26 Class 10 Semester 2 Physics

Machines Page 1
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MACHINES
INTRODUCTION
Machines have been used for centuries, not only to make work easy but also to make it
efficient and safe. The constructions of simple machines are not complicated. They are used
in our day-to-day lives. Simple machines do not convert energy from one form into another.
Complicated machines such as bicycles and sewing machines are made by combining two
or more simple machines.
Def. A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive force at
some point by applying a small force at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by
which we can obtain a gain in speed.
CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES

There are certain common terms used for almost every simple machine. Let us understand
these terms first.
Input Energy It isthework done on a machine or the energy supplied to a
machine.
Output Energy It is the work done by a machine or the energy obtained from a
machine.
Principle of Machine In an ideal machine, the output energy is equal to the input
energy. Therefore, mathematically we can express it as .This is called
the principle of machine.
Velocity Ratio- The ratio of velocity of effort to the velocity of load is called velocity
ratio of the machine.
Velocity Ratio=

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If dL and dE are the distances moved in time t by the load and the effort respectively,
then; Velocity of load=
and Velocity of effort=

So, V.R.=

Mechanical Advantage It is the ratio of the force obtained from a machine to
that applied to it. In simple words, we can say
It has no unit.
Efficiency The ratio of the energy obtained from a machine to that supplied to it
is known as the efficiency of the machine. It is obtained by dividing the amount of
work done by the machine by the work done on the machine.

In an ideal machine, all the input energy is converted into output energy, i.e., the efficiency
of an ideal machine is 100%. In real life, no machine can have 100% efficiency because
some amount of input energy always gets lost to overcome the friction between the
different parts of the machine.
FUNCTION OF MACHINES
It can multiply force.
It can increase speed.
It can change the direction of effort.

RELATIONSHIP B/W , MA and VR
Let a machine overcome a load L by the application of an effort E. In time t, let the
displacement of the effort be dE and the displacement of the load be dL.
Work input=Effort Displacement of effort
Work output=Load Displacement of load
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Efficiency=

=

MA=
and VR=

Or, M.A. = V.R.

LEVER
A lever is a simple machine. It consists of a rigid bar that is capable of turning around a
pivot (also called the fulcrum). Generally, we use a rod, which rotates freely about the
fulcrum.
For a lever, apart from the general terms used for all machines, we usually use two more
terms.
Load Arm It is the distance between the fulcrum and the point where the load is
applied.
Effort Arm It is the distance between the fulcrum and the point where the effort
is applied.

The working of all levers is based on a common principle. This is called the principle of
lever.
Principle of Lever
Load Load arm = Effort Effort arm
If we rearrange the equation, we obtain

Therefore, the mechanical advantage of a lever is nothing but the ratio of the length of its
effort arm to that of its load arm.
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Different types of Lever
Levers are classified into three types depending upon the positions of load, fulcrum and
effort.
Lever of the first order
When the fulcrum is situated between the load and effort, we call it a lever of the first
order. For example, beam balance, crowbar, seesaw, etc.

Crowbar

Beam Balance

Seesaw
Mechanical advantage of a lever of the first order
In the case of levers of the first order, we try to keep the load arm smaller than the effort
arm, i.e., effort arm > load arm. Therefore, a big load can be shifted by using a small effort
with the help of a lever of the first order. As the load arm is smaller than the effort arm,

Lever of the second order
When the fulcrum and effort are situated at the opposite ends of the lever, and a load is
placed in between them, we call it a lever of the second order. For example, nutcracker,
wheel-barrow, etc.
Machines Page 5

Wheel-Barrow

Nutcracker
Mechanical advantage of a lever of the second order
In the case of levers of the second order, the load arm is always smaller than the effort arm,
i.e., effort arm > load arm. Therefore, a big load can be shifted by using a small effort with
the help of a lever of the second order.As the load arm is smaller than the effort arm,

Lever of the third order
When the fulcrum and load are situated at the opposite ends of the lever, and an effort is
applied somewhere between them, we call it a lever of the third order. For example, pair of
tongs, fishing rod, etc.

Machines Page 6

Fishing Rod

Tongs
Mechanical advantage of a lever of the third order
In case of levers of the third order, the effort arm is always smaller than the load arm, i.e.,
load arm > effort arm. As the load arm is larger than the effort arm,

Although we do not obtain mechanical advantage from a lever of the third order, we use it
for several reasons.
We use levers of the third order where other two kinds of levers cannot be used.
In the case of levers of the third order, we always obtain a bigger displacement of
load by a minimum displacement of the applied force. This is why we use a lever of
the third order in a fishing rod.
EXAMPLES IN HUMAN BODY
Class 1 lever nod your head
The pivot is the place where your skull meets the top of your spine. Your skull is the lever arm
and the neck muscles at the back of the skull provide the force (effort) to lift your head up
against the weight of the head (load). When the neck muscles relax, your head nods forward.
For this lever, the pivot lies between the effort and load. A see saw in a playground is another
example of a Class 1 lever where the effort balances the load.
Class 2 lever stand on tip toes
The pivot is at your toe joints and your foot acts as a lever arm. Your calf muscles and Achilles
tendon provide the effort when the calf muscle contracts. The load is your body weight and is
lifted by the effort (muscle contraction).
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The load is between the pivot and the effort (like a wheelbarrow). The effort force needed is less
than the load force, so there is a mechanical advantage. This muscular movement at the back of
your legs allows you to move your whole body a small distance.
Class 3 lever bend your arm
The pivot is at the elbow and the forearm acts as the lever arm. The biceps muscle provides the
effort (force) and bends the forearm against the weight of the forearm and any weight that the
hand might be holding.
The load is further away from the pivot than the effort. There is no mechanical advantage
because the effort is greater than the load. However this disadvantage is compensated with a
larger movement a small contraction of the biceps produces a large movement of the forearm.
This type of lever system also gives us the advantage of a much greater speed of movement.
Many muscle and bone combinations in our bodies are of the Class 3 lever type.
INCLINED PLANE
An inclined plane is a sloping surface that behaves like a simple machine whose
mechanical advantage is always greater than 1.

If the inclined plane is frictionless, then in equilibrium,
Lcos = R and Lsin = E
Now, Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) of an inclined plane=

Machines Page 8
V.R. =

GEARS
A gear is a wheel with teeth around its rim.
The velocity ratio of a pair of gears is defined as the ratio of the number of rotations per
unit time of the driving (or input) gear to the no. of rotations per unit time of the driven (or
output) gear .
V.R. =

=

Thus, number of teeth, radii and speed of rotation are related as

The ratio of the number of teeth in the driving wheel to the number of wheel in the driven
wheel is called the gear ratio.
Gear Ratio=

A gear system is used both for gain in speed as for the gain in turning effect or torque.
PULLEYS
Generally, a single pulley or a combination of pulleys fixed in a frame, is called a block, while a
string that winds around the pulleys in different blocks is known as tackle.

When the axis of rotation of a pulley is kept fixed, it is called a fixed pulley and if the axis of
rotation is not fixed, it is called a movable pulley.
SINGLE FIXED PULLEY
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A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed is called a fixed pulley.
M.A. , V.R. and of a single fixed pulley:
Neglecting (i) the mass of the string (ii) friction b/w the string and surface of the rim of the
pulley and (iii) the friction at the axle or in the pulley bearings, in the balanced position of the
load, we have
L=T and E=T
Mechanical advantage=
= 1
Velocity Ratio =
= 1
Hence, efficiency =
=1
USES:
1. It is used to change the direction of the force applied to a more convinient one.
2. To raise a load directly upwards.
SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY
A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position, is called a movable pulley.
M.A. , V.R. and of a single movable pulley:
L = T + T =2T and E=T
M.A. =

= 2
V.R. =

= 2
Efficiency =
=1
It is used as a force multiplier.
Diff B/W SINGLE FIXED & SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

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Single Fixed Pulley Single Movable Pulley
1. It is fixed to a rigid support
2. Its M.A is 1.
3. Its V.R is 1.
4. The weight of the pulley itself
does not affect its mechanical
advantage.
5. It is used to change the direction
of effort
1. It is not fixed to a rigid support.
2. Its M.A. is 2.
3. Its V.R. is 2.
4. The weight of the pulley itself reduces
its mechanical advantage.

5. It is used as force multiplier

Refraction of light and Prism Page 1
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
SECTION I
1. INTRODUCTION
When a light beam strikes the boundary between two transparent media(having different
optical densities), a certain part of it is reflected but a much greater part of it passes
through to the second media with a sudden change in direction. This phenomenon is called
refraction.
The bending of the ray of light passing from one medium to the other medium is called
refraction.
When light travels from rarer medium to denser medium, the ray bends towards the
normal and when it travels from denser medium to rarer medium, the ray bends away from
the normal.

2. Cause of Refraction
The refraction of light occurs because light travels with different speeds in different media.
When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, its direction(except for<i=0)
changes because of change in its speed. The wavelength of light changes but frequency
remains the same.

i
r
o
Incident ray
Rarer medium
Denser medium
Refracted ray
Deviation o = (i r)
i
r
o
Denser medium
Rarer medium
Deviation o = (r i )
3. Laws of refraction (Snells Law)

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the refracting surface at the
point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of the sines of the angle of incidence (i) and of the angle of refraction (r) is
i.e. a constant quantity for two given media, and the color of light used (frequency
of the light wave) which is called the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first.

Where
are the speeds of light in media 1 and 2 respectively and
are the
refractive indices of media 1 and 2 respectively
Note: For vacuum, the refractive index equals 1. For air also, it is very close to 1 and taken
to be 1 only.
Example: On a glass plate a light wave is incident at an angle of 60
o
. If the reflected and the
refracted waves are mutually perpendicular, the refractive index of material is
(a)
2
3
(b) 3 (c)
2
3
(d)
3
1

Solution: From figure
o
r 30 =
3
30 sin
60 sin
sin
sin
= = =
o
o
r
i

Absolute refractive index Relative refractive index
(i) When light travels from air to any transparent
medium then R.I. of medium w.r.t. air is called its absolute R.I. i.e.
v
c
=
medium air

(i) When light travels from medium (1) to medium (2)
then R.I. of medium (2) w.r.t. medium (1) is called its relative R.I. i.e.
2
1
1
2
2 1
v
v
= =
(where v
1
and v
2
are the speed of light in medium
1 and 2 respectively).
Dependence of Refractive index
(i)Nature of the media of incidence and refraction.
(ii) Colour of light or wavelength of light.
60

60

90

r
(iii)Temperature of the media : Refractive index decreases with the increase in
temperature.

Example: 1 A beam of monochromatic blue light of wavelength 4200 in air travels in
water ) 3 / 4 ( = . Its wavelength in water will be [MNR 1991]
(a) 2800 (b) 5600 (c) 3150 (d) 4000

Solution: (c)
1

1
2
2
1
=
4200
3
4
1
2
= 3150
2
=
Example: 2 On a glass plate a light wave is incident at an angle of 60
o
. If the reflected and
the refracted waves are mutually perpendicular, the refractive index of
material is
(a)
2
3
(b) 3 (c)
2
3
(d)
3
1

Solution: (b) From figure
o
r 30 =
3
30 sin
60 sin
sin
sin
= = =
o
o
r
i

Example: 3 Velocity of light in glass whose refractive index with respect to air is 1.5 is 2
s m / 10
8
and in certain liquid the velocity of light found to be s m / 10 50 . 2
8
.
The refractive index of the liquid with respect to air is

(a) 0.64 (b) 0.80 (c) 1.20 (d) 1.44
Solution: (c)
v
1

8
8
10 5 . 2
10 2
5 . 1

= =
l
l
g
g
li
v
v

2 . 1 =
l

4. Principle of Reversibility of Light
According to this principle, the path of a light ray is reversible.

Multiplying eqns. (i) and (ii), we get;
1 2
2 1
1
=

1
2
r
i
60

60

90

r

5. Refraction Through a Glass Slab
(1) Lateral shift
The refracting surfaces of a glass slab are parallel to each other. When a light ray passes
through a glass slab it is refracted twice at the two parallel faces and finally
emerges out parallel to it's incident direction i.e. the ray undergoes no
deviation o = 0. The angle of emergence (e) is equal to the angle of
incidence (i)
The Lateral shift of the ray is the perpendicular distance between the
incident and the emergent ray, and it is given by MN = t sec r sin (i r)

Normal shift
Normal shift t x OO
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
1 '
Or the object appears to be shifted towards the slab by the distance x
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium the angle of incidence for which
the angle of refraction is
that angle is called the critical angle. When the angle of

incidence is more than the critical angle then the light is fully reflected back in the first
(denser) medium. This is called Total internal reflection.
Generally, critical angle of a medium is quoted for light going from the medium to the air. In
this case and writing
, we get
From

Where C is the critical angle

i
r

r o
N
M
t
O O'

t
Glass
slab
x

Total internal reflection can be observed while swimming, if one opens one's eyes just
under the water's surface. If the water is calm, its surface appears mirror-like.

C
C
cosec
sin
1
= = ; where
Denser Rerer

- When a light ray travels from denser to rarer medium, then deviation of the ray is
max. 2 = o u t o when C = min. u
i.e. ; ) 2 (
max
C = t o C critical angle
Dependence of Critical Angle

(i) Colour of light (or wavelength of light) : Critical angle depends upon wavelength as
C sin
1

(a)
V R V R
C C > >
(b) Sin C
R
D
R
D
D
R
D R
v
v
= = = =
1
(for two media) (c) For TIR from boundary of two
media
D
R
i
1
sin
>
(ii) Nature of the pair of media : Greater the refractive index lesser will be the critical angle.
(a) For (glass- air) pair
o
C 42
glass
= (b) For (water-air) pair
o
C 49
water
=
(c) For (diamond-air) pair
o
C 24
amond di
=
(iii) Temperature : With temperature rise refractive index of the material decreases therefore
critical angle increases.

i = C
90
o
u

u

u>C
TIR

i

r
Rarer

Denser

Examples of Total Internal Reflection
(i) Mirage is an optical illusion, which occurs usually in deserts on hot summer days. On
such a day, temperature of air near the earth is maximum and hence is rarer or lighter. The
upper layers of air, which are relatively cool, are denser. A ray of light from the top of a tree
travels from denser to rarer and bend away from the normal. At a particular layer, if the
angle of incidence is greater than 'C', total internal reflection occurs. To far away observer,
this ray i.e., AE appears to be coming from I i.e., mirror image of O. Thus inverted image of
tree creates an optical illusion of reflection from a pond of water.

(ii) Brilliance of diamond : Due to repeated internal reflections diamond sparkles.
(iii) Optical fibre:Optical fibres consist of many long high quality composite glass/quartz
fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core
(1) is higher than that of the cladding (2).
When the light is incident on one end of the fibre at a small angle, the light passes inside,
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the fibre and finally comes out. The angle of
incidence is always larger than the critical angle of the core material with respect to its cladding.
Even if the fibre is bent, the light can easily travel through
along the fibre
A bundle of optical fibres can be used as a 'light pipe' in
medical and optical examination. It can also be used for optical
signal transmission. Optical fibres have also been used for
transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are
converted to light by suitable transducers.

(iv) Porroprism :A right angled isosceles prism, which is used in periscopes or binoculars. It is
used to deviate light rays through
o
90 and
o
180 and also to erect the image.

Cladding
Core
2
1
Looming : An optical illusion in cold countries
Earth
Desner
Rarer
Sky
i>uC
O
I
Mirage : An optical illusion in deserts
Denser
Rarer
Earth
I
O
i>uC
45
o

45
o

45
o

90
o

45
o
45
o

90
o

A'
B'
A
B
45
o

45
o
45
o

45
o

90
o


PRISM

Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surfaces, such that the incident
surface (on which light ray is incidenting) and emergent surface (from which light rays
emerges) are plane and non parallel.
Commonly used prism :

Refraction through Prism

2 1
r r A + = and o + = + A e i
For surface
1
sin
sin
r
i
AC = ;
For surface AB
e
r
sin
sin
2
=

Deviation through Prism
For thin prism A ) 1 ( = o . Also deviation is different for different colour light e.g.
V R
<
so
V R
o o < .

Crown Flint
> so
C F
o o >

Equilateral prism Right angle prism Right angled isosceles
prism
A
A
B
o
i r1 r2
C
e

i Angle of incidence, e Angle
of emergence,
A Angle of prism or refracting
angle of prism,
r1 and r2 Angle of refraction,
o Angle of deviation
Maximum deviation Minimum deviation

In this condition of maximum deviation
, 90
o
i = Z ,
1
C r = C A r =
2
and from Snells
law on emergent surface
(

=

C
C A
e
sin
) sin(
sin
1

It is observed if e i Z = Z and
r r r = Z = Z
2 1

then :

(i) Refracted ray inside the prism is
parallel
to the base of the prism

(ii)
2
A
r = and
2
m
A
i
o +
=

(3) Normal incidence on a prism
If light ray incident normally on any surface of prism as shown

In any of the above case use
A
i
sin
sin
= and A i = o
(4) Grazing emergence and TIR through a prism
When a light ray falls on one surface of prism, it is not necessary that it will exit out from the
prism. It may or may not be exit out as shown below

e i
r r
o
om
i
e
r1 = C
r2
i = 90
o
omax
e r2
i = 0
o
r1 = 0
o
i
r1
e = 0
o
r2 = 0
o
or
and
Normal incidence

A = angle of prism and C = Critical angle for the material of the
prism
Grazing incidence

Example: When light rays are incident on a prism at an angle of 45
o
, the minimum
deviation is obtained. If refractive index of the material of prism is 2 , then
the angle of prism will be
(a) 30
o
(b) 40
o
(c) 50
o
(d) 60
o

Solution: (d)
2
sin
sin
A
i
=
2
sin
45 sin
2
A
=
2
1
2
2
1
2
sin = =
A
o o
A
A
60 30
2
= =
REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to refraction, object appears to be
displaced from its real position. There are two possible conditions.
(1) When object is in denser medium and observer is in rarer
medium

(1) Object is in rarer medium and observer is in denser medium.

(2)
'
depth Apparent
depth Real
h
h
= =
Real depth >Apparent depth that's why a coin at the bottom of
bucket (full of water) appears to be raised)
(2)
h
h
'
=
Real depth < Apparent depth that's why high flying aeroplane
appears to be higher than it's actual height.
(3) Shift h h h d
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
1
'

(3) h d ) 1 ( =
Ray 3: TIR
A>C and
>cosecA
Ray 2: Grazing emergence
A = C and
= cosec A
Ray 1 : General emergence
A<C and
<cosecA
Ray 3: TIR
A> 2C and
>cosec (A/2)
Ray 2: Grazing emergence
A = 2C and
= cosec (A/2)
Ray 1 : General emergence
A< 2C and
<cosec (A/2)
Ray - 1
Ray - 2
Ray - 3
A
Ray - 1
Ray - 2
Ray - 3
A

h
h'
d
O
O'
O
O'
h'
d
h
(4) For water
4 3
4 h
d = =
For glass
3 2
3 h
d = =
(4) Shift for water
3
h
d
w
=
Shift for glass
2
h
d
g
=

Example: A coin is kept at bottom of an empty beaker. A travelling microscope is
focussed on the coin from top, now water is poured in beaker up to a height
of 10 cm. By what distance and in which direction should the microscope be
moved to bring the coin again in focus
(a) 10 cm up ward (b) 10 cm down ward (c)2.5cm up wards
(d) 2.5 cm down wards
Solution: (c) When water is poured in the beaker. Coin appears to shift by a distance
cm
h
d 5 . 2
4
10
4
= = =
Hence to bring the coil again in focus, the microscope should be moved by 2.5
cm in upward direction.

LENS AND ITS PROPERTIES
Lens is a transparent medium bounded by two refracting surfaces, such that at least one
surface is spherical.
Type of lenses

Convex lens (Converges the light rays) Concave lens (Diverges the light rays)

Double convex Plano convex Concavo
convex

Double concave Plane concave Convexo
concave
Thick at middle Thin at middle
It forms real and virtual images both It forms only virtual images
Some definitions


(Light ray passes undeviated through optical centre).
(ii) Principle focus

(i) Optical centre (O) : A point for a given lens through which light ray passes undeviated
(Light ray passes undeviated through optical centre).
(ii) Principle focus
First principle focus
Second principle focus

Note : Second principle focus is the principle focus of the lens.
When medium on two sides of lens is same then | | | |
2 1
F F = .
If medium on two sides of lens are not same then the ratio of two focal
lengths
2
1
2
1
=
f
f

(iii) Focal length (f) : Distance of second principle focus from optical centre is called focal
length

convex
f positive,
concave
f negative,
plane
f
(iv) Aperture :Effective diameter of light transmitting area is called aperture.
2
(Aperture) image of Intensity
(v) Power of lens (P) :Means the ability of a lens to converge the light rays. Unit of power is
Dioptre (D).
C1, C2 Centre of curvature,
R1, R2 Radii of curvature
Optical axis
Principle
axis
C2
+R1 R2
C1
O
C1
+R2 R1
C2
O
F1
F1
F2
F2
1 2

) (
100
) (
1
cm f m f
P = = ; positive,
convex
P negative,
concave
P zero
plane
P .
For a lens immersed in a medium of refractive index

Note : Thick lens Thin lens
P| f+ R+ P+ f| R|

Real Image Virtual Image
1. A real image is formed due to actual
intersection of reflected or refracted
rays.
2. A real image can be obtained on a
screen.
3. A real image is inverted with respect to
an object.
Example-The image of a distant object
formed by a convex lens.
1. A virtual image is formed when the
refracted or reflected rays meet if they
are produced backwards.
2. A virtual image cannot be obtained on a
screen.
3. A virtual image is erect with respect to
the object.
Example-The image of an object formed by a
concave lens.

IMAGE FORMATION BY A LENS

Lens Location of
the object
Location of the
image
Nature of image
Magnification
Real/
virtual
Erect /
inverted
Convex

At infinity
i.e. = u
At focus i.e. f v =
1 < m
diminished
Real Inverted
Away from 2f
i.e. ) 2 ( f u >
Between f and
2fi.e. f v f 2 < <
1 < m
diminished
Real Inverted
At 2f or
) 2 ( f u =
At 2fi.e. ) 2 ( f v =
1 = m
same size
Real Inverted
2f f f 2f
Between f and 2f
i.e. f u f 2 < <
Away from 2fi.e.
) 2 ( f v >
1 > m
magnified
Real Inverted
At focus i.e. f u =
At infinity i.e. = v = m
magnified
Real Inverted
Between
optical centre
and focus,
f u <
At a distance
greater than that
of object u v >
1 > m
magnified
Virtual Erect
Concave

At infinity i.e.
= u
At focus i.e. v = f
1 < m
diminished
Virtual Erect
Anywhere
between
infinity and
optical centre
Between optical
centre and focus
1 < m
diminished
Virtual Erect

Note : Minimum distance between an object and its real image formed by a convex
lens is 4f.
Maximum image distance for concave lens is its focal length

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours is called dispersion of light.
Newton had shown that light rays that we obtain from the sun consist of seven different
colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. When rays of the sun are made
to pass through a glass prism, we will see the seven different colours.

V
Y
R
Screen
Incident
white light
The rainbow : A rainbow is seen when the sun appears in the sky after the rains. The moisture in the
atmosphere behaves like tiny prisms, dispersing the suns rays into seven colours (Vibgyor). The red
colour appears on the top of the rainbow and the violet colour appears at the bottom.
Recombination of colours: It can be achieved by placing an inverted prism in front of the first prism.

ELCTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves
arranged according to frequency and wavelength. The sun, earth, and other
bodies radiate electromagnetic energy of varying wavelengths.
To remember try:
Rabbits
Mate
In
Very
Unusual
eXpensive
Gardens
meaning:
Radio
Microwaves increasing
Infra-Red frequency
Visible light and
Ultra-violet decreasing
X-rays wavelength
Gamma rays

Wave Uses Dangers
Radio - Radio None
Waves transmitters
- Radar
- Television
Microwave
s
- Microwave
ovens
-Communicatio
n system
Internal heating of body tissue
Infra-red
- Thermal
imaging
- Remote
controls
Burns skin
Light
- Optic fibres
- Seeing!
Strong light causes damage to vision.
Ultra-violet
- Washing
powder (whiter
than white)
- Security
marking
Skin cancer and blindness
X rays
Taking images
of the skeleton
Mutations in cells and severe burns to the skin.
Gamma
Rays
- Cancer
treatment
-Sterilisation of
equipment
Cancers and cell mutation

26 Class 10 Semester 2 Physics

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26 Class 10 Semester 2 Physics

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Machines Page 1

EDUDIGM 1B Panditya Road, Kolkata 29 www.edudigm.in 40034819

and Velocity of effort=

are the speeds of light in media 1 and 2 respectively and

that angle is called the critical angle. When the angle of

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