Development of a VibratingCoil Magnetometer

D. O. Smith

Citation: Rev. Sci. Instrum. 27, 261 (1956); doi: 10.1063/1.1715538
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1715538
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THE
REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC
INSTRUMENTS
VOLUME 27. NUMBER 5 MAY, 1956
Development of a Vibrating-Coil Magnetometer*
D. o. SMITHt
LalJoratory for Insulation Research, Massachusetts, Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
(Received January 26, 1956)
The vibrating-coil magnetometer measures the magnetization of a small sample of magnetic material
pJaced in an externaJ magnetizing field by converting the dipole field of the sample into an ac electrical
signal. To allow space for temperature- or pressure-generating apparatus around the sample, the measure-
ment is made at distances up to 2 em from the sample. The measurement is continuous and can be recorded
on a chart as a function of time, temperature, crystallographic orientation, or magnetizing field. The present
stable sensitivity is such as to provide one percent accuracy for a dipole moment of 8.56XIQ-4 amp-m2 (the
saturation moment at room temperature of a nickel sphere 1.5 mm in diameter).
I. INTRODUCTION
I
N order to take advantage of modern electronic and
recording techniques, a magnetometer was desired
which could make rapid and accurate measurement of
magnetization curves, saturation moment, paramag-
netic susceptibility, and anisotropy of small ferromag-
netic specimens from liquid helium to the melting point
of the sample. Such measurements are fundamental in
any research program on ferromagnetism. The vi-
brating-coil magnetometer (VCM) described here ful-
fills this purpose. In addition, the measurements are
made at an appreciable distance from the sample so
that application of hydrostatic pressure to the sample
will not interfere. It is hoped that this feature can be
utilized to include hydrostatic pressure over the com-
plete temperature range, as an experimental variable
in the study of ferromagnetic materials.
II. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MAGNETOMETER
1. Basic Principle
The magnetic field of a dipole created by inserting a
small sample of magnetic material in an external
magnetizing field is converted into an ac electrical
signal by means of a coil vibra ting along the axis of the
* Sponsored by the U. S. Navy Department (Office of Naval
Research), the Army Signal Corps, the Air Force (Air Materiel
Command), and the Ordnance Materials Research Office. Repro-
duction of this article in whole or in part is permitted for any
purpose by the United States Government.
t Present address: Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, Massachu-
setts.
dipole and at a distance far enough away from the
sample to allow room for temperature- or pressure-
generating apparatus around the sample (Fig. 1). The
resulting signal is amplified and recorded by standard
techniques.
The major problem in producing a practical instru-
ment is to eliminate the signal induced by the curvature
of the magnetizing field. Elimination of the magnetizing-
field signal was achieved by Plotkin
l
by keeping the
coil fixed and vibrating the sample. This makes varia-
tion of temperature difficult and application of pressure
impossible; hence a vibrating-sample magnetometer is
of limited use.
2. Sample-Signal to MagnetiZing-Field-Signal
Ratio
The voltage induced in an element ds of the vibrating
coil is due to a magnetic-field component perpendicular
both to the element ds and the velocity of the element.
FIG. 1. Principle of the
vibrating-coil magnetome-
ter.
1 H. Plotkin, Quart. Progr. Rept. Massachussetts Institute of
Technology Research Lab. Electronics (October 15, 1951), p. 28.
261
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262
D. O. SMITH
Z = Zo + 8 sin Colt
(0 ) (b)
FIG. 2. Schematic
representation of dc
and ac methods of
measurement: (a) dc
flux change, (b) ac
flux change.
For the VCM this means that the induced voltage is
due to radial magnetic-field components. An estimate of
the sample-signal to magnetizing-field-signal ratio l:M
can be obtained by comparing the radial components of
the sample field and the magnetizing field.
In the magnet available for this experiment the radial
field was of the order of 1% of the longitudinal field,
so that in a field of 500 ka/m the radial component was
5 ka/m.
2
It is expected that if the vibrating coil is
placed 2 cm from a 3-mm diam sample, temperature
from that of liquid helium to 1500C and pressure to
10000 atmos can be generated around the sample. For
a sample of iron so placed, the radial field at the perime-
ter of a suitably dimensioned coil is approximately
500 amp/m (see reference 7), giving The
signal- to thermal-noise ratio l:T for this example is
[compare Eq. (6)]. Thus, the basic problem is
to make l:M comparable to l:T. As will be described,
methods other than improving magnetizing-field uni-
formity have resulted in this result, combined
with the uniform fields available in certain commercial
magnets,3 should lead to a VCM operating very near
the thermal-noise level.
3. Comparative Signal- to Thermal-Noise Ratio
It is informative to compare the signal- to thermal-
noise ratio of the VCM with a more familiar class of
measurement methods. The VCM generates an ac
flux change, and we wish to compare it with its dc
counterpart. A dc flux change can be generated by
moving the sample completely out of the vicinity of the
coil, as was done by Weiss and Forrer
4
in their classic
work on the isotherms of nickel. Alternatively, a dc
flux change can be obtained from changes in magnetiza-
tion induced by varying the temperature, pressure, or
magnetizing field. If the magnetizing field is to be
varied, a toroid of magnetic material is often used, with
the magnetizing and pickup coils threading the toroid.
In these dc methods the flux change is recorded by a
ballistic galvanometer or, more recently, by electronic
circuits.
6
The VCM and its dc counterpart are shown schemati-
cally in Fig. 2; the dc flux change is generated by mov-
2 mks units will be used (1 oersted = 1:0 amp/m).
3 E.g., the Varian 12-in. magnet manufactured by Varian
Associates, Palo Alto, California, operating at 700 ka/m has a
radial field < 10 amp/m 3 cm from the center.
4 P. Weiss and R. Forrer, Ann. phys. [lOJ 5, 153 (1926).
6 P. P. Cioffi, Rev. Sci. Instr. 21, 624 (1950).
ing the sample to infinity. To obtain a. comparison, let
us imagine that we provide the vibrating coil with a
commutator such that the electrical output is reversed
when the direction of motion is reversed. We now
think of the coil as undergoing a dc flux change. Assum-
ing the two coil resistances to be nearly the same, a
comparison of the relative noise ratios can be obtained
by taking the ratio of the flux changes generated in the
time used to make a measurement. The result is
u=6.CPvcm/6.CPdc=3wlh/7rzo,6 where u is the comparative
noise ratio of the VCM to the dc system; w, 0, and Zo
describe the coil motion as indicated in Fig. 2, and T is
the amount of time taken for the measurement (e.g.,
the period of a ballistic galvanometer).
The present VCM operates at a frequency of 40 cps
and has a vibration amplitude of 1 mm. A typical value
of T for a sensitive ballistic galvanometer is 10 sec. In
the proposed experiments Zo, determined by the diam-
eter of temperature- or pressure-generating equipment,
would have a value of the order of 2 cm. Substituting
the numerical values we find u= 120.
It is easy to visualize why the noise ratio of the VCM
is so favorable when compared to the dc system. In the
latter method, the measuring coil spends most of its
time out of the field of the sample, and hence no signal
from the sample is obtained for the greater part of the
measuring time. On the other hand, the VCM utilizes
the sample field much more effectively, since the coil is
at all times at a point of strong sample field, which
continuously supplies a signal during the measurement.
III. THEORY OF THE VIBRATING COIL
1. Sample Signal
Consider the coil of the VCM as consisting of only one
turn, of radius r, at a distance Zo from a magnetic dipole
p (Fig. 3). For a motion of this coil described by
Z=Zo+o sinwt,
the rms voltage is
7

I
JLo 67rp wo
e=---G
47r Z02 V2 '
y
FIG. 3. Single-turn
vibrating coil.
(1)
(2)
6 Calculated by choosing the radius of the coil differently in the
two cases, so as to maximize cf>zo for the dc method, or (dcf>/ dz)zo for
the VCM.
7e=- - -=[BrrdOJ _.
(
dcf dz (dZ)
dzzodl zodt'
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COIL MAGNETOMETER
263
where the geometrical coefficient G = 1'2/ (1 + 1'2) 6/2, and
the normalized radius I' = 1'/ Zoo Figure 4 is a plot of the
geometrical coefficient G as a function of 1'; the radii for
maximwn voltage and maximum radial field are
indicated.
A multiturn coil of rectangular cross section is shown
in Fig. 5. A single turn in the coil will be described by
the coordinates (r,z). The distance Zl is fixed by th6
radius of the pressure and/or temperature vessel, so
that Zl serves as a convenient normalizing factor. Using
Eq. (2) for the voltage in the ith turn and summing
over all turns (approximated by integrating the turn
density over the coil cross-sectional area), we find the
total voltage to be
}.o
E.=-Vl-rrpwonZ8 R"
4?r
(3)
where n is the turn density, the sample-signal axial
coefficient Z.= 1-1/A2, and the sample-signal radial
coefficient R.='YN (1+'Y22)L'YN (1 +'Y12)i.
The most interesting feature of Eq. (3) is the fact
that, for a given A2 and 1'2, E. is independent of Zl, the
distance from the specimen; this is in contrast to the
inverse square dependence for the single-turn coil
[Eq. (2)]. If the coil is proportioned properly, as ex-
pressed by the values of I' and A, it does not matter
how far away from the sample the vibrating coil is
placed. The penalty for moving far away from the
sample, however, is the increased size of the coil re-
quired. A larger coil requires more wire and the thermal
noise is increased. The dependence of the signal- to
thermal-noise ratio on Zl will be calculated in the next
section.
The dependence of Z. and R. (with 1'1=0) on A and
1', respectively, is shown in Fig. 6. The approximate
operating points of the present coil are also shown. The
choice of these operating points will be explained when
the actual design of the coil is considered.
0.20
0.16
0.14$
t 0.12
G
0.08
y2
G---
(1 + y2)sn
2 3
FIG. 4. Geometrical coefficient G vs 'Y for a single-turn coil.
FIG. 5. Cross section of a
multiturn coil.
dA = drdz

r,
r = r/Z,
>. = lIZ,
2. Signal- to Thermal-Noise Ratio
The thermal noise in the coil is given by
Er= (4kTRflj)!, (4)
where k is Boltzman's constant, T the temperature, Aj
the band width of the detecting system, and R the
resistance of the coil. The resistance is given by R=
hP
'
27rrndA, where p' is the resistance per unit length
of wire. This leads to
The signal-to-noise ratio is
where the signal-to-noise ratio axial coefficient Z.n,
=Z./ (A2-1)1, and the signal-to-noise ratio radial coeffi-
cient R.
nr
=R./('Y2
2
_'Y1
2
)1.
The functions Zanr and RanT determine the optimum
dimensions of the coil. These functions (with 1'1=0),
and the approximate operating points of the present
coil, are shown in Fig. 7.
For a coil completely filled with conductor, n/ p' = 1/ p,
where p is the resistivity. The fact that the wire size
(reflected in the value of p') and the number of turns
disappear from E
T
, means that ET is determined only by
the resistivity of the material of which the wire is made,
and the space in which this wire is placed. Maximum use
is made of this space if amplification to the thermal noise
level in the winding [Eq. (5)J is possible; this require-
ment is most easily met by winding a coil of high
resistance from #45 B&S gauge copper wire.
IV. ELIMINATION OF THE MAGNETIZING-FIELD
SIGNAL
1. Geometric Zeroing
Let us consider the details of the curvature which is
present in the magnetizing field. For flat parallel pole
pieces the field is shown schematically in Fig. 8 (a) ; the
flux passing through the coil as a function of longitudinal
position in the gap is given in Fig. 8(b). It is seen by
symmetry that d4>/dt=O midway between the pole
pieces, and consequently the voltage from the mag-
netizing field is zero at this point, which will be referred
to as the "zero point." Although a real magnet is not
perfectly symmetrical, it is obvious that only a very
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264
D. O. SMITH
1.0.-------------__ ---.
I.0r---------------.
0.8
0.4
o.S4a ----------
0.2
,
Zs c'-T
0.8
0.658
t 0.6
RS
0.4
0.2
approximate symmetry is required to insure the exist-
ence of a zero point somewhere in the gap.
Nevertheless, there is a serious limitation to operating
the coil in an asymmetrical magnet. As the field at some
particular point in the magnet gap is changed, the field
at other points in the gap does not change proportion-
ally. This is due to the geometry of the magnet causing
some parts of the iron circuit to saturate more quickly
than others; of course, there will always be inclusions
and imperfections in the iron itself contributing to this
effect. If the magnet is not symmetrical, this spatial
nonproportionality causes the zero point to be field
dependent. We can conveniently describe this situation
by saying that the zero point does not "track" with the
magnetizing field. Tracking becomes important if it is
desired to measure the M-H curve of a ferromagnetic
specimen, or even for fixed field measurements, if the
magnetizing field is not well stabilized.
By adjusting the position of the pole pieces of the
magnet relative to the magnet coils a configuration of
increased symmetry, for which the tracking appears
perfect for a small change of magnet current t:.I, can be
found. However, this still does not lead to a successful
VCM. The dependence of the zero point on the field is
still too great to allow M - H curves to be taken, and,
.
ir.present operation
1.762 3 4
y--
5
FIG. 6. Sample-signal geo-
metrical coefficients Z. and
R. (with 'YI=O) vs A and 'Y.
respectively.
in addition, the sharpness of the zero point as a function
of z puts too severe a requirement on the mechanical
vibrator to keep the mean coil position constant. The
dependence of the zero point on small fluctuations of
mean coil position is considered in the next section.
2. Instability of Mean Coil Position
Let us expand the flux vs position curve in a power
series, taking the mean position of the coil as origin.
The first three terms are j
cf> = cf>o+cf>lZ+cf>2Z
2

The induced voltage is
e=wocf>l coswt-wo
2
cf>2 sin2wt,
(7)
(8)
and, for a small displacement t:.z of the mean position,
the change in the fundamental component is
ae
t:.e=-(t:.z)=2wocf>2t:.Z coswt.
az
(9)
Operation at the zero point of Fig. 8 makes cf>l =0,
and hence the fundamental of the induced voltage is also
zero. However, cf>2 is not zero, as is shown experimentally
by the presence of a large second harmonic; thus, t:.e
0.5r-------:_ ........ :::--------.,
0.5,..----------------.
0.4
f 0.3
Zsnr
0.2
0.1
,
1
,-t
Z :---
snr p. _ 1) 112
if Present. operation
.
0.4
0.2
1
1
1
1
I
1
I
1
:
,
,
,
I
1
I
I
1
1
1
I
1
R :_...;.y_2_
$Or (1+y2)>f.
lr.Present operation
1.76 2 3 4
y-
6
FIG. 7. Signal-to-noise
ratio geometrical coeffi-
cients Z.nr and R.nr (with
'YI = 0) vs A and 'Y, respec-
tively.
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VIBRATING COIL MAGNETOMETER 265
from Eq. (9) is not zero for first-order fluctuations in
mean coil position. It is necessary to find a way to make
the zero point include higher order terms of the flux
curve. The compound coil of the next section does this.
3. Compound Coil
Consider a coil consisting of two separate, concentric
windings sand b, and write the total flux through both
windings as the sum
(lOa)
The expansion of the separate terms of Eq. (lOa) is
given by
(lOb)
with cPj= s;+b;.
In general CP2= S2+ but if we multiply CPb by the
scale factor n= -s2/b
2
, then
FIG. 8. Field pat-
tern and coil flux for
flat parallel pole
pieces: (a) field pat-
tern, (b) flux through
coil as function of
longitudinal pMtion
in the gap.
CPt=CP.+ncjJb,
(11)
Mid-plane

Magnet --+' --_ _ (a)
pole - ,
--.j.--
: --1--- I
: f-.U (b1
ot-M
Experimentally the factor n is introduced by means of
an external circuit which gives an output voltage of the
form of Eq. (11) (Fig. 9). Since n is negative the two
coils must be connected in opposition; the dimensions
must be such that the sample signal is not reduced
excessively because of this. As is perhaps obvious, the
sample signal is greatest in the inner winding. These
considerations suggest the designations sample signal
(inner) and bucking (outer) windings, corresponding to
the subscripts sand b of Eq. (lOa).
4. Residual Magnetizing-Field Signal 90 Out of
Phase with the Sample Signal
Experimentally a zero point, as described in the pre-
ceding sections, is not observed due to deviations from
the assumed longitudinal motion. In the present
vibrator, which operates at 40 cps, there is a linear
motion at right angles to the desired one and 90 out of
phase with it; thus, the motion of a point in the coil
is an ellipse. If the magnetizing field were cylindrically
symmetric about the axis of vibration, the perturbing
voltage would be at the second harmonic of 40 cps;
FIG. 9. Circuit to multiply
by the scale factor n according
to Eq. (11).

e=e.+ neb
eb '"
neb
however, independent experiments showed that the
magnetizing field departs from cylindrical symmetry by
about 1% of the total field.
The perturbing voltage is 90 out of phase with the
sample signal, so that a phase-sensitive detector will
separate the two signals. In order to keep the level of
the perturbing voltage sufficiently low so that it does not
interfere with amplification before detection, a bucking
signal is introduced before amplification. The bucking
signal and reference signal for the phase-sensitive de-
tector are obtained from the amplifier which drives the
vibration generator.
V. DESIGN OF THE VCM SYSTEM
1. Block Diagram
Figure 10 is a block diagram of the VCM system used
to measure the magnetization of a ferromagnetic speci-
men as a function of magnetic field, crystallographic
orientation, and temperature. The vibrating coil is
shown as a two-winding coil operating at the center of
the gap. The sample is placed to one side in a furnace or
refrigerator, which can be rotated in order to permit
measurement in different crystallographic directions.
The coil is coupled to a 40-cps vibration generator by
a rod passing through one of the magnet pole pieces.
The vibration generator is driven by a power amplifier
fed from a 40-cps oscillator.
FIG. 10. VCM-system block diagram.
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266 D. O. SMITH
(0) (b)
Fw. 11. Two-winding compound coil: (a) general parameters,
(b) actual coil (dimensions in inches).
The signal from the vibrating coil is sent to the input
circuit, where the scale factor n is introduced; a signal
from the power amplifier is also fed to this circuit to
cancel the out-of-phase component of the magnetizing-
field signal, to shift the zero level of the measurement,
and for calibration purposes. After amplification, phase-
sensitive detection eliminates any remainder of the
out-of-phase signal. The reference signal for the detector
comes from the output of the power amplifier. The final
signal, fed to the y-axis of an x-y recorder, represents the
magnetization of the sample.
Voltages, proportional to the magnetizing field or
temperature, are fed to the x-axis of the recorder. The
magnetizing field is measured with a rotating-coil
gauss meter.
S
2. Coil Design
According to the previous theory, the vibrating coil
is to consist of two concentric windings. The relative
size of these windings is determined by the condition of
Eq. (11). If the dimensions are such that so=b
o
(i.e., the
areas are equal), then one would expect that Eq. (11)
could be satisfied. For the two windings dimensioned
according to Fig. ll(a), the condition of equal areas
leads to ')'2b!'Y1b=V'2, with the simplifying assumption
that ')'18=0. By assuming a value for ')'28, we calculate
the coefficients R, for the sample and bucking coils from
Eq. (3), or use the graph of Fig. 6. The over-all radial
coefficient for the compound coil is R8C= R
88
- R
sb
,
where the second subscripts c, s, and b refer to the com-
pound, sample, and bucking coils, respectively. It is
advantageous to keep the coil as small as possible, con-
sistent with a favorable value of R
8C
' For the assumed
values of/'2s= 1 and 1.75 we find R
8C
=0.05 and 0.42,
respectively. Thus, a coil as small as /,28= 1 would have
a sample-signal output almost ten times smaller than
the larger coil /'28 = 1. 7 5. Consequently, the choice of
/'28 = 1. 7 5 has been made. The further choice of Z1 = 1.11
cm and A2= 1.57 completely defines the coil size. The
operating points for the sample coil only, with /'18=0,
for the various coefficients R" Z" R.nr, and Z,nr are
shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
The actual coil [Fig. 11 (b)] is wound with #45 B&S
gauge copper wire on a linen-base Bakelite form. During
the winding the coil was impregnated with a potting
medium which hardens upon addition of a catalyst. The
number of turns on the sample and bucking coils are
30000 and 13000, respectively. The leads brought out
from the coil are beryllium-copper wire in order to
avoid breaking during vibration.
3. Vibrator
The vibrator (Fig. 12), operates at 40 cps. The
coupling between the alternating force and the coil in
the magnet gap is at-in. diam stainless-steel rod passing
through the magnet pole piece. This rod, chromium
plated to provide a hard bearing surface, is mounted in
longitudinal ball bearings seated in cavities in the pole
piece. The alternating-force generator is a coil mounted
on one end of the coupling rod and placed in a radial
RING 1'"--------20 -----------.,
(
CALIBRATED ADJUSTING
\
RADIAL MAGNETIC f-------7r---__......
FIELD
B
~ - - + K'Litltl.cK RESTORING
FORCE
MAGNET POLE PIECE
STAINLESS STEEL
COUPLING ROD
I I I I I I I I INCHES
o I 2 3 4
FIG. 12. Forty-cycle vibrator.
8 Manufactured by Rawson Instrument Company, Cambridge, MassacllUsetts.
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VIBRATING COIL MAGNETOMETER 267
s
FIG. 13. Tracking curve of the one-winding coil.
magnetic field. Thus, alternating current in this coil
generates an alternating force which drives the rod in
and out of the magnet. The electromagnet which sup-
plies the radial field is taken from a Calidyne magnetic
shaker,9 not shown in Fig. 12 for reasons of clarity.
A restoring force is introduced to keep the coil in some
definite place. This is supplied by two flat disks of foam
rubber placed on either side of a steel disk clamped to
the coupling rod. The rubber disks are under compres-
sion within a steel chamber in order to eliminate any
looseness in the system. The adjustment of the mean
position of the coil is effected by moving the chamber
containing the disks.
VI. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
1. Calibration
Two methods may be used to calibrate the VCM:
calculation of the induced voltage, or experimental
calibration with a sample of known magnetic moment.
Theoretical calibration leads to an absolute measure-
ment of the magnetization of the sample and serves as
a check on the theory of the VCM. Experimental
calibration is more practical since the determination of
all of the parameters entering the theory is more
difficult than substituting a sample of known
magnetization.
Using a sphere of nickel as a standard with a well-
known saturation magnetization, the calculated in-
duced voltage was 4.5% less than the measured value.
Errors in determining the parameters of the theory can
easily account for the discrepancy. Experimental cali-
bration yields results consistent to better than 1%.
In calibrating magnetometers a correction of appreci-
able magnitude has often been reported due to the
image effect, which reflects the sample dipole in the pole
pieces of the magnet. The maximum image effect is
calculated from Eq. (3), using the appropriate values of
axial- and radial-geometric coefficients Zs and R
8
These
coefficients are essentially determined by the size of
the magnet gap, and in this experiment were so small as
to have a negiligible effect on the sample signal
Manufactured by the Calidyne Company, Winchester, Massa-
chusetts.
(0) Coli adjusted ot 1000 ko/tI\
~ o o ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ . o o ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ ~
H (ka/m)
E
- 2
E
w
(b) COl' odju51ed 01 500 ko/m
~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ . o o ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~
H (ko/m)
FIG. 14. Tracking curves for the two-winding coil.
0.1%). However, if the magnet gap were made as
small as possible, i.e., of the order of 4z
1
, the image
effect could cause a maximum error of about 1%.
1.. Useful Sensitivity in Fixed Fields
We have seen that there are three independent ad-
justments to be made to eliminate the magnetizing-field
signal; coil position, scale factor n, and pole-piece
position. These adjustments are successful in eliminat-
ing the two expected sources of instability in the re-
sulting zero level: variations in total magnet current,
and fluctuations in mean coil position. The remaining
fluctuation in zero level is, at present, due to random
leakage currents between the windings of the magnet.
This condition is due to the magnet having been
damaged so that the cooling system began to leak, thus
wetting the coils. The zero fluctuation over a period of
1 hr with a magnetizing field of 1000 ka/m corresponds
to 1 % of the signal from a 1.s-mm diameter nickel
sphere (ca 10 JLv).
The calculated sample-signal to thermal-noise ratio
(f1j=1 sec) for a i-in. diam nickel sphere is ET=l.s
X 10"; the corresponding sample-signal to magnetizing-
field signal is EM = 1.5X 10
3
. Thus an increase in sen-
sitivity of the order of 500 is theoretically possible.
3. Tracking
The tracking characteristics of the one- and two-
winding coils have been studied after adjustment ac-
cording to the previous theory. Figure 13 shows the
tracking curve of the one-winding coil adjusted to a
zero level stable to 10 p.v at 500 ka/m. This performance
can be evaluated by noting that the signal from at-in.
diameter sphere of nickel is 15 my.
The tracking of the two-winding coil when adjusted
to lO-p.v stability in a field of 1000 ka/m is shown in
Fig. 14(a). The best performance is obtained by ad-
justing the zero to be stable at 500 ka/m. The resulting
tracking is shown in Fig. 14(b). The tracking to 600
ka/m is perfect at lO-mv full-scale sensitivity.
VII. IMPROVEMENT OF THE VCM SYSTEM
1. Coil Design
Calibration of the VCM is accomplished by calcula-
tion or by measurement of a sample of known magneti-
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268 D. O. SMITH
!
e=me ....
.J

FIG. 15. Dividing cir-
cuit to be used with
a three-winding coil.
There are two independ-
ent scale factors from
the set m, n, and p.
zation. In either case an error is introduced from the
uncertainty in the position of the sample relative to the
vibrating coil. Displacement from the coil axis in a
plane parallel to the face of the coil introduces no error
to first order in the displacement because of obvious
symmetry. However, for the present coil, the first-order
error due to displacement along the axis of the coil is
calculated to be % error/O.OOl in.=0.25.
Calibration to 1% thus requires that the sample be
placed within 0.004 in. of some reference position in the
z-direction. This is inconvenient, but for many experi-
ments it is possible and sufficient. However, if one con-
siders the applications of the VCM to pressure studies
this error becomes serious, since the effect of
will in many cases be small (ca 0.01%). A pressure
measurement would be made by using two samples,
balancing the separate signals against each other, and
then applying pressure to only one of them. The appli-
cation of pressure would certainly cause a slight move-
ment of the apparatus and even stretching of the
pressure vessel, so that an imbalance in signal output
would arise, not only from the effect of pressure on the
magnetization, but also from the sample displacement.
Readjustment of the sample position to within 10-
5
in.
of its initial position, in order to measure pressure effect
of 0.01 %, is not feasible, so that a means must be found
to reduce the error arising from sample displacement.
Consider a coil system which is symmetric in the z
direction, i.e., two coils with the sample midway be-
tween. By symmetry the error from a sample displace-
ment dz is zero to first order. Using the present single-
coil dimensions, the error to second order is calculated to
be % error/0.OO1 in.= 10-a, an improvement of a factor
250 over the single-coil case.
Another feature of coil design to be considered is the
addition of more windings in order to improve the zero-
point stability and tracking behavior. Expanding the
fiux curves as before, it is found that the addition of a
third winding increases the number of independent scale
factors to two. The dividing circuit to be used with such
a three-winding coil is shown in Fig. 15. In order to
increase the number of independent scale factors to
three, it is found that a coil with six windings is required
which no longer seems to be experimentally practical. '
These results for multiwinding coils are also valid for
the z-symmetric unit; thus, the best coil for the VCM
appears to be a z-symmetric unit with three-winding
coils .
2. Vibrator
Great improvement in stability and tracking may be
achieved by providing a more uniform magnetizing
field. Therefore, it is important to eliminate the hole
in the center of the pole pieces; this becomes imperative
with a z-symmetric unit, since the coils will now be
very near the pole face. One possibility is to couple the
vibrating coil and the vibration generator by means of
rods placed in slots along the perimeter of the pole
pieces, rather than with one rod in the center.
VIII. RESULTS WITH THE VCM
The initial study carried out with the VCM has been
an investigation of the Curie point of magnetite.I The
results have shown the VCM to be a powerful new
approach to the problem of magnetic measurements. It
has been possible to measure the saturation magnetiza-
tion of magnetite near the Curie point in an essentially
zero applied field 100 amp/m). Previous measure-
ments in high fields have been ambiguous due to the
large magnetic polarizability near the Curie point.
Temperature increments of O.IC define the Curie
point of magnetite with an uncertainty of <O.OSe.
The anisotropy of magnetite to the Curie point was
measured simultaneously with the study Jf the Curie
point. The results are described in reference to. Addi-
tional applications of the VCM to a wide range of
magnetic problems are contemplated.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his appreciation to
Professor A. R. von Hippel for the use of the facilities
of the Laboratory for Insulation Research, and for
his advice and encouragement during the course of this
research. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the help of
W. B. Westphal, who was largely responsible for the
detailed design and construction of the amplifiers used
in this work; to thank Dr. P. W. Forsbergh for many
informative discussions regarding high-pressure tech-
niques and their application to magnetic studies; and
also many other members of the Laboratory, in particu-
lar Dr. P. A. Miles, Dr. F. R. Kotter, Professor D. J.
Epstein, and B. Frackiewicz for many helpful sugges-
tions. The Electrical Engineering Research Shop, under
the direction of P. P. Kelleher, contributed greatly to
the final details of the construction.
10 D. O. Smith, Phys. Rev. 102, 959 (1956).
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