 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Liquid phase dynamic rather than stable, volume varies between 0 -
50%, and liquid phase varies in amount and chemical composition.
Gaseous phase is also dynamic and not stable
M
t
= M
s
+M
w
+ M
g
= total mass of the soil
V
t
= V
s
+ V
w
+ V
g
= total volume of the soil
For instance an individual soil particle has a diameter of 2 mm. What is its
mass?
Mass = volume

density
Volume =
3 9 3 3
10 189 . 4 001 . 0
3
4
3
4
m r


Density = 2650 kg m
-3
Mass of the particle (assuming spherical) = 1.11 X 10
-2
g.
Dry bulk density,
b

, is calculated as
t
s
b
V
M

Dry bulk density varies from 1000 to 1800 kg m
-3
but cannot be considered
static particular at the surface due to effects tillage, compaction, etc.
Organic soil bulk density varies between 800- 1000 kg m
-3
.
Particle density this is calculated as

I.21 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
s
s
p
V
M

For mineral soil it varies between 2600 2700 kg m
-3
. For most mineral
soil, it is taken as 2650 kg m
-3
(2.6 g cm
-3
). This is considered to be a static
property of soil.
Total porosity is an index of the relative volume of pores in the soil and
is calculated as:
Porosity ( )
V
V
pores
where V is bulk volume of soil (total soil volume).
Porosity in soil varies between 0.3 (sand, silt) to 0.45 (clays) to 0.7 (peat),
and is largely determined by the soil bulk density.
t
g w
V
V V +

= m
3
of voids/m
3
of soil
For mineral soils, its value generally is between 0.3 and 0.6 m
3
m
-3
. For
coarse- textured soils, value of

tend to be less than for fine- textured

soils, even though the average sizes of the pores are larger in the coarse-
textured soils. Total porosity tends to decrease with depth in the profile
due to compaction. Total porosity gives no information about the pore size
distribution.
Void ratio , (e) this is calculated as
s
w g
V
V V
e
+

=
solids m
voids m
3
3
=[-]
Void ratio expresses the relationship between the volumes occupied by
solids and by voids. Therefore, the volume of voids in a soil volume is the
sum of the volumes of the liquid and gaseous phases. It is used where the
soil is undergoing compaction, shrinking, or swelling and mostly in soil
engineering and mechanics.
Values of e vary between 0.3 and 2.0 m
3
. m
-3
. Compacted soils tend to have
values less than one.

I.22 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
Relation between void ratio and porosity is
The relation between volumetric water content
( )
v

, saturation ratio
( )
s

, and
total porosity(
( ) f
is
f
s v

g w
w
s
V V
V
+

= m
3
of water/m
3
voids. The ratio ranges from 0 1 m
3
m
-
3
.
The relation between total porosity (f), bulk density
b

and particle density

m

is
w g
t s
t t
V V
V V
f
V V
+ _


,
=

,
_

t
s
V
V
1
=
1
]
1

s
s
t
s
M
M
V
V
1
=

,
_

,
_

s
s
t
s
V
M
V
M
1
1
b
p
f

The relation between volumetric water content, water content by weight,
bulk density and water density is
w
b
w v

Soil wetness
Mass wetness,
m

also called
gravimetric water content at 105
0
C dried at temperature little above
boiling point.
s
w
m
m
m

- maximum value of
m

ranges from 25 to 60%

Volume wetness sand 40-50%
f s
w
t
w
V V
V
V
V
+

Degree of saturation (S),
sat
V
w a
w v
V V
V
S

+

This ranges from zero in dry soil to unity (or 100%) for a saturated soil.
Air filled porosity - this measures the relative air content of the soil, and
as such is an important criterion of soil aeration

I.23 BG. 2012

1
e
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
w a s
a
t
a
a
V V V
V
V
V
+ +

Q2.11.
A soil having a bulk density of 1.2 g . cm
-3
and a particle density of 2.65
g.cm
-3
weigh 0.1 kg when sampled and 80 g after oven drying. Find values
of
l

,
a

,
w

and
v

. Calculate the equivalent depth (in meters) of water in

each meter of soil when sampled.
Volume of water in the soil is also expressed by equivalent depth
of water, De:
soil
e
soil
e l
e
D
D
A D
A D
V
V
area Surface of Volume
water Volume
D
Equivalent depth of water per depth of soil
The quantity D
e
is depth of water = D
e
=
z
v w

Where is the depth interval
Where n is the number of layers.
Q2.12
A 100 cm
3
undisturbed soil sample has a mass of 162.5g. After drying at
105
o
C, its mass is reduced to 132. 5g.
a. Find
w

, and
d

b. Find
g l s
and
,
,
c. Is the soil well aerated?

I.24 BG. 2012
Water content
S
o
i
l

d
e
p
t
h
Z
( ) ( )

n i
o i
i vi
z
v e
Z dz z D
0
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties
d. Are the obtained values of
g l s
and
,
,
true for every part of the
soil sample?
Q2.13.
An undisturbed soil core is 10 cm in diameter and 10 cm in length. The wet
soil mass is 1320 g. After oven drying the core, the dry soil mass is 1100 g.
The mineral density of the soil is 2.6 g cm
-3
. Calculate: a. Dry soil bulk
density, b. water content on a mass basis, c. water content on volume
basis, d. soil porosity, e. equivalent depth of water (cm) contained in a 1 m
soil profile, if the undisturbed core is representative of the 1 m soil depth.
Q2.14
Consider a 1.2 m depth of soil profile with 3 layers. The dry bulk density of
each layer (top, center, bottom) is 1.20, 1.35, and 1.48 g/cm
3
. The top 30
cm layer has a water content of 0.12 g/g, the center 50 cm layer has a
water content of 0.18 g/g, and the bottom 40 cm layer has a water content
of 0.22 g/g.
a. what is the total amount of water I the whole profile in mm
b. How much water (mm) do you need to apply to bring the 1.2 m soil
profile to a volumetric water content of 0.35 cm
3
cm
-3
.

I.25 BG. 2012
AgEn 2002: Soil Physics II. Soil Physical Properties

I.1 BG. 2012