Angle of Inclination Given a plane with normal vector n the angle of inclination, is defined by |n .

k| ||n||

More generally, if F(x,y,z) = 0 is a surface, than the angle of inclination at the point (x0, y0, z0) is defined by the angle of inclination of the tangent plane at the point. |Grad F(x0, y0, z0) . k| ||Grad F(x0, y0, z0)|| Example Find the angle of inclination of x2 + 4 4 y2 + 8 z2 = 1

at the point (1,1,2).

Solution First compute Grad F = <x / 2, y / 2, z / 4> Now plug in to get Grad F(1,1,2) = <1/2, 1/2, 1/2> We have |<1/2, 1/2, 1/2> . k| = 1/2 Also, ||<1/2, 1/2, 1/2>|| = Hence )/2] = 1/ So the angle of inclination is /2

= arccos(1/

radians The Tangent Line to a Curve

Example Find the tangent line to the curve of intersection of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z2 = 30 and the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 at the point (1,2,5). Solution We find the Grad of the two surfaces at the point Grad (x2 + y 2 + z2) = <2x, 2y, 2z> = <2, 4,10> and Grad (x2 + y 2 - z) = <2x, 2y, -1> = <2, 4, -1> These two vectors will both be perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point, hence their cross product will be parallel to this tangent line. We compute

Hence the equation of the tangent line is x(t) = 1 - 44t y(t) = 2 + 22t z(t) = 5

MATH 202 PRACTICE MIDTERM 1 Please work out five of the given six problems and indicate which problem you are omitting. Credit will be based on the steps that you show towards the final answer. Show your work. Printable Key PROBLEM 1 Please answer the following true or false. If false, explain why or provide a counter example. If true explain why

A) (12 Points) If r(t) is parameterized by arclength, then a and N are parallel. Solution B) (13 Points) If r(t) is a differentiable vector valued function then

Solution PROBLEM 2 (25 Points) Let r(t) = 2t i - 4t2 j A. Find T(-1). Solution B. Find N(-1). Solution C. Find the equation of the circle of curvature for r(t) at t = -1. Solution

PROBLEM 3 (25 Points) Jason Elam (the football kicker for the Denver Broncos) can kick a football with an initial velocity of 60 feet per second. At what angle should the ball be kicked to maximize the horizontal distance that the ball travels before it lands on the ground? (Use vectors please). Solution PROBLEM 4 (25 Points) Prove the following theorem: Let r(t) be a differentiable vector valued function, then |(r x v) . a| = ||r'|| ||aN|| |r . (T x N)| Solution PROBLEM 5 (25 Points) Find the parametric equations of the tangent line to the curve that is formed by intersecting the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 and the plane x + y - z = 2 at the point (1,1,0). Solution PROBLEM 6 (25 Points) If a(t) = t i + j - k find r(5) if r(0) = i - k Solution and r(1) = j + k

Extra Credit: Write down one thing that your instructor can do to make the class better and one thing that is going well. (Any constructive remark will be worth full credit)

Iterated Integrals and Area Definition of an Iterated Integral Just as we can take partial derivative by considering only one of the variables a true variable and holding the rest of the variables constant, we can take a "partial integral". We indicate which is the true variable by writing "dx", "dy", etc. Also as with partial derivatives, we can take two "partial integrals" taking one variable at a time. In practice, we will either take x first then y or y first then x. We call this an iterated integral or a double integral. Definition of a Double Integral Let f(x,y) be a function of two variables defined on a region R bounded below and above by y = g1(x) and y = g2(x) and to the left and right by x = a and x = b then the double integral (or iterated integral) of f(x,y) over R is defined by

Example Find the double integral of f(x,y) = 6x2 + 2y over R where R is the region between y = x2 and y = 4. Solution First we have that the inside limits of integration are x2 and 4. The region is bounded from the left by x = -2 and from the right by x = 2 as indicated by the picture below.

We now integrate

Changing the Order of Integration If a region is bounded from the left by x = h1(y) and the right by x = h2(y) and below and above by y = c and y = d, then we can find the double integral of "dxdy" by first integrating with respect to x then with respect to y. Sometimes there is a choice to make as to whether to integrate first with respect to x and then with respect to y. We do whatever is easier. Example Find the double integral of f(x,y) = 3y over the triangle with vertices (-1,1), (0,0), and (1,1).

Solution If we try to integrate with respect y first, we will have to cut the region into two pieces and perform two iterated integrals. Instead we integrate with respect to x first. The region is bounded on the left and the right by x = -y and x = y. The lowest the region gets is y = 0 and the highest is y = 1. The integral is

Example Evaluate the integral

Solution Try as you may, you will not find an antiderivative of and we don't want to get into power series expansions. We have another choice. The picture below shows the region.

We can switch the order of integration. The region is bounded above and below by y = 1/3 x and y = 0. The double integral with respect to y first and then with respect to x is

The integrand is just a constant with respect to y so we get

This integral can be performed with simple u-substitution. u = x2 du = 2x dx and the integral becomes

Area Recall from first year calculus, if a region R is bounded below by y = g1(x) and above by y = g2(x), and a < x < b, the area is given by

There is another way of achieving this expression. If we let the integrand by 1 then the double integral over the region R is

This gives us another way of finding area. Theorem: Area and Double Integrals If a region R is bounded below by y = g1(x) and above by y = g2(x), and a < x < b, then the area is given by

Remark: If the region if bounded on the left by x = h1(y) and the right by h2(y) with c < y < d, then the double integral of 1 dxdy can also be used to find the area. Example Set up the double integral that gives the area between y = x2 and y = x3. Then use a computer or calculator to evaluate this integral. Solution The picture below shows the region

We set up the integral

A computer gives the answer of 1/12. An animation of the "Little Man" Back to the Multiple Integration Home Page Back to the Vector Calculus Home Page e-mail Questions and Suggestions

Double Integrals and Volume Double Riemann Sums In first year calculus, the definite integral was defined as a Riemann sum that gave the area under a curve. There is a similar definition for the volume of a region below a function of two variables. Let f(x,y) be a positive function of two variables and consider the solid that is bounded below by f(x,y) and above a region R in the xy-plane.

For a two dimensional region, we approximated the area by adding up the areas of many approximating rectangles. For the volume of a three dimensional solid, we take a similar approach. Instead of rectangles, we use rectangular solids for the approximation. We cut the region R into rectangles by drawing vertical and horizontal lines in the xy-plane. Rectangles will be formed. We let the rectangles be the base of the solid, while the height is the z-coordinate of the lower left vertex. One such rectangular solid is shown in the figure.

Taking the limit as the rectangle size approaches zero (and the number of rectangles approaches infinity) will give the volume of the solid. If we fix a value of x and look at the rectangular solids that contain this x, the union of the solids will be a solid with constant width . The face will be approximately equal to the area in the yz-plane of the (one variable since x is held constant) function z = f(x,y).

This area is equal to

If we add up all these slices and take the limit as

approaches zero, we get

Which is just the double integral defined in the last section Instead of fixing the variable x we could have held y constant. The picture below illustrates the resulting wedge.

By a similar argument, the volume of the wedge is

Adding up all the wedge areas gives the total volume

This shows that the volume is equal to the iterated integral no matter which we integrate first. This is called Fubini's Theorem. Technically the volume is defined as the double Riemann sum of f(x,y) where we sum over the partition of R in the xy-plane. We state it below. Fubini's Theorem Let f, g1, g2, h1, and h2 be defined and continuous on a region R. Then the double integral equals

Notice that all the typical properties of the double integral hold. For example, constants can be pulled out and the double integral of the sum of two functions is the sum of the double integrals of each function. Finding Volume

Example Set up the integral to find the volume of the solid that lies below the cone and above the xy-plane. Solution The cone is sketched below

We can see that the region R is the blue circle in the xy-plane. We can find the equation by setting z = 0. Solving for y (by moving the square root to the left hand side, squaring both sides, etc) gives The "-" gives the lower limit and the "+" gives the upper limit. For the outer limits, we can see that -4 < x < 4 Putting this all together gives

Either by hand or by machine we can obtain the result Volume = Notice that this agrees with the formula 2 Volume = h/3 Exercise

Set up the double integral for this problem with dxdy instead of dydx. Then show that the two integrals give the same result. Example Set up the double integral that gives the volume of the solid that lies below the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 6 and above the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 Solution

The picture below indicated that the region is the disk that lies inside that circle of intersection of the two surfaces. We substitute x2 + y2 + (x2 + y2)2 = 6 or x2 + y2 + (x2 + y2)2 - 6 = 0 Now factor with x2 + y2 as the variable to get (x2 + y2 - 2)(x2 + y2 + 3) = 0 The second factor has no solution, while the first is x2 + y 2 = 2 Solving for y gives and < x < Just as we did in one variable calculus, the volume between two surfaces is the double integral of the top surface minus the bottom surface. We have

Again we can perform this integral by hand or by machine and get Volume = 7.74 Double Integration in Polar Coordinates Polar Double Integration Formula Many of the double integrals that we have encountered so far have involved circles or at least expressions with x2 + y2. When we see these expressions a bell should ring and we should shout, "Can't we use polar coordinates." The answer is, "Yes" but only with care. Recall that when we changed variables in single variable integration such as u = 2x, we needed to work out the stretching factor du = 2dx. The idea is similar with two variable integration. When we change to polar coordinates, there

will also be a stretching factor. This is evident since the area of the "polar rectangle" is not just as one may expect . The picture is shown below.

Even if and are very small the area is not the product ( )( ). This comes from the definition of radians. An arc that extends radians a distance r out from the origin has length . If both and are very small then the polar rectangle has area Area = This leads us to the following theorem Theorem: Double Integration in Polar Coordinates Let f(x,y) be a continuous function defined over a region R bounded in polar coordinates by r1 < r < r2 < 2 1 < Then

Notice the extra "r" in the theorem

Using Polar Coordinates Example Find the volume to the part of the paraboloid z = 9 - x2 - y 2 that lies inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4 Solution The surfaces are shown below.

This is definitely a case for polar coordinates. The region R is the part of the xy-plane that is inside the cylinder. In polar coordinates, the cylinder has equation r2 = 4 Taking square roots and recalling that r is positive gives r = 2

The inside of the cylinder is thus the polar rectangle 0 < r < 2 0 < < The equation of the parabola becomes z = 9 - r2 We find the integral

This integral is a matter of routine. It evaluates to

Example Find the volume of the part of the sphere of radius 3 that is left after drilling a cylindrical hole of radius 2 through the center. Solution The picture is shown below

The region this time is the annulus (washer) between the circles r = 2 and r = 3 as shown below.

The sphere has equation x2 + y2 + z2 = 9 In polar coordinates this reduces to r2 + z2 = 9 Solving for z by subtracting r2 and taking a square root we get top and bottom surfaces of We get the double integral

This integral can be solved by letting u = 9 - r2 du = -2rdr After substituting we get

Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia Mass We saw before that the double integral over a region of the constant function 1 measures the area of the region. If the region has uniform density 1, then the mass is the density times the area which equals the area. What if the density is not constant. Suppose that the density is given by the continuous function Density = In this case we can cut the region into tiny rectangles where the density is approximately constant. The area of mass rectangle is given by Mass = (Density)(Area) = You probably know where this is going. If we add all to masses together and take the limit as the rectangle size goes to zero, we get a double integral. Mass Let be the density of a lamina (flat sheet) R at the point (x,y). Then the total mass of the lamina is the double integral

Example A rectangular metal sheet with 2 < x < 5 and 0 < y < 3 has density function = x+y Set up the double integral that gives the mass of the metal sheet. Solution We just have the integral

Moments and Center of Mass We have seen in first year calculus that the moments about an axis are defined by the product of the mass times the distance from the axis. Mx = (Mass)(y) My = (Mass)(x) We cut the region into small rectangles for which the density is constant and add up the moments of each of these rectangles. Then take the limit as the rectangle size approaches zero. This will give us the total moment. Suppose that Definition of Moments of Mass and Center of Mass is a continuous density function on a lamina R. Then the moments of mass are

and if M is the mass of the lamina, then the center of mass is

Example

Set up the integrals that give the center of mass of the rectangle with vertices (0,0), (1,0), (1,1), and (0,1) and density function proportional to the square of the distance from the origin. Use a calculator or computer to evaluate these integrals. Solution The mass is given by

The moments are given by

These evaluate to Mx = 5k/12 and My = 5k/12 It should not be a surprise that the moments are equal since there is complete symmetry with respect to x and y. Finally, we divide to get (x,y) = (5/8,5/8) This tells us that the metal plate will balance perfectly if we place a pin at (5/8,5/8)

Moments of Inertia We often call Mx and My the first moments. They have first powers of y and x in their definitions and help find the center of mass. We define the moments of inertia (or second moments) by introducing squares of y and x in their definitions. The moments of inertia help us find the kinetic energy in rotational motion. Below is the definition Suppose that Moments of Inertia is a continuous density function on a lamina R. Then the moments of inertia are

Exercise Find the moments of inertia for the previous square metal plate.

Surface Area Definition of Surface Area In first year calculus we have seen how to find the surface area of revolution. Now that we how the power of double integration, we are ready to take on the surface area for more general surfaces. We can think of a smooth surface as a quilt flapping in the wind. It consists of many rectangles patched together. More generally and more accurately, let z = f(x,y) be a surface in R3 defined over a region R in the xy-plane. cut the xy-plane into rectangles. Each rectangle will project vertically to a piece of the surface as shown in the figure below. Although the area of the rectangle in R is Area = The area of the corresponding piece of the surface will not be Even if we cut finely, we will still not produce a rectangle, but rather will approximately produce a parallelogram. With a little geometry we can see that the two adjacent sides of the parallelogram are (in vector form) u = i + fx k and v = fy i k We can see this by realizing that the partial derivatives are the slopes in each direction. If we run in the i direction, then we will rise fx in the k direction so that rise/run = fx(x,y) Which agrees with the slope idea of the partial derivative. A similar argument will confirm the equation for the vector v. Now that we know the adjacent vectors we recall that the area of a parallelogram is the magnitude of the cross product of the two adjacent vectors. We have

This is the area of one of the patches of the quilt. To find the total area of the surface, we add up all the areas and take the limit as the rectangle size approaches zero. This results in a double Riemann sum, that is a double integral. We state the definition below. Definition of Surface Area Let z = f(x,y) be a differentiable surface defined over a region R. Then its surface area is given by

Examples Example Find the surface area of the part of the plane z = 8x + 4y that lies inside the cylinder x2 + y2 = 16

Solution We calculate partial derivatives fx(x,y) = 8 fy(x,y) = 4 so that 1 + fx2(x,y) + fy2(x,y) = 1 + 64 + 16 = 81 Taking a square root and integrating, we get

We could work this integral out, but there is a much easier way. The integral of a constant is just the constant times the area of the region. Since the region is a circle, we get Surface Area = =

In reality, since there is a square root in the formula, most surface area calculations require intensive integration skills or the use of a machine. The prior example and the next example are not meant to deceive, but rather to show how the essence of surface area problems work without the integration difficulty clouding your understanding. Example Find the surface area of the part of the paraboloid z = 25 - x2 - y2 that lies above the xy-plane.

Solution We calculate partial derivatives fx(x,y) = -2x fy(x,y) = -2y so that 1 + fx2(x,y) + fy2(x,y) = 1 + 4x2 + 4y2 At this point if we listen closely, we should hear a little voice pleading "Polar Coordinates". We listen to its call and realize that the region is just the circle r = 5 Now convert the integrand to polar coordinates to get 2 5

0 0

1 4r 2 rdrd

Now let u = 1 + 4r2 and substitute

du = 8rdr
2 101 3/2 1

1 8

2 101

0 1

1 u dud 12
1/2

u 0

530.95

Triple Integrals Definition of the Triple Integral We have seen that the geometry of a double integral involves cutting the two dimensional region into tiny rectangles, multiplying the areas of the rectangles by the value of the function there, adding the areas up, and taking a limit as the size of the rectangles approaches zero. We have also seen that this is equivalent to finding the double iterated iterated integral. We will now take this idea to the next dimension. Instead of a region in the xy-plane, we will consider a solid in xyz-space. Instead of cutting up the region into rectangles, we will cut up the solid into rectangular solids. And instead of multiplying the function value by the area of the rectangle, we will multiply the function value by the volume of the rectangular solid. We can define the triple integral as the limit of the sum of the product of the function times the volume of the rectangular solids. Instead of the double integral being equivalent to the double iterated integral, the triple integral is equivalent to the triple iterated integral. Definition of the Triple Integral Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous function of three variables defined over a solid Q. Then the triple integral over Q is defined as

where the sum is taken over the rectangular solids included in the solid Q and lim is taken to mean the limit as the side lengths of the rectangular solid.

This definition is only practical for estimating the triple integral when a data set is given. When we have a symbolically defined function, we use an extension of the fundamental theorem of calculus which is just Fubini's theorem for triple integrals. Theorem for Evaluating Triple Integrals Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous function over a solid Q defined by a < x < b h1(x) < y < h2(x) g1(x,y) < z < g2(x,y) Then the triple integral is equal to the triple iterated integral.

Remark: As with double integrals the order of integration can be changed with care. Examples Example Evaluate

Where f(x,y,z) = 1 - x and Q is the solid that lies in the first octant and below the plain 3x + 2y + z = 6 Solution The picture of the region

The challenge here is to find the limits. We work on the innermost limit first which corresponds with the variable "z". Think of standing vertically. Your feet will rest on the lower limit and your head will touch the higher limit. The lower limit is the xy-plane or z = 0 The upper limit is the given plane. Solving for z, we get z = 6 - 3x - 2y Now we work on the middle limits that correspond to the variable "y". We look at the projection of the surface in the xy-plane. It is shown below.

Now we find the limits just as we found the limits of double integrals. The lower limit is just y = 0 If we set z = 0 and solve for y, we get for the upper limit y = 3 - 3/2 x Next we find the outer limits, corresponding to the variable "x". The lowest x gets is 0 and highest x gets is 2. Hence 0 < x < 2 The integral is thus

Example Switch the order of integration from the previous example so that dydxdz appears. Solution This time we work on the "y" variable first. The lower limit for the y-variable is 0. For the upper limit, we solve for y in the plane to get y = 3 - 3/2 x - 1/2 z To find the "x" limits, we project onto the xz-plane as shown below

The lower limit for x is 0. To find the upper limit we set y = 0 and solve for x to get x = 2 - 1/3 z Finally, to get the limits for z, we see that the smallest z will get is 0 and the largest z will get is 6. We get 0 < z < 6 We can write

Mass, Center of Mass, and Moments of Inertia For a three dimensional solid with constant density, the mass is the density times the volume. If the density is not constant but rather a continuous function of x, y, and x, then we can cut the solid into very small rectangular solids so that on each rectangular solid the density is approximately constant. The volume of the rectangle is = = Now do the usual thing. We add up all the small masses and take the limit as the rectangular solids get small. This will give us the triple integral

We are often interested in the center of mass of a solid. For example when the NEAR satellite orbited around the asteroid Eros, NASA scientists needed to compute the center of mass of the asteroid. Kepler told us that a stable orbit will always orbit in an elliptical orbit with the center of mass as one of the foci.

The NEAR satellite orbiting around Eros We find the center of mass of a solid just as we found the center of mass of a lamina. Since we are in three dimensions, instead of the moments about the axes, we find the moments about the coordinate planes. We state the definitions from physics below. Let Definition: Moments and Center of Mass be the density of a solid Q. Then the first moments about the coordinate planes are

and the center of mass is given by

Notice that letting the density function being identically equal to 1 gives the volume

Exercise

Find the center of mass of the solid that lies below the paraboloid z = 4 - x2 - y 2 that lies above the xy-plane if the density of the region is given by = x2 + 2y2 + z You may use your calculator or computer to evaluate the integrals. Just as with lamina, there are formulas for moments of inertial about the three axes. They involve multiplying the density function by the square of the distance from the axes. We have Definition: Moments of Inertia be the density of a solid Q. Then the first moments of inertia about the coordinate axes are

Let

Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates When we were working with double integrals, we saw that it was often easier to convert to polar coordinates. For triple integrals we have been introduced to three coordinate systems. The rectangular coordinate system (x,y,z) is the system that we are used to. The other two systems, cylindrical coordinates and spherical coordinates are the topic of this discussion. Recall that cylindrical coordinates are most appropriate when the expression x2 + y 2 occurs. The construction is just an extension of polar coordinates. x = y = z = z Since triple integration can be looked at as iterated integration we have

This leads us the the following theorem Theorem: Integration With Cylindrical Coordinates Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous function on a solid Q. Then

Example Find the moment of inertia about the z-axis of the solid that lies below the paraboloid z = 25 - x2 - y2 inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 4 above the xy-plane, and has density function = x2 + y2 + 6z

Solution By the moment of inertia formula, we have

The region, being inside of a cylinder is ripe for cylindrical coordinates. We get

Spherical Coordinates Another coordinate system that often comes into use is the spherical coordinate system. To review, the transformations are x = y = z = In the next section we will show that dzdydx = This leads us to Theorem: Integration With Spherical Coordinates Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous function on a solid Q. Then

Example Find the volume of solid that lies inside the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 and outside of the cone z2 = x2 + y2

Solution We convert to spherical coordinates. The sphere becomes = To convert the cone, we add z2 to both sides of the equation 2z2 = x2 + y2 +z2 Now convert to 2 cos = 2 Canceling the 2 and solving for we get = cos-1(1/ ) = In spherical coordinates (since the coordinates are periodic)

= To find the volume we compute

3 2 4 2

0 0
4

sin d d d

Evaluating this integral should be routine at this point and is equal to V = 3

Jacobians Review of the Idea of Substitution Consider the integral

To evaluate this integral we use the u-substitution u = x2 This substitution sends the interval [0,2] onto the interval [0,4]. We can see that there is stretching of the interval. The stretching is not uniform. In fact, the first part [0,0.5] is actually contracted. This is the reason why we need to find du. du dx 1 = 2x or = dx du 2x This is the factor that needs to be multiplied in when we perform the substitution. Notice for small positive values of x, this factor is greater than 1 and for large values of x, the factor is smaller than 1. This is how the stretching and contracting is accounted for. Jacobians We have seen that when we convert to polar coordinates, we use dydx = With a geometrical argument, we showed why the "extra r" is included. Taking the analogy from the one variable case, the transformation to polar coordinates produces stretching and contracting. The "extra r" takes care of this stretching and contracting. The goal for this section is to be able to find the "extra factor" for a more general transformation. We call this "extra factor" the Jacobian of the transformation. We can find it by taking the determinant of the two by two matrix of partial derivatives. Definition of the Jacobian Let x = g(u,v) and y = h(u,v) be a transformation of the plane. Then the Jacobian of this transformation is

Example Find the Jacobian of the polar coordinates transformation = y(r, = Solution We have

This is comforting since it agrees with the extra factor in integration.

Double Integration and the Jacobian Theorem: Integration and Coordinate Transformations Let given by x = g(u,v), y = h(u,v) be a transformation on the plane that is one to one from a region S to a region R. If g and h have continuous partial derivatives such that the Jacobian is never zero, then

Remark: A useful fact is that the Jacobian of the inverse transformation is the reciprocal of the Jacobian of the original transformation.

This is a consequence of the fact that the determinant of the inverse of a matrix A is the reciprocal of the determinant of A. Idea of the Proof As usual, we cut S up into tiny rectangles so that the image under T of each rectangle is a parallelogram.

We need to find the area of the parallelogram. Considering differentials, we have T(u,v) + (xu yu

T(u,v) + (xv v Thus the two vectors that make the parallelogram are P = gu i + hu j Q = gv i + hv j To find the area of this parallelogram we just cross the two vectors.

and the extra factor is revealed. Example Use an appropriate change of variables to find the volume of the region below z = (x - y)2 above the x-axis, over the parallelogram with vertices (0,0), (1,1), (2,0), and (1,-1)

Solution We find the equations of the four lines that make the parallelogram to be y = x y = x-2 y = -x y = -x + 2 or x-y = 0 x-y = 2 x+y = 0 x+y = 2 The region is given by 0 < x-y < 2 and 0 < x+y <2 This leads us to the inverse transformation u(x,y) = x - y v(x,y) = x + y The Jacobian of the inverse transformation is

Since the Jacobian is the reciprocal of the inverse Jacobian we get

The region is given by 0 < u < 2 and 0 < v <2 and the function is given by z = u2 Putting this all together, we get the double integral

Jacobians and Triple Integrals For transformations from R to R , we define the Jacobian in a similar way
3 3

Example Find the Jacobian for the spherical coordinate transformation x = y = z = Solution We take partial derivatives and compute