Raphael W. Kareri Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya SOME ASPECTS OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF KENYA LOCATION.

Kenya is located approximately between latitudes 5oN (i.e. at Ilemi triangle) and 4o 40 south( i.e at the small islands including Ras Jimbo to the south of Shimoni village in Kwale district). It is almost bisected by the Equator horizontally and vertically by 38o East longitude. Longitudinally it extends from longitude 33 o 53 East of Greenwich Meridian (i.e from Suba, Mfangano, Ilemba and the pyramid islands on Lake Victoria) to 41o 55.5 East (- i.e the location of Mandera town). It has a total area of 582646 km2 of which 2.3% of the total area is occupied by water surface. An important part of the inland water surface is covered by a portion of L. Victoria( an area of 3,755km2) Other inland waters located on the Rift Valley floor extending from the northern tip of L. Natron to the Northern end of L. Turkana. Kenya has a coastline of approximately 402 km, and a territorial sea extending to 21.2km offshore. To its south-east lies the Indian Ocean- this serves the Republic as an important outlet and means of international maritime contact. It shares boundaries with the Republic of Uganda to the west, the Sudan and Ethiopia in the north, Tanzania to the south and Somalia in the East. Kenya is divided into eight administrative provinces. Out of the eight units the largest is the Rift Valley (173,868km2), followed in order of size by Eastern (159, 891km2), North- Eastern (126,902km2), Coast (83,603km2),Nyanza(16,162km2), Central(13,176km2), Western(8,360km2) and Nairobi(684km2). Kenya is about 2.5 times the size of Uganda and can fit 1.5 times into Tanzania. The present map of Kenya is a result many years of negotiations between the various superpowers that had colonized the East African region.

MAP 1. LOCATION OF KENYA IN AFRICA

MAP 2. PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE BOUNDARIES

GEOLOGY In geological terms Africa is the oldest of all the continents. It has been emergent for over 250 million years. All the other continents are relatively recent.
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The continental drift in Africa has not been very intense, and one can note that since Mesozoic times Kenya has been part of an African continent occupying tropical latitudes and bordered by an eastern ocean. Marine transgressions occurred during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods of the Mesozoic era, but the sea did not extend more than 150km inland from the present coastline. The Tertiary period that followed, and that marked the beginning of the present Cenozoic era, was associated first with a regional uplift of up to 600m in Central Kenya. This was followed by great volcanic activities, which continued into the Quaternary period. The Rift Valley was formed and extensive areas of the Pre-Cambrian Shield were overlaid by lava and by Quaternary sediments. In the earlier period of the quaternary period (Pleistocene), the giraffe and immediate ancestors of other modern ungulates developed and became acquainted with hunting man. Over these millions of years, Kenya has borne many landscapes. Where a landscape has not been superseded or rejuvenated by volcanism or uplift and faulting, it has been reduced by weathering and erosion. The Pre-Cambrian geological formation in Kenya fall in what we call the Nyanzian system. The Nyanzian shield and the metamorphism involved are found in the early Pre-Cambrian with ages about 3,000 million years. The rocks of the Nyanzian system are well-developed around L. Victoria where they are associated with intrusive gold-bearing granites. Typically the Nyanzian system contains banded ironstones with quartzite, which are mainly developed east of the lake. All have suffered slight metamorphism as a result of intense folding and granitic batholithic intrusions. The only record of Paleozoic and lower Mesozoic times in Kenya are rocks of the Karroo system, noted for their fossil beds and coal-bearing strata. They are most extensive in southern Kenya (e.g. the Mariakani sandstones). They are also to be found in the arid N/E Kenya, where Mandera district lies almost exclusively on Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments. Quaternary sediments are mostly of terrestrial origin and include lake and river deposits from Pleistocene times and more recent alluvial and swamp deposits. They are well distributed in the lowlands of Eastern Kenya. A large sector of Northern and Central Kenya, extending into Tanzania is covered by volcanic of Tertiary to Recent origin- the product of some of the tectonic disturbances that have so greatly affected the topography and drainage of Kenya. The Great Rift Valley is only one feature of these disturbances.

Associated with the formation of the Rift Valleys was an upwarping of large plateau surface which, with additional lava flows and ash deposits formed much of the Kenya Highlands. The Lake Victoria basin also owes its development to warping of a plateau surface, which resulted in a reversal of much of the original drainage system. MAP 3. The Geology of Kenya

RELIEF AND DRAINAGE Kenyas relief stretches from sea level to 5,199metres at the peak of Mt. Kenya. This combined with its tropical latitudinal location creates a varied physical environment with characteristics that are almost equatorial proper contrasting with semi-arid and arid environments. These wide ranging conditions facilitate the cultivation of a wide variety of crops and animal husbandry. Topography is described as both simple and diverse. Its simplistic form is shown by the fact that the relief can easily be separated into lowlands and uplands along the 915metres contour line. Diversity is told by the fact that every landform type of the physical geography textbook is found in Kenya-Equatorial, Savannah, Aeolian, Glacial, and Volcanic, Tectonic etc. Kenya has often been described as the WORLD IN ONE COUNTRY. The Kenyan landscape, with its wide variety of forms, is closely linked with such factors as climate, micro-climate, water supply, soils, vegetation and agricultural potential. Some of the sharp contrasts in Kenyas landscape result from the considerable differences in age of the component landforms. The widespread plains and plateau typical of large parts of the African continent are remnants of old erosion surfaces formed during the Tertiary period. These are now warped and broken by faults in many areas while elsewhere volcanic activity has produced further modifications. Earth movements which have been important in late Tertiary, Pleistocene and Recent times have resulted in the formation of the major mountain blocks and Rift Valley systems. These were accompanied by extensive volcanic lava emissions which covered over 30% of the country. As a consequence of volcanism and earth movements the drainage has been dislocated, interrupted and modified, and there is hardly a river which has not been affected. Many lakes have been formed in down warped of faulted areas. In coastal regions the history has been further complicated by Pleistocene changes of sea level.

MAP 4. DIVISION OF KENYA INTO LOWLANDS AND HIGHLANDS

MAP 5. PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF KENYA

MAJOR PHYSICAL REGIONS Kenya can be divided into six major natural geographical regions namely; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Coastal belt and plains The Coastal Hinterlands-Duruma-Wajir low belt Foreland plateau The highlands-comprising Eastern and Western Nyanza low plateau-part of the Lake Victoria basin The Northern plain lands.

COASTAL BELT AND PLAINS The Coastal Margins There are two main types of coastal areas in Kenya, the deltas of the major rivers and the coral fringed areas away from the rivers. The deltaic zones are usually marked offshore by shallow water and low islands or submerged banks formed by alluvial debris. The coastline is low and dominated by small creeks and inlets and extensive mangrove forests. Coral reefs and banks are commonly found 10 to 15 km from the main coastline. Near Mombasa there is a narrow coastal plain one to fifteen km wide formed on old coral platforms or marine terraces. Locally, coral sand has been washed alongshore to form smooth sweeping beaches. At other points smaller streams have cut long narrow inlets through the older coral formations and these were drowned by the post glacial rise in sea level to form the major harbors of Mombasa/Kilindini. The coastal zone is important because of these harbors and its tourist potential. The Coastal Hinterland-(Duruma-Wajir Low Belt) This zone is often included with the coastal margins in a unit under the general name coastal plain, which is misleading because there is usually a distinct scarp separating the coastal plain from it. Behind the scarp the coastal hinterland consists of a dissected plateau which is underlain by sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Jurassic to Pliocene. Much of the region shows a welldeveloped planation surface. In its southern portion a number of residual hills including Shimba(443m), Jibana(314m), Lali(426m) and Kulalu(443m) are to be found. This does suggest that these residuals, although partly the product of the porous nature of the Duruma Sandstones, also record a higher and therefore older erosion surface. It varies considerably in character but it is unified by the fact that streams have cut deeply into it. Hence steep sided river valleys contrast with smooth plateau surfaces further inland. Some limestone areas in southern coast of Kenya provide very distinctive scenery and contain a maze of cave systems.

A number of major rivers- Galana-Sabaki and Tana flow into the Indian ocean and all have well developed alluvial sections made up of gently sloping, seasonally swampy grounds. The development potential of these areas includes large scale irrigation projects. THE LOW FORELAND PLATEAU This is relatively narrow belt from Mt. Kirimanjaro foothills through the Taita hills northwards through Kitui to slightly beyond Garba Tula. The monotony of the land is only broken by the residual hills and masses of broken boulders and inselbergs which jet above the plateau. The area between the Serengeti plains and the Amboseli Plains is dominated by the imposing Chulu Range(2,173m).The famous Amboseli Game Reserve and Tsavo National Park are situated here. THE KENYA HIGHLANDS The Kenya Highlands provide an interesting example of a high altitude environment in the tropics with a characteristically diversified agriculture showing both tropical and temperate feature. All within a fairly compact area. The geology of the Highlands is complex. Basement rock systems everywhere form the underlying geological foundation. They include granites, gneisses, schist, granulites and quartzite, all of which are metamorphic in character and date back to the pre-Cambrian period. However, outcrops of the basement rocks are not widespread because they have largely been covered by later volcanic material. The physical characteristics of the Highlands are closely related to their geological foundation. The Rift Valley is the obvious focal feature of the area, dividing the highlands into three broad units namely; The Highlands to the East of the Rift Valley Highlands to the West of the Rift Valley The Rift Valley itself

The Highlands to the East of the Rift Valley The Highlands to the East of the Rift Valley are dominated by the Tertiary to Recent volcanic lavas areas-varying in altitude from 1,500-2,300m. Numerous volcanic cones emerge above this general level. The Western boundary of this sub-region is marked by the sharp longitudinal fault scarp of the Aberdares. This scarp shows signs of intensive faulting, especially on the Kinangop Plateau. To the northeast this longitudinal fault line, the Aberdare range slopes from an altitude of 3,994m to the Laikipia Plateau (2,010m).

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Eastwards the Aberdares are separated from the great volcanic pile of Mt. Kenya by an area of relatively rolling land averaging 2,000m and commonly referred to as the Nyeri Col. The soils on the slopes are, however, well-drained, deeply weathered and fertile having been formed from parent rock material which consists chiefly of Tertiary to Recent trachytic basalts and phonolites. Southwards and southeastwards the Aberdare give way to the deeply dissected ridge and valley country of Kikuyuland; varying in altitude from 2,400m down to 1,500m. It is along these eastfacing slopes that the Aberdares display fantastic signs of dissection into parallel ridges and valleys by the head waters of the Tana and Athi rivers. The Laikipia Plateau This great lava plateau area is hemmed to the West by the Aberdare range, to the south and south-east by Mt.Kenya and to the east by the Mukogodo basement system area. The plateau averages an altitude of 2,000m, but rises to over 2,500m on the Aberdare slopes and 2,250m on the Mt. Kenya slopes. The Laikipia plateau is very flat and rolls gently where it is cut into by the various rivers-the Narok and the Ewaso Ngiro and their tributaries which flow down from the Aberdares. These rivers provide an essential source of perennial water supply for the ranches which occupy most of this area. The only alternative to this source are natural springs from aquifers fed by the waters from higher ground to the west and south. Wildlife conservation and cattle ranching are the mainland use activities-good examples include Olpejeta and Serena Game conservancies, and the Solio, Sugur oi, Chololo ranches. A number tourist hotels dot the landscape. The Athi-Kapiti Plains and the Machakos Hills The Athi-Kapiti plains are formed by flat and low-lying phonolithic lavas and are similar to those of the Laikipia plateau. The plains vary in altitude from 1,200m to 1,400m in south-east and the south respectively. This flat area is drained by several tributaries of the river Athi, which have cut their beds deeply into the lava plain. The Athi-kapiti is hemmed in the south by the hilly area of Machakos. The plain receives low rainfall (760mm). The vegetation is dominated by the Acacia-Themeda associations. The Highlands to the West of the Rift Valley Although the highlands to the west of the Rift Valley are apparently more complex than those to the east, they fall into several definable sub-regions, namely; 1. The Uasin-Gishu Plateau; 2. The Trans-Nzoia upland including the Mt. Elgon slopes; and 3. The Kericho-Sotik-Kisii uplands
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The land is deeply dissected by streams which are the headwaters of rivers draining westwards into Lake Victoria. The Uasin-Gishu Plateau The volcanic upland areas of Molo and Mau Narok slope north wards on to the flat lava plateau of the Uasin-Gishu. The southern parts of this plateau at 2,450-2,750m are higher and more dissected. They give way northwards and north-westwards to an extremely flat plain with an altitude varying from 2,100-2,250m. The flatness is most marked in the area in the east locally referred to as Plateau Much of the Uasin-Gishu is apparently arable, but many areas are interrupted by sub-surface duricrust which causes poor drainage-Lelmorok area near Moi University. Areas in the west and north have been deeply dissected by the head waters of the River Nzoia which exposes the basement rock system giving rise to undulating or hilly topography. The Trans-Nzoia upland, including the Mt. Elgon slopes The Trans-Nzoia is simply a northward continuation of the Uasin-Gishu, beyond the River Nzoia. The main distinction between the two physiographic units is based on the predominant geology. Uasin-Gishu plateau stands primarily on Tertiary to Recent phonolitic lavas and the Trans-Nzoia on the pre-Cambrian gneisses and schists of the basement system. The Trans-Nzoia upland is hemmed in to the west by the Mt. Elgon and to the east by the Cherangany hills. The topography is dominated by the tributaries of the Nzoia River. Large areas which are either swampy or seasonally waterlogged are associated with river valleys such as the Koitoboss swamp and the Saiwa samp, north of Kitale Township. The Saiwa swamp is a protected game reserve and a Ramsar site-i.e. wetland of international importance. It is home to the rare Sitatunga and a variety of bird species and reptiles. The Kericho-Sotik-kisii uplands This may be regarded as the south-westward extension of the general upland area which drops in altitude towards Kericho. Most of the rocks in this region belong to the basement system, although there are limited areas of Tertiary to Recent volcanics. The varied geological formation of the region have given rise to equally varied landscapes, with hilly areas dominating the west, an undulating high plain in the centre(1,800m) and volcanic ridges to the west. The Kisii highlands provide an example of maturely dissected scenery on which is preserved some excellent remnants of Gondwana Summit Plain.

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The region supports rich agricultural activities due to its rich volcanic soils and high rainfall. Cash crops such as tea and sugarcane are grown. Dairy farming is also popular. However, problems of environmental conservation are posing serious challenges. THE RIFT VALLEY One of the most remarkable features of the Earths crust is the Rift Valley of Africa. The valley, or rather the valleys, forms a more or less continuous scar from Israel and Jordan in S/W Asia all the way to Mozambique in Southern Africa. One of the most prominent parts of the Valley system is the so-called the Gregory Rift Valley in Kenya. Flaked by scarp lines like the Nyandarua Range (Aberdares) on its eastern side and the Mau Escarpment on its western side, it reaches relative altitude of 1,000m or more. The distance between E-W escarpments varies from 48-64km. The evolution of the Rift Valley has been discussed very much over the years, the two most favoured ideas being the tension theory and the compression theory. In connection with the breakthrough of the theory of plate tectonics, the former seems to be a more realistic one, supported particularly by the fact that gravity measurements indicate a higher position of the astenosphere under the Rift Valley than in the surrounding areas. The development of the Gregory Rift Valley is strongly linked to the formation of volcanoes and volcanic eruptions. As the faults occurred in a series of parallel faults, the sides of the main valley are typically stepped; although lower down into the valley bottom these benches or platforms mark the former lake levels. In the floor of the valley are a number of younger volcanic plugs and cones. The more important cones are, from north to south, Silali(2,355m),Menengai(2,279m), Longonot(2,776m) Suswa(2,3550m) and Shimbole(1,564m). The tops of these cones have been either partly or wholly blown off to form craters while that of Menengai is large enough to be classed as a caldera. NYANZA LOW PLATEAU-PART OF THE LAKE VICTORIA BASIN This is part of the more obvious down warped Lake Victoria basin. Much of the length is dominated by an extensive erosion surface at an altitude range from 1,216-1,520m. Above this plain, is the higher much dissected, granitic tor and bare-rock inselberg landscape of the Maragoli Hills. A series of three parallel stepped faults occurs below Maseno towards the lake and their effect is well marked on the landscape. Along the southern slope in particular, volcanic cones such as Gwasi Hills( 2,271m), Gembe Hills, Ruri Hills and Homa Hills, stand out and dominate the skyline.

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The region is dominated by the Kano Rift Valley, which runs west-east with its western part (The WinamGulf) still part of the lake. The Kano plain is near perfect flat Rift floor that is suited for irrigation crop-cultivation. To the north is the well-watered Kakamega and parts of Siaya districts with their markedly high rural population. Towards the lake, the soils are poorer and are being colonized by a weed (-lantana camara, L.Trifolia). the shrub grows to a height of about 2-4 metres forming a 100% canopywith no undergrowth, but with the lower one metre of sheltered space providing an excellent habitat for the deadly tsetse fly. THE NORTHERN PLAINLANDS. This region covers practically the whole of Northern Kenya. Its unity is by its endless aridity and low human population. It is dominated by extensive low lying interior plains that range in height between 366m and 912m. It is a natural continuation of the low foreland Plateau. The plains have had different origins. The Marsabit area is a lava plateau, the Moyale area has been carved by erosion out of the basement rocks, and the Mandera plain is of Mesozoic sediments. A number of volcanic cones interrupt the monotony of the landscape-these are:Marsabit(1,428m), Kulal(2,294m)Hurri Hills(1,479m) and other smaller ones. In most places, the edges of the lava plateau form prominent scarps which add diversity to the landscape. The dunes and the extensive sand plains are formed by the mantle from these volcanics. There is a true desert environment in the Chalbi area where Aeolian processes are dominant. Due to overgrazing the whole region is threatened with desertification. Cases of long dry spells that desiccate the land are common. The pastoral economy is no longer sustainable and people have to depend on government relief supplies most of the time. Notable infrastructure development in the region include; the Kapenguria-lodwar-Sudan road, Isiolo-Marsabit-Moyale road and Isiol-Wajir road. These efforts have eased transportation in the region making it accessible from other parts of Kenya. THE DRAINAGE PATTERNS The drainage system in a Kenya is largely determined by the Great Rift Valley and can be divided into: 1. Lake Victoria basin. Comprises the whole of the area west of the RiftValley draining into L.Victoria. Main rivers are the Nzioa, Yala,Nyando, Sio, and Sondu-Miriu. 2. Rift Valley Basin. Is an area of internal drainage discharging into L. Turkana in the north and L. Natron in the south. Within this area are several sub-drainage areas discharging into a number of smaller lakes.

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3. Athi RiverBasin. Comprises of the southern part of the country east of the Rift Valley, draining the southern slopes of the Nyandarua (Aberdare) range to form the Athi River which in its lower reaches is known as Sabaki or Galana and discharges into the Indian ocean. 4. The Tana River Basin. Comprises the northern slopes of the Aberdare range, the southern slopes of Mt. Kenya and the Nyambene range, and discharge into the Indian Ocean. It is the largest river in Kenya 5. Ewaso Ngiro Basin. Comprises the northern slopes of the Aberdare range and Mt. Kenya. The river continues to the Lorian swamp, which marks the end of its normal flood flow. 6. Table 1. Showing the Percentage Area drained by the respective drainage area Basin Lake Victoria RiftValley Inland Drainage Athi River and Coast Tana River Ewaso Ngiro North Percentage of total land Area 8.0% 22.4% 11.55 21.7% 36.3%

It is important to note that Kenya has five water towers which form the sources of all the rivers draining the above basins. These are: The Mt. Kenya The Aberdare Range The Mau Complex The Mt. Elgon The Cherangany Hills

These valuable ecosystems are, however, under continuous threat from human encroachment. The result of which is manifested in the drying up of rivers and streams.

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MAP 6: PRESENT DRAINAGE PATTERN

CLIMATE AND AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF KENYA Climate is the average weather. It describes the condition of different weather variables for a specified area during a specified time interval. Many natural factors influence the climate and have the potential to change it. The climatic factor of greatest economic and social significance in Kenya is rainfall. Evaporation, radiation, temperature wind speed, sunshine hours and humidity add detail to our understanding of the impact of climate on society. About 80% of the total land area of Kenya is occupied by the arid and semi-arid lands. Here, the rainfall is not only sparse but is also characterized by high variability between years and seasons. It is also extremely unpredictable. In addition, the rain often occurs as very localized and intense
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storms which cause flooding and heavy run-offs. Sometimes massive soil erosion results due to the scant vegetation cover. In the more humid areas, in Kenya Highlands, the rain is concentrated into definite seasons. Rainfall in the Highlands is very seasonal and this is important from the agricultural point of view. Precipitation commonly comes in two seasons in a year, and this has given rise to the popular terminology of the long rains and the short rains. Areas to the East of the Rift Valley display a strongly bimodal pattern; others still are more complex and show three peaks (eg. Nyahururu). Areas to the West of the Rift Valley which receives higher and better spread rainfall, but it is often accompanied by thunderstorms which encourage rapid run-off. Hail damage is often severe. The year is consequently divided into two distinctive seasons, so that crops grown must either be able to fit into one or the other of the season, or else withstand the prolonged period of no rain. .The dominant controls of the weather and climate of Kenya are: (a) The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (b) Topography and aspect, which influence the intensity of ITCZ (c) Latitude which affects the timing of rainfall minima and maxima (d) Inland lakes, e.g. L. Victoria, which provide local sources of moisture The ITCZ is also known as the equatorial trough. It is the area of convergence between the dry continental air mass (N/E trade winds) and the moist, tropical S/E trade winds. The pattern of rainfall results from the annual north-south shift of the ITCZ. Over the oceans the ITCZ characterizes an area of doldrums winds which are generally calm. However, over the land the ITCZ is a zone of converging winds and instability. The ITCZ lies about 50 S in the northern winter and about 150 N in the southern winter. The annual mean position is 50 N.

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES Agro-climatic zones indicate which areas are climatically suitable for different crops. There have been several attempts to characterize site potentials in Kenya based on the ecological factors of climate, soils and vegetation. Pratt, Greenway and Gwynne (1966, 1972) calculated moisture indices according to the Thornthwaite 91948) system. The moisture indices were used in conjunction with vegetation to define and delimit eco-climatic zones in Kenya. Wood head (1970) calculated and mapped the available water Index (AWI) for many stations in Kenya and equated the AWI with the ecological zones of Pratt et al (1966). In most ecological classifications in East Africa, the vegetation has been used widely as an indication of climate and agricultural land potential. This is because in general the vegetation
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cover of any place reflects the sum total of environmental conditions and is therefore regarded as a fairly reliable indicator of ecological potential. In general the three factors of climate and soils largely govern the occurrence and distribution of natural vegetation. The influence of climate can be related to the larger plant formation such as forest, woodland grassland and semi-desert communities, whereas within these large vegetation units, local differences in topography and soil account for the existence of particular associations of plant communities.

Using or taxonomic characteristics of the vegetation cover, various systems of classifying ecological land units in East Africa have thus been derived. These are variously referred to as eco-climatic vegeto-ecological or agro-ecological zones. In such zones the major combinations of climate, soil and topography have been isolated and equated with their vegetation types. There are six eco-climatic zones in Kenya that have been identified and isolated on that basis namely; Zone 1. Afro-Alpine Moorland and grassland-found at high altitude above the forest line Zone 11. It has a humid to dry sub-humid climate Zone111.It has a dry sub-humid to semi-arid climate Zone 1V. It has a semi-arid climate Zone V. Climate is arid Zone V1. Very arid climate

Together zones 1Vto V1 adds up to 72% of Kenyas total land area and are grouped together as the Arid and Semi-arid lands of Kenya(ASAL). Plant Geographyof Kenya Kenyas vegetation can be grouped into four main communities; forest, Grassland, semi-desert, and mountain summit. The extensive plain lands and plateaus of northern and eastern Kenya are dominated by the semi-desert communities which have variously been described as wooded and bushed grasslands or woodland and bush land or bushed grasslands and barren land (desert shrub and grass). Forests and mountain communities and highland grasslands occur typically from 1975 to 3040 meters above sea level and along the coastal belt. In the mountain areas aspect and moisture are critical to types of trees that will grow. Bamboos (Arundinalia alpina) occur up to 3040m. Other tree species occurring here are include camphor, olives, podo and cedar. At the coast is to be found extensive mangrove forests along the tidal waves. The rest of the country is dominated by grassland communities and include the savannah vegetation. These communities are characterized by various stand of tree-grass combinationsscattered-tree grasslands, scattered-tree and open grasslands (acacia/Themeda) and scattered- tree and open grasslands.
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Much of the dry Nyika of the coastal area is under coastal high-grass-bush but acacia/Themeda is dominant in Central Kenya between 910-1850m. Western and Nyanza provinces are dominated by scattered tree grasslands. Animal Geography of Kenya. Plant and animal (wildlife) geography are naturally closely associated, since the animals feeding habits and habitats preferences are closely linked to the various plant communities. It is usual to find wildlife distribution and differentiation being in line with the plant communities in Kenya. Highland Communities and Forest Grasslands The Highlands Rainforest especially from 1368-2432m has rich natural vegetation and wildlife is typified by the largest wildlife. Here buffaloes, elephants, and rhinoceroses are dominant. Within the mountain can also be found bushbucks, colobus monkeys, and even bush babies and bongo (rare). The high altitude predators are the lions, the leopards and other wild cats. High up in the mountain moorland can be found rock hyraxes and even mountain cats. Beyond 3040m are found alpine meadow lizards. Bird life is scanty here. Grassland Communities The grasslands support the greatest number of herds of grazing animals. The chief animals here are the ungulates esp. the wildebeest, the hartebeest, the zebra and the gazelles. Others includes the waterbucks, the impalas, the elands, the warthogs and buffaloes. A number of carnivorous families are also found here preying on the grazing members. They include the lion, the spotted hyena, the leopards, the cheetahs and even wild dogs. Bird life is much richer here with both predators such as the vultures, kites, the secretary bird and the seed and grain eaters such as weaverbirds. In the larger rivers and lakes are found hippopotamus and crocodiles and of course fish. Reptiles such as the python are found in swampy habitats. The Rift Valley is a well-known corridor for migratory birds. The high concentration of carbonates in the lake waters manufacture blue-green algae and diatoms which in turn give the lake water nutrients on which rift Valley flamingoes flourish.

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MAP 7. VEGETO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

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POPULATION GEOGRAPHY OF KENYA Prior to 1948, no population census had been conducted in Kenya. All population parameters were arrived at on the basis of estimates. Since 1948 five more population censuses have been conducted after every 10 years. The last census was in 1999 and the next one is due in August 2009.The population of Kenya increased from 10.9million in 1969 to 28.7 million in 1999. The table below shows basic demographic characteristics for 1969, 1979, 1989, and 1999. Table 11.Selected Demographic Indicators for Kenya, 1969, 1979, 1989, and 1999 Indicator Population(millions) Density(pers./km2) Percent urban Growth rate Infant mortality(/1000 births) Life expectancy at birth Source: CBS 2002. 1969 10.9 19.0 9.9 3.3 119 1979 16.2 27.0 15.1 3.8 88 1989 23.2 37.0 18.1 3.4 66 1999 28.7 49.0 19.4 2.9 77.3

50

54

60

56.6

Examining the above figures, it is evident that Kenyas population doubles in every 20 years. At 3.8% in 1979 Kenyas population growth rate was among the highest in the World. Today the population growth rate has fallen drastically. This is attributed to efforts contained in the national population Policy for sustainable Development (2000) and is a result of the decline in fertility rates in the mid-1980s. In contrast, mortality rates have gone up since the 1980s, presumably due to increased deaths from HIV/AIDS epidemic, deterioration of health services, and widespread poverty (KDHS 2003). According to the 1999 population census the Total Fertility Rate was highest in North-eastern Kenya at 7.0 births. The lowest was observed in Nairobi and Central Kenya with an average of 3.0 births. District life expectancy varied between the lowest of 38.3 years in Homa Bay to the highest 66.3 years in Embu district. The average life expectancy stands at 57 years today. Population Distribution Patterns Kenya suffers from a highly skewed distribution of population with high and medium potential agricultural areas of Central, Nyanza, Western, Rift Valley, Coast and Eastern provinces having very high population densities. The densities range between 2-19 persons /km2 in the sparsely populated districts of the north and northeastern to 887-3079 persons/km2 in densely populated areas of Nairobi, Central Kenya and Nyanza.
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The concentration of population in the high and medium potential zones has adversely affected, not only per capita land availability but also other natural resources and infrastructural facilities. Fertility Reduction in Kenya. Signs of fertility decline are beginning to appear. According to the Kenya Contraceptive prevalence and Kenya Demographic and Health Survey data, the total fertility rate had declined to 7.7 children by 1984 and 6.7 children by 1989and to 5.4 children by 1993.Kenya experienced a 32% reduction in the TFR over the 1979-1993 period. This reduction is substantial. Caldwell (1992) calls it the irreversible fertility transition zone. KENYAS AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL KENYAS AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL The greatest challenge facing Kenya today is how to reduce poverty and achieve sustained economic growth for national development. Agriculture in Kenya is the engine for this economic growth. The agricultural sector dominates the economy: Contributes 24% of the GDP Generates over 60% foreign exchange earnings Provides employment to over 70% of the population Provides raw materials to agro-industries, which account for about 70% of all industries. Provides over 45% of the annual government budget. Livestock sector contributes about 40% of agricultural GDP and about 10% of the total GDP. Small scale holders account for 80% of the total milk production (2billion liters) in Kenya. Besides, sale of milk and small stock (sheep, goats and chicken) contribute significantly to incomes of the rural households.

But we have already noted that only 17% of the total land area can be classified as having medium to high agricultural potential (i.e. zones 11 and 111). Zone 1 which takes about 900km2 of the total land area has no agricultural potentiality. Due to high population growth rate, the per capita availability of land in zone11 and zone11 has continued to fall having been estimated at 0.88 hectares in 1970 it fell to 0.36 hectares by the year 2000, when the population was in the range of 32m people. Since the majority of the populations live in the rural areas every annual increase in population means more pressure on the available agricultural land. As way back as 1982, the FAO classified Kenya as one of the countries on the critical list in terms of food self-sufficiency and environmental conservation, basically because of the noted rapid growth in agricultural dependent population. The situation has not changed, if for anything it has worsened.

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Agricultural development in Kenya is similarly faced with several other constraints related to the ever-increasing tendency within the comparatively fertile agricultural areas, towards cultivation of steep slopes, river-banks and other environmentally sensitive areas such as the arid and semiarid lands. There is also widespread destruction of catchment forests for the purposes of settlement and cultivation. Besides, there are notable environmental hazards associated with irrigation schemes and plantation agriculture. Problems of flooding, siltation, salinity, disease and poor water management have been found to be common in major irrigation schemes. Discharge of industrial wastes into the aquatic ecosystems has been associated with the processing of plantation crops such as sugar, coffee and timber. Furthermore, neglect and underdevelopment in rural infrastructure, increases marketing costs for producers. The leading export crops are coffee, tea, sisal, pyrethrum and horticultural crops. In addition there is a wide variety of food crops grown led by maize, wheat, rice, white potatoes, pulses and oilseeds. Livestock husbandry esp. dairy, beef and sheep farming is also practiced widely. Pastoralism based on either nomadic practices or group ranches is associated with the semi-arid and arid lands of Kenya. In terms of area occupied, dairy farming, maize and beans cultivation, and root crops are the leading farm enterprises in the Highlands. This is due to the vey large number of smallholder farmers in these areas. But in terms of value and income-generation, coffee, tea, and maize are the leading farm enterprises. Irrigation agriculture has become more appreciate with the phenomenal growth of the horticultural industry, covering over 70% of Kenyas agricultural exports. The national potential for irrigation stands at between 360,000-540,000 hectares. MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE INDUSTRIES Kenya is not an industrialized economy. The main source of income and employment is the agricultural sector. Most of the countrys processing and fabricating industries also derive their raw materials from the agricultural sector as well. Kenyas manufacturing and service industries may be grouped broadly into four main classes; 1. Agricultural Food processing industries-Dairy products, meat processing, Fruit/vegetable canning, Bakery and confectionery and tea/coffee/sugarcane processing. 2. Agricultural Non-food Processing industries-Tobacco processing, Foot wear fabrication, Textile processing, Pulp and paper products manufacture, Fibre processing
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3. Non- Agricultural Manufacturing industries-Chemical products manufacture, Clay and concrete products manufacture, Motor vehicle assembly, Cement, glass and allied products manufacture 4. Service industries- Printing and publishing, Metal products servicing, Electrical goods repair and maintenance services Industrial Location Patterns Many of the industries in Kenya are found in Nairobi taking about 40% of all industrial concerns in the country. Other urban centers with significant industrial presence are Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoret, Thika and Nanyuki. Qualitatively, about 60% of Kenya is industrially empty. Kenyas industrial location pattern is unbalanced. It favours larger urban centres more than the smaller and medium towns. Only a few agro-based industries are to be found in the rural areas where majority of Kenyans live. There a number of industrial location factors that tend to create industrial concentration in the major urban centres including the geographic inertia, infrastructure development and market accessibility. These favorable industrial location factors are lacking in most localities of rural Kenya. Strategies Adopted for enhancing industrialization in Kenya Three main approaches to industrialization were adopted in Kenya, namely; Import-substitution (ISI); Agricultural-demand led (ADL) and Export promotion (EP). The first involved local production of consumer goods that were previously imported, while the second approach sought to use the agricultural sector as the main source of industrial raw materials as well as the consuming center of industrial products. Export promotion was meant to substitute traditional low value exports with processed and semi-processed value-added exports. The three approaches have not been successful in driving Kenya into an industrial take-off. The ISI faced continued dependency on imports of technology, manpower, and some basic raw materials. ADL appeared to concentrate more on the demand side and hence could not deal with the development of technological capability which is a major constraint to industrialization. EP had to contend with increased global competition. Consequently, industrial development in Kenya tends to depend on direct foreign investment (DFI) through the Multinational corporations (MNCs). MNCs tend to speed up the process of industrialization through rapid diffusion of production and managerial technology. They provide a package of capital, technology, management and organization skills. However, MNCs are seen as major contributors to the factor proportions problem-i.e. they extend and reinforce a laborsaving in their production process in a labor-surplus country. However, through aggressive promotion of DFIs Kenyas manufacturing sector has expanded in terms of its contribution to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as shown in the table below.
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Table111: Average Sectoral Share of GDP from 1972 -1994 SECTOR Agriculture Manufacturing Others Service industry Public service 1972-76 35 10 8 47 1977-80 34 12 7 47 14 100 1981-85 33 13 7 47 15 100 1986-90 31 13 5 50 15 100 1991-94 28 14 6 52 16 100

14 100 Source: GOK (1997)

The table shows that the contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP has declined over the period under investigation. The share of manufacturing to the GDP has remained stable, though slow in growth. The service sector has contributed the highest percentage to the GDP. The Service Sector The service sector in Kenya is dominated by the small scale businesses that fall outside the formal system of business registration and regulation. This informal sector provides an entry point for many Kenyan entrepreneurs into a number of economic activities ranging from manufacturing to small scale hotel businesses. It has become the major employer of labour in the urban areas. It is characterized by ease of entry, reliance on indigenous resources, family ownership of enterprises, small scale operations, skills acquired outside the formal school system and unregulated, competitive market. The urban informal sector produces a wide range of goods and services. Some artisans are involved in the fabrication of metal products, electrical goods, timber-based products, and leather goods. Repair and maintenance of products and items produced in the formal sector is a major activity. Other services include transport, retail and wholesale businesses, in addition to personalized services such as shoe shining. In short the diversity of products from the informal sector is wide and depends much on the consumer tastes and preferences. These characteristics of the informal sector highlight not only the role it is currently playing in supplying goods and services for the low-income earners but perhaps more importantly, they indicate the potential of the sector in generating income and wealth for the majority of Kenyans.

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Table1V: Number of Persons engaged in the informal sector by activity 2000-2004 Activity 2000 Manufacturing 943 Construction 134 Wholesale and 2,428 Retail trades Transport and 121 communication Community, 373 social and personal services Others 190 Totals 4,191 Source: GOK (2005) 2001 1,039 140 2,716 136 422 2002 1,119 150 2,982 150 467 2003 1,119 158 3,248 164 513 2004 1,276 168 3,515 180 558

211 4,667

231 5,101

251 5,532

271 5,970

The service sector is definitely expected to create more income earning opportunities for majority of the urban residents. The sector has great potential for improving the rural economy as well. But Kenyans need to investigate into the enormous resource base that is resident in the countrys natural and cultural landscape. TOWARDS AN ALTERNATIVE PATH FOR DEVELOPMENT It must be accepted that although many countries have achieved high economic growth rates through industrialization, Kenyas comparative advantage may be in another sector of the economy. In view of her tropical latitudinal location and her highly diversified land surface configuration coupled with a varied eco-climatic condition, Kenyas economic growth can be accelerated through a policy that would help focus investment in specific locations. These are locations that have demonstrated greatest ability for accommodating economic activities unique to that region. For example, in places where suitable clay for brick making is found, this type of domestic industry should be emphasized. In the arid and semi-arid lands where pastoralism supports the livelihoods of the majority of the people it should form the core enterprise. The revival of the Kenya Meat commission abattoirs is therefore a move in the right direction. In western Kenya sugarcane growing is a major economic activity, it is a major employer of labour and the chief generator of income. Because all the sugar processing complexes in East Africa are, fortunately material orientated, being located as they are in the rural areas, they form almost ideal development points. The sugar industry could perhaps, be planned so that it acts as a trigger factor in much more comprehensive rural development planning (Ogendo and Obiero 1978:354).
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In addition Kenya should fully exploit her unique and attractive tourist destinations. For instance, the coastal historic sites, beaches, caves together with the cultural sacred places in the kaya forests and the diversity of fauna and flora in them are some of the trade marks of the Kenyan scenic beauty that should be marketed. The rangelands of Kenya house some of the Worlds most spectacular wildlife that seasonally attracts tourists from many parts of the World. Other contrasting landscape features may provide sporting facilities and suitable picnic sites. In other words, some of these regions have a higher comparative advantage in tourism than others and every effort must be put to ensure that they remain so. Hence, existing supportive infrastructure should be improved so that the regions may maximize the economic gains from their unique natural attributes.

The government of Kenya must therefore design projects and programs for information gathering, analysis and dissemination on the basis of physical geographic factors as well as the man-made innovative improvements of nature. A superimposition of these attributes through Geographic Information System may show areas that are likely to give the greatest productionincreasing effects on the basis of a combination of all the resident attributes. INFRASTRUCTURE Infrastructure literally means the underneath structure on which manufacturing industry and primary activities, such as agriculture, fishing, forestry and mining are based. A number of aspects may be considered under this general heading. Services such as transport, communication and public utilities (water, electricity) are part of the overall infrastructure of a country. They are often used as inputs in other sectors and their smooth or bad functioning affects the economy as a whole. Transport and Communication Transport in Kenya can be categorized into ;( 1) Surface transport, which includes road, rail and pedestrian transport, (2) Air transport and (3) Water transport. Road Transport The Kenya road network plays a major role in satisfying the transport needs of the society, because of its versatility to reach almost every part of Kenya. The Kenya road network is approximately 197,000kms of which over 64,900 is categorized as classified while the res remain unclassified. Different classes are defined by their major functions. Roads of the highest classes, A and B have the major function to provide mobility, while the function of E roads is to provide access. Roads class C and D provides both access and mobility.

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The trunk roads with considerable traffic are Mombasa-Malaba, Nakuru-Kisumu, NairobiNanyuki, Nairobi-Mombasa, and Nairobi-Namanga roads.Heavy to moderate traffic are also experienced in and around Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru, Thika, Eldoret, and Kericho Roads construction had for long been polarized around the major urban centres along Mombasa Kisumu road. Outside this axial road infrastructure was given lesser priority. However, because of the current emphasis on balanced economic development investments on road infrastructure have been expanded to serve the wider nation. The Rural access roads prograrmme aims at improving transportation system in areas that are relatively inaccessible. The construction of these roads is labour-intensive with a strong element on community participation in decision making. Railway Transport Kenya has a railway line connection between Mombasa and the western region of the country. It was constructed by the British colonial government which was also instrumental in the road construction to draw raw materials for European industries from the interior of Kenya and Uganda. Soja (1972) says that the railway established the general urban pattern in Kenya, fostering the growth of important canters at key points along the route. Outside the main railway line from the coast at Mombasa through Nairobi a number of branch lines have been constructed serving different regions of the country and the neighboring states. Common with this mode of transport the world over, the sector for many years operated in excess capacity incurring heavy losses. The government privatized Kenya railways by offering a unitary concession to a private operator-The Rift Valley Railways. Revitalization of this mode of transport is likely to divert much of the long distance freight traffic from the road to the rail. This will reduce road damage and traffic pollution. Air Transport Air transport is the main transport mode for tourists, high-value exports and imports; and perishable goods. The service has the potential to facilitate economic growth particularly high value agricultural exports. In addition, Kenya occupies a strategic position as an aviation centre in Eastern African Region, serving as the hub for East, Central, and Indian Ocean areas. There are three major airports- Jomo Kenyatta International airport in Nairobi, Moi international airport in Mombasa and Eldoret international airport. Smaller airports are found in Kisumu, Malindi,and Wilson airport in Nairobi. Airstrips are located inmost urban centers.

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Maritime and Inland Waterways Marine transport offers low cost means of transporting heavy and bulky items. Mombasa port is the principal sea port in Kenya. The port also serves the hinterland countries of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Southern Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo. Steamship service connects the three East African states through L. Victoria. The communication infrastructure system in Kenya includes the various channels and modes available for facilitating the exchange of information. The elements that comprise the integrated communication system include print and electronic media, postal services, internet etc. Kenya is expected to contribute enormously within the East and Central African region in this area of development. References. Ojany, F.F and Ogendo,R.B(1988) KENYA: A Study in Physical and Human Geography. Longman Kenya. CBS and MOH (Kenya) and ORC Macro(2004) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey.2003. Calverton, Maryland, CBS, MOH, ORC Macro. Government of Kenya(1989) National Development Plan 1989-93.nairobi; Government printer Kenya atlas 2009

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