Failure Prediction for Cyclic and Impact Loading

All machines and structural designs are problems in fatigue because the forces of Nature are always at work and each object must respond in some fashion. Carl Osgood, Fatigue Design

Image: Aloha Airlines flight 243, a Boeing 737-200, taken April 28, 1988. The mid-flight fuselage failure was caused by corrosion assisted fatigue.

Fatigue Failure
It has been recognized that a metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much lower than that required to cause failure on a single application of load. Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue failures.
Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages Crack Initiation Crack Propagation Final Fracture
2

Fatigue
Fatigue is the name given to failure in response to alternating loads (as opposed to monotonic straining). Instead of measuring the resistance to fatigue failure through an upper limit to strain (as in ductility), the typical measure of fatigue resistance is expressed in terms of numbers of cycles to failure. For a given number of cycles (required in an application), sometimes the stress (that can be safely endured by the material) is specified.
3

Fatigue: general characteristics

Primary design criterion in rotating parts.
Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the notion of a material becoming tired, i.e. failing at less than its nominal strength. Cyclical strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure. Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in ceramics. Also an issue for static parts, e.g. bridges. Cyclic loading stress limit<static stress capability.
MAE dept., SJSU

Ken Youssefi

Fatigue: general characteristics

Most applications of structural materials involve cyclic loading; any net tensile stress leads to fatigue. Fatigue failure surfaces have three characteristic features A (near-)surface defect as the origin of the crack Striations corresponding to slow, intermittent crack growth Dull, fibrous brittle fracture surface (rapid growth). Life of structural components generally limited by cyclic loading, not static strength. Most environmental factors shorten life.
5

Jack hammer component, shows no yielding before fracture.

Crack initiation site

Fracture zone Propagation zone, striation

6

Mecnica de la fractura

Fallo por fatiga en un perno debida a la flexin unidireccional repetida. La falla comenz en la raz de la rosca en A, se propag casi de lado a lado de la seccin transversal, lo cual se muestra por las marcas de playa en B, antes de la fractura rpida final en C.

Fallo por fatiga

La falla por fatiga se debe a la formation y propagation de grietas. Por lo general, una grieta de fractura se inicia en una discontinuidad del material donde el esfuerzo ciclico es mximo. Las discontinuidades pueden surgir debido a: El diseo de cambios rapidos en la section transversal, cueros, orificios, etc., donde ocurren concentraciones del esfuerzo. Elementos que giran y/o se deslizan entre si (cojinetes, engranes, levas, etc.) bajo presin alta constante, lo que desarrolla esfuerzos de contacto concentrados por debajo de la superficie, los cuales pueden causar picaduras o astilladuras despues de muchos ciclos de carga. Falta de cuidado en las ubicaciones de estampados, marcas de herramienta, raspaduras y rebabas; diseo defectuoso de juntas; ensamble inapropiado; y otros errores de fabrication. La propia composition del material despus de su proceso de laminado, forjado, fundido, estirado, calentado, etc. Surgen discontinuidades microscopicas y submicroscopicas en la superficie o por debajo de ella, asi como inclusiones de material extrano, segregaciones de aleacion, huecos, precipitaciones de particulas duras y discontinuidades cristalinas.

VW crank shaft fatigue failure due to cyclic bending and torsional stresses

Propagation zone, striations

Crack initiation site

Fracture area

928 Porsche timing pulley

Crack started at the fillet

Fracture surface of a failed bolt. The fracture surface exhibited beach marks, which is characteristic of a fatigue failure.

1.0-in. diameter steel pins from agricultural equipment. Material; AISI/SAE 4140 low allow carbon steel

10

bicycle crank spider arm

This long term fatigue crack in a high quality component took a considerable time to nucleate from a machining mark between the spider arms on this highly stressed surface. However once initiated propagation was rapid and accelerating as shown in the increased spacing of the 'beach marks' on the surface caused by the advancing fatigue crack.
11

Crank shaft

Gear tooth failure

12

Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.

MAE dept., SJSU

13

Fracture Surface Characteristics Mode of fracture Ductile Typical surface characteristics Cup and Cone Dimples Dull Surface Inclusion at the bottom of the dimple Shiny Grain Boundary cracking Shiny Cleavage fractures Flat Beachmarks Striations (SEM) Initiation sites Propagation zone Final fracture zone
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Brittle Intergranular

Brittle Transgranular

Fatigue

Fatigue Failure Type of Fluctuating Stresses a = max max = - min

Alternating stress

a = min = 0 a = m = max / 2

max
2

min

Mean stress

m =

max + min
2
15

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S-N Curves
S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines locus of cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress. Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also alternating tension-compression. Plot stress versus the log(number of cycles to failure), log(Nf) For frequencies < 200Hz metals are insensitive to frequency; fatigue life in polymers is frequency dependent.

Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore rotating beam machine. The surface is polished in the axial direction. A constant bending load is applied.

Typical testing apparatus, pure bending

Motor

Load

Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

17

Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

N < 103 N > 103

Finite life

Infinite life

Se

Se = endurance limit of the specimen

18

19

Endurance Limits
Some materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e. a stress below which the life is infinite:
Steels typically show an endurance limit, = 40% of yield; this is typically associated with the presence of a solute (carbon, nitrogen) that pines dislocations and prevents dislocation motion at small displacements or strains (which is apparent in an upper yield point). Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits; this is related to the absence of dislocation-pinning solutes.

At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.

Therefore strengthening the surface (shot peening) is beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.

Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength

Steel Se = 0.5Sut 100 ksi Steel

Sut 200 ksi (1400 MPa) Sut > 200 ksi

700 MPa Sut > 1400 MPa

Cast iron 0.4Sut Se = 24 ksi

Cast iron

Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa) Sut 60 ksi

160 MPa Sut < 400 MPa

20

Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength

Aluminum alloys

Aluminum 0.4Sut 19 ksi

Sut < 48 ksi (330 MPa) Sut 48 ksi

Se =

130 MPa Sut 330 MPa For N = 5x108 cycle

Copper alloys

Copper alloys 0.4Sut 14 ksi

Sut < 40 ksi (280 MPa) Sut 40 ksi

Se =

100 MPa Sut 280 MPa For N = 5x108 cycle

21

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

For materials exhibiting a knee in the S-N curve at 106 cycles S = endurance limit of the specimen (infinite life > 106)
e

Se = endurance limit of the actual component (infinite life > 106)

S
3

Se
10
6

10

For materials that do not exhibit a knee in the S-N curve, the infinite life taken at 5x108 cycles

Sf = fatigue strength of the specimen (infinite life > 5x108) Sf = fatigue strength of the actual component (infinite life > 5x108)
S
3

Sf
5x10
8

10

22

23

Geometrical effects
Notches decrease fatigue life through stress concentration. Increasing specimen size lowers fatigue life. Surface roughness lowers life, again through stress concentration. Moderate compressive stress at the surface increases life (shot peening); it is harder to nucleate a crack when the local stress state opposes crack opening. Corrosive environment lowers life; corrosion either increases the rate at which material is removed from the crack tip and/or it produces material on the crack surfaces that forces the crack open (e.g. oxidation). Failure mechanisms

24

Microstructure-Fatigue Relationships
What are the important issues in microstructure-fatigue relationships? three major factors.
1: geometry of the specimen (previous slide); anything on the surface that is a site of stress concentration will promote crack formation (shorten the time required for nucleation of cracks). 2: defects in the material; anything inside the material that can reduce the stress and/or strain required to nucleate a crack (shorten the time required for nucleation of cracks). 3: dislocation slip characteristics; if dislocation glide is confined to particular slip planes (called planar slip) then dislocations can pile up at any grain boundary or phase boundary. The head of the pile-up is a stress concentration which can initiate a crack.

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

or

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) Sf = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Sf)

Load factor, Cload (page 326, Nortons 3rd ed.)

Pure bending Pure axial Pure torsion Combined loading

Cload = 1 Cload = 0.7 Cload = 1 if von Mises stress is used, use 0.577 if von Mises stress is NOT used. Cload = 1

25

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Size factor, Csize (p. 327, Nortons 3rd ed.)
Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is mainly due to the higher probability of flaws being present in larger components.

For rotating solid round cross section

d 0.3 in. (8 mm)

0.3 in. < d 10 in. 8 mm < d 250 mm

Csize = 1 Csize = .869(d)-0.097 Csize = 1.189(d)-0.097

If the component is larger than 10 in., use Csize = .6

26

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

For non rotating components, use the 95% area approach to calculate the equivalent diameter. Then use this equivalent diameter in the previous equations to calculate the size factor. A95 = (/4)[d2 (.95d)2] = .0766 d2 d95 = .95d d

dequiv = (

A95 0.0766

)1/2

Solid or hollow non-rotating parts

Rectangular parts

dequiv = .37d

dequiv = .808 (bh)1/2

27

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

I beams and C channels

28

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

surface factor, Csurf (p. 328-9, Nortons 3rd ed.)
The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most components do not have a polished surface. Scratches and imperfections on the surface act like a stress raisers and reduce the fatigue life of a part. Use either the graph or the equation with the table shown below.

29

Csurf = A (Sut)b
30

31

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Temperature factor, Ctemp (p.331, Nortons 3rd ed.)
High temperatures reduce the fatigue life of a component. For accurate results, use an environmental chamber and obtain the endurance limit experimentally at the desired temperature. For operating temperature below 450 oC (840 oF) the temperature factor should be taken as one.

Ctemp = 1

for T 450 oC (840 oF)

32

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Reliability factor, Crel (p. 331, Nortons 3rd ed.)
The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).

33

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf

Experimental data shows that the actual stress concentration factor is not as high as indicated by the theoretical value, Kt. The stress concentration factor seems to be sensitive to the notch radius and the ultimate strength of the material. Notch sensitivity factor Fatigue stress Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q concentration factor rd
(p. 340, Nortons 3 ed.)

Steel

MAE dept., SJSU

34

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf for Aluminum

(p. 341, Nortons 3rd ed.)

MAE dept., SJSU

35

Design process Fully Reversed Loading for Infinite Life

Determine the maximum alternating applied stress (a ) in terms of the size and cross sectional profile Select material Sy, Sut Choose a safety factor n Determine all modifying factors and calculate the endurance limit of the component Se Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf Use the design equation to calculate the size

Se Kf a = n
Investigate different cross sections (profiles), optimize for size or weight You may also assume a profile and size, calculate the alternating stress and determine the safety factor. Iterate until you obtain the desired safety factor
36

Design for Finite Life

Sn = a (N)b equation of the fatigue line

A S
3

A B Se
10
6

S Sf N
10
3

B
8

10

5x10

Point A

Sn = .9Sut
N = 10
3

Point A

Sn = .9Sut
N = 103

Point B

Sn = Se
N = 10
6

Point B

Sn = Sf
N = 5x108
37

Design for Finite Life

Sn = a (N)b
log Sn = log a + b log N Apply boundary conditions for point A and B to find the two constants a and b

log .9Sut = log a + b log 103 log Se = log a + b log 106

a= b=

(.9Sut) Se
1 3

log

.9Sut Se

Sn = Se ( 106 )
Calculate Sn

Se log ( .9S ) ut

and replace Se in the design equation

Sn Kf a = n
Design equation
38

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life

Mean stress exist if the loading is of a repeating or fluctuating type.

Mean stress is not zero

Gerber curve Alternating stress Se Goodman line

Soderberg line

Sy Mean stress

Sut

m
39

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

a
Sy Yield line

Alternating stress

Se Goodman line Safe zone

C

Sy Mean stress

Sut

40

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

a
Sy Yield line

Se Goodman line Safe zone - m - Syc Safe zone

C

Sy

Sut

+m

41

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

Fatigue,

m 0

Fatigue,

m > 0 Sut Sut

= = 1 1 Infinite life

a
Se

+ +

m m

nf
Finite life Yield

a = n f
Yield Se Syc Safe zone - m - Syc

Se

a
Sn

a + m = n y

Safe zone

a + m = n y
Sy Sut +m

Sy

42

Applying Stress Concentration factor to Alternating and Mean Components of Stress

Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf, apply directly to the alternating stress Kf a If Kf max < Sy then there is no yielding at the notch, use Kfm = Kf and multiply the mean stress by Kfm Kfm m If Kf max > Sy then there is local yielding at the notch, material at the Calculate the stress concentration factor for the mean stress using the following equation, Kfm =

notch is strain-hardened. The effect of stress concentration is reduced.

Sy

m
1

Kf a

Fatigue design equation Kf a Kfmm = +

Se

Sut

nf

Infinite life
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Combined Loading
All four components of stress exist,

xa xm

alternating component of normal stress

mean component of normal stress alternating component of shear stress mean component of shear stress

xya xym

Calculate the alternating and mean principal stresses,

1a, 2a = (xa /2) 1m, 2m = (xm /2)

(xa /2)2 + (xya)2 (xm /2)2 + (xym)2

44

Combined Loading
Calculate the alternating and mean von Mises stresses,
2 a = (1a + 2a - 1a2a)1/2 2 2 m = (1m + 2m - 1m2m)1/2 2

Fatigue design equation

a
Se

m
Sut

nf

Infinite life

45

Design Example
A rotating shaft is carrying 10,000 lb force as shown. The shaft is made of steel with 12 d A

10,000 lb. 6 6 D = 1.5d R2

Sut = 120 ksi and Sy = 90 ksi. The shaft is rotating at 1150 rpm and has a machine finish surface. Determine the diameter, d, for 75 minutes life. Use safety factor of 1.6 and 50% reliability.
Calculate the support forces, The critical location is at the fillet, Calculate the alternating stress,

R1 r (fillet radius) = .1d

R1 = 2500, R2 = 7500 lb. MA = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in

a =

Mc

32M

305577

m = 0

Determine the stress concentration factor d D = 1.5 d

r = .1

Kt = 1.7
46

Design Example
Assume d = 1.0 in

Using r = .1 and Sut = 120 ksi, q (notch sensitivity) = .85

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.7 1) = 1.6

Calculate the endurance limit

Cload = 1 (pure bending) Crel = 1 (50% rel.) Ctemp= 1 (room temp) Csurf = A (Sut)b = 2.7(120)
0.3 in. < d 10 in.
-.265

= .759
-0.097

Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(1)

= .869
ksi
47

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.759)(.869)(.5x120) = 39.57

Design Example
Design life, N = 1150 x 75 = 86250 cycles Se log ( .9S ) 86250 N ut 39.57 ( Se ( 6 ) Sn = Sn = 6
10 10

log ( .9x120 )
= 56.5 ksi 56.5

39.57

a =

305577

= 305.577 ksi

n=

Sn Kfa

1.6x305.577

= .116 < 1.6

So d = 1.0 in. is too small Assume d = 2.5 in All factors remain the same except the size factor and notch sensitivity.

Using r = .25 and Sut = 120 ksi, q (notch sensitivity) = .9 Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(2.5)
-0.097

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .9(1.7 1) = 1.63

= .795

Se = 36.2 ksi
48

Design Example
Se = 36.2 ksi

Sn = 36.20 (

86250
106

36.2 log ( .9x120 ) = 53.35 ksi

a =

305577

(2.5)

= 19.55 ksi

n=

Kfa

Sn

53.35 1.63x19.55

= 1.67 1.6

d = 2.5 in.

Check yielding

n=

Sy 90 = 2.8 > 1.6 okay = Kfmax 1.63x19.55

49

Design Example Observations

n= Sn Kfa
= 56.5 1.6x305.577 = .116 < 1.6 d R1 r (fillet radius) = .1d A 12 6 6 D = 1.5d R2 = 7500

So d = 1.0 in. is too small Calculate an approximate diameter

n=

Sn Kfa

56.5 1.6x305.577/d
3

= 1.6

d = 2.4 in.

So, your next guess should be between 2.25 to 2.5

Check the location of maximum moment for possible failure Mmax (under the load) = 7500 x 6 = 45,000 lb-in MA (at the fillet) = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in But, applying the fatigue stress conc. Factor of 1.63, Kf MA = 1.63x30,000 = 48,900 > 45,000

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Example
A section of a component is shown. The material is steel with Sut = 620 MPa and a fully corrected endurance limit of Se = 180 MPa. The applied axial load varies from 2,000 to 10,000 N. Use modified Goodman diagram and find the safety factor at the fillet A, groove B and hole C. Which location is likely to fail first? Use Kfm = 1 Pa = (Pmax Pmin) / 2 = 4000 N Pm = (Pmax + Pmin) / 2 = 6000 N

Fillet

d D 35 = = 1.4 d 25

4 = .16 25

Kt = 1.76

51

Example
Using r = 4 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .85
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.76 1) = 1.65 Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 = 52.8 MPa = 1.65 a = Kf A 25x5 Pm 6000 = 48 MPa = m = A 25x5 Fatigue design equation

Se

Sut

Infinite life

52.8 48 = + 180 620

n = 2.7

52

Hole d 5 = = .143 w 35 Kt = 2.6

Example

Using r = 2.5 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .82

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .82(2.6 1) = 2.3 Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 = 61.33 MPa Kf = 2.3 a = A (35-5)5 Pm 6000 = 40 MPa = m = A 30x5 61.33 40 = + 180 620 1

n = 2.5
MAE dept., SJSU

53

Example
Groove

d Kt = 2.33 D 35 = = 1.2 d 29 Using r = 3 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .83 Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .83(2.33 1) = 2.1 Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 = 58.0 MPa = 2.1 a = Kf A (35-6)5

3 = .103 29

m =

Pm A

6000

29x5
1

= 41.4 MPa

58.0 41.4 = + 180 620

n = 2.57
54

The part is likely to fail at the hole, has the lowest safety factor

Example
The figure shows a formed round wire cantilever spring subjected to a varying force F. The wire is made of steel with Sut = 150 ksi. The mounting detail is such that the stress concentration could be neglected. A visual inspection of the spring indicates that the surface finish corresponds closely to a hot-rolled finish. For a reliability of 99%, what number of load applications is likely to cause failure. Fa = (Fmax Fmin) / 2 = 7.5 lb. Fm = (Fmax + Fmin) / 2 = 22.5 lb. Ma = 7.5 x 16 = 120 in - lb Mm = 22.5 x 16 = 360 in - lb = 23178.6 psi = 69536 psi

a =

Mc

32Ma

d d

32(120)

(.375)
=

m = Mc I

32Mm
3

32(360)

(.375)

55

Calculate the endurance limit

Example
Csurf = A (Sut)b = 14.4(150)
2

Cload = 1 (pure bending) Ctemp= 1 (room temp) Crel= .814 (99% reliability)

-.718

= .394

A95 = .010462 d (non-rotating round section)

dequiv =

A95 / .0766

= .37d = .37 x.375 = .14

dequiv = .14 < .3 Csize = 1.0

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.394)(.814)(.5x150) = 24.077 a

Se
+

ksi

m
Sut

23178.6 69536 = + 24077 150000

n = .7 < 1
Finite life

Find Sn, strength for finite number of cycle

a
Sn

m
Sut

=1

23178.6

Sn

69536 =1 150000

Sn = 43207 psi

56

Example
log (
Se ) .9Sut

Sn = Se ( 106 )

43207 = 24077

N 106

log (

24.077 ) .9x150

N = 96,000 cycles

57

58

Fatigue: summary
Critical to practical use of structural materials. Fatigue affects most structural components, even apparently statically loaded ones. Well characterized empirically. Connection between dislocation behavior and fatigue life offers exciting research opportunities, i.e. physically based models are lacking!