Machine tool: It is a powered mechanical device, typically used to fabricate metal components of machines by machining, which is the selective

removal of metal. Cutting tool: It is any tool that is used to remove metal from the work piece by means of shear deformation. It frequently refers to as a tool bit. They must be made of a material harder than the material which is to be cut, and the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal cutting process. Cutting Tool Broach End mill Reamer Drill bit Tool bit (used in a lathe, or planer) Countersink Diamond Blade Diamond tools Turning Tools Functions of machine tools To hold and support job/work to be machined To hold and support the cutting tool in position To move the cutting tool, work or both in a desired direction To regulate cutting speed and provide feeding movement. flycutter, shaper Machine Tool Broaching machine Drill press Gear shaper Hobbing machine Hone Lathe Milling machine Shaper Planer Grinders

1.5 ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING The process of metal cutting is divided into the following two main classes: 1. 1. a. Orthogonal cutting and 2. Oblique cutting Orthogonal Metal Cutting Cutting edge of tool remains at right angles to direction of cutting velocity/work feed

two-dimensional cutting b. c. d. e. f. Direction chip flow velocity is normal to cutting edge of tool Angle of inclination, i, of cutting edge of tool with normal to velocity Vc =0 Chip flow angle, ( angle between direction chip flow and cutting edge of tool) = 0 Cutting force acts on small area for given depth of cut and feed Tool life is less

Fig. Orthogonal Cutting

Fig. Oblique cutting

2. a.

Oblique Metal Cutting Cutting edge of tool is inclined at an acute angle with the direction of tool feed and chip

is disposed at certain anglethreedimensional cutting

b.

Cutting edge of tool always remains inclined at an acute angle to direction of tool

feed/work feed c. d. e. f. g. Direction chip flow velocity is at an angle to cutting edge of tool Chip flow angle, is greater than zero Angle of inclination, i, of cutting edge of tool with normal to velocity Vc >0 Cutting force acts on larger area and in 3 D Tool life is more

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS All the cutting tools used in metal cutting can be broadly classified as : 1. Single point tools, i.e., those having only one cutting edge ; such as lathe tools, shaper tools, planer tools, boring tools, etc 2. Multi-point tools, i.e., those having more than one cutting edges; such as milling cutters, drills, broaches, grinding wheels, ele. These tools may, for the sake of analysis, be considered as consisting of a number of single point tools, each forming a cutting edge. The cutting tools can also be classified according to the motion as : (a) (b) (c) Linear motion tools - lathe, boring, broaching, planing, shaping tools, Rotary motion tools - milling cutters, grinding wheels, etc. Linear and rotary tools - drills, honing tools, boring beads, etc.

1.6.1 Geometry of single point cutting tool The geometry of a single point cutting is described below:

1. Shank: It forms the main body of a solid tool and it is this part of the tool which is gripped in the tool holder. 2. Face. It is the top surface of the tool between the shank and the point of the tool. In the cutting action the chips flow along this surface only. 3. Point. It is the wedge shaped portion where the face and flank of the tool meet It is the cutting part of the tool. It is also called nose, particularly in case of round nose tools. 4. Flank. Portion of the tool which faces the work is termed as flank. It is the surface adjacent to and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a horizontal position. 5. Base. It is actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a tool holder or clamped directly in a tool post. 6. Heel. It is the curved portion at the bottom of the tool where the base and flank of the tool meet, as shown in Fig. 7. Nose radius. If the cutting tip (nose) of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting point the cutting tip is weak. It is, therefore, highly stressed during the operation, may fail or lose its cutting ability soon and produces marks on the machined surface. In order to prevent these harmful effects the nose is provided with a radius, called nose radius. It enables greater strength of the cutting tip, a prolonged tool life and a superior surface finish on the work piece. Also, as the value of this radius increases a higher cutting speed can be used. But, if it is too large it may lead to chatter. So, a balance has to be maintained. Its value normally varies from 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm, depending upon several factors like depth of cut, amount of feed, type of cutting, type of tool (solid or with insert), etc.

Fig. Single point cutting tool nomenclature

1.6.2 Principal angles of single point tools The different angles provided on single point tools plays significant role in successful and efficient machining of different metals. A thorough study of these tool angles is, therefore, a must. The main angles provided on these tools are shown in Fig. Rake angle. It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane parallel to its base. If this inclination is towards the shank, it is known as back rake or top rake. When it is measured towards the side of the tool, it is called the side rake. These rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge, thereby reducing the chip pressure on the face and increasing the keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting. It is important to note that an increased rake angle will reduce the strength of the cutting edge. With the result, the tools used for cutting hard metals are given smaller rake angles whereas those used for softer metals contain larger rakes. Negative rake. The rake angles described above are called positive rake angles. When no rake is provided on the tool, it is said to have a zero rake. When the face of the tool is so ground that it slopes upwards from the point it is said to contain a negative rake. It, obviously, reduces the keenness of the tool and increases strength of the cutting edge. Such a rake is usually employed on carbide tipped tools when they are used for machining extra-hard surfaces, hardened steel parts and for taking intermittent cuts. A tool with negative rake will have a larger lip angle,

resulting in a stronger tool. Another advantage of negative rake, particularly in case of tipped tools, is that the tendency of the chip pressure is to press the tip against the body of the tool. This is, obviously, a favorable factor for tipped tools. The value of negative rake on these tools normally varies from 5 to 100.

Fig. Rake angle representation Lip angle. The angle between the face and the flank of the tool is known as lip angle. It is also sometimes called the angle of keenness of the tool. Strength of the cutting edge or point of the tool is directly effected by this angle. Larger the lip angle stronger will be the cutting edge and vice versa. It would be observed that, since the clearance angle remains practically constant in all the cases, this angle varies inversely as the rake angle. It is only for this reason that when harder metals are to be machined, i.e., a stronger tool is required, the rake angle is reduced and consequently the lip angle is increased. This simultaneously calls for reduced cutting speeds, which is a disadvantage. The lip angle is, therefore, kept as low as possible without making the cutting edge so weak that it becomes unsuitable for cutting. Clearance angle. It is the angle formed by the front or side surfaces of the tool which are adjacent and below the cutting edge when the tool is held in a horizontal position. It is the angle between one of these surfaces and a plane normal to the base of the tool. When the surface considered for this purpose is in front of the tool, i.e., just below the point, the angle formed is called front clearance and when the surface below the side cutting edge is considered the angle formed is known as side clearance angle. The purpose of providing front clearance is to allow the tool to cut freely without rubbing against the surface of the job, and at of the side clearance to direct the cutting thrust to the metal area adjacent to the cutting edge.

Relief angle. It is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a perpendicular line drawn from the cutting point to the base of the tool. Cutting angle. The total cutting angle of the tool is the angle formed between the tool face and a line through the point, which is a tangent to the machined surface of the work at that point. Obviously its correct value will depend upon the position of the tool in which it is held in relation to the axis of the job. Tool geometry For sake of easy reference, different angles of cutting tool are written in particular order. This particular arrangement of angles and nose radius is called TOOL SIGNATURE/TOOL GEOMETRY

1.11 CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT Cutting speed of a cutting tool can be defined as the rate at which its cutting edge passes over the surface of the work piece in unit time. It is normally expressed in terms of surface speed in metres per minute.

It is a very important aspect in machining since it considerably effects the tool life and efficiency of machining. Selection of a proper cutting speed has to be made very judiciously. If it is too high, the tool gets overheated and its cutting edge may fail, needing regrinding. If it is too low, too much time is consumed in machining and full cutting capacities of the tool and machine are not utilized, which results in lowering of productivity and increasing the production cost.

Feed of the cutting tool can be defined as the distance it travels along or into the work piece for each pass of its point through a particular position in unit time. For example, in turning operation on a lathe it is equal to the advancement of the tool corresponding to each revolution of the work. However, it is computed and mentioned in different machine tools and different operations. For example, in planing it is the work which is fed and not the tool. Similarly, in milling work involving the use of a multi-point cutter, the feed is basically considered per tooth of the cutter.

The cutting speed and feed of a cutting tool is largely influenced by the following factors. 1. Material being machined. 2. Material of the cutting tool. 3. Geometry of the cutting tool. 4. Required degree of surface finish. 5. Rigidity of the machine tool being used. 6. Type of coolant being used..

Depth of cut: It is indicative of the penetration of the cutting edge of the tool into the work piece material in each pass, measured perpendicular to the machined surface, i.e., it determines the thickness of metal layer removed by the cutting tool in one pass. .

1.13 TOOL FAILURE A properly designed and ground cutting tool is expected to perform the metal cutting operation in an effective and smooth manner. If, however, it is not giving a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the tool failure and the same is reflected by the following adverse effects observed during the operation: 1. Extremely poor surface finish on the work piece 2. Higher consumption of power 3. Work dimensions not being produced as specified

4. Overheating of cutting tool 5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface During the operation, a cutting tool may fail due to one or more of the following reasons : 1. Thermal cracking and softening 2. Mechanical chipping 3. Gradual wear

Thermal cracking and softening. It is known that a lot of heat is generated during the process of metal cutting. Due to this heat the tool tip and the area closer to the cutting edge becomes very hot. Although the cutting tool material is quite hard to withstand this temperature, still every tool material has a certain limit to which it can withstand the elevated temperature without losing its hardness. If that limit is crossed, the tool material starts deforming plastically at the tip and adjacent to the cutting edge under the action of the cutting pressure and the high temperature. Thus, the tool loses its cutting ability and is said to have failed due to softening. The main factors responsible for creating such conditions of tool failure are high cutting speed, high feed rate, excessive depth of cut, smaller nose radius and choice of a wrong tool material. The temperature ranges within which the common tool materials can successfully operate without losing their hardness are : Carbon tool steels 200C - 250C High speed steels 560C - 600C Cemented carbides 800C - lOOOC On account of fluctuations in temperatures and severe temperature gradients the tool material is subjected to local expansion and contraction. This gives rise to the setting up of temperature stresses or thermal stresses, due to which cracks are developed in the material. These cracks, known as Thermal cracks, emanate from the cutting edge and extend inwards. The tool failure

due to this aspect is known as failure due to thermal cracking or doe to thermal stresses. Such a failure of tool is shown in Fig. 5.24.

Tool failure due to thermal cracking

Mechanical chipping. Mechanical chipping of the nose and/or the cutting edge of the tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure. The common reasons for such failure are too high cutting pressure, mechanical impact, excessive wear, too high vibrations and chatter, weak tip and cutting edge, etc. A typical form of mechanical chipping is shown in Fig. 5.25. This type of failure is more pronounced in carbide tipped and diamond tools due to the high brittleness of the tool material.

Tool failure due to mechanical chipping

Gradual wear. When a tool is in use for sometime it is found to have lost some weight or mass, implying that it has lost some material from it which is due to wear. The following two types of wears are generally found to occur in cutting tools Crater wear: The principal region where wear takes place in a cutting tool is its face, at a small distance (say 'a') from its cutting edge. This type of wear generally lakes place while machining ductile materials, like steel and steel alloys, in which continuous chip is produced. The resultant

feature of this type of wear is the formation of a crater or a depression at the tool chip interface. This type of wear, or the formation of crater on the tool face, is due to the pressure of the hot chip sliding up the face of the tool. The metal from the tool face is supposed to be transferred to the sliding chip by means of the diffusion process.

Principal types of wear occurring in the cutting tool The shape of the crater formed corresponds to the shape of the underside of the chip. The principal dimensions of the formed crater are its breadth 'b' and depth 'd', as shown in Fig. A continued growth of crater will result in the cutting edge of the tool becoming weak and may finally lead to the tool failure. At very high speed, and the consequent high temperatures (say 1OOOC),the H.S.S. tool will fail due thermal softening of material, while the tools made from harder materials, like those containing tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt etc, will not wear out so rapidly. Higher feeds and lack of cutting fluids increase the rate of crater wear.

Flank wear. Another region where an appreciable amount of wear occurs is the flank below the cutting edge. It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the work piece and excessive heat generated as a result of the same. The abrasive action is aided by the hard microconstituents of the cut material and broken parts of built-up edge, if it is there. That is why this type of wear is more pronounced while machining brittle material, because the cut chips of such materials provide a lot of abrasive material readily. The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land. This type of wear mainly occurs on the tool nose and front and side relief faces, as shown in Fig.

Flank wear The magnitude of this wear mainly depends upon the relative harnesses of the work piece and tool materials at the time of cutting operation and also the extent of strain hardening of the chip. When the tool is subjected to this type of wear, the work piece loses its dimensional accuracy, energy consumption is increased and the surface finish is poor. The effect of flank wear is expressed in terms of the width (or height) of wear land which is dependent on time. This height is a linear measure and is symbolically denoted by VB, WL or hf millimetres.

1.13 MECHANISM OF WEAR The wear mechanism of cutting tools is a very complex phenomenon. However, the common mechanisms supposed to be responsible for causing wear are the following : Abrasion. It is a type of mechanical wear. Under this mechanism, hard panicles on the underside of the sliding chip, which are harder than the tool material, plough into the relatively softer material of the tool face and remove metal particles by mechanical action. The material of the tool face is softened due to the high temperature. The hard particles present on the underside of the chip may be : Fragments of hard tool material. Broken pieces of built-up edge, which are strain hardened. Extremely hard constituents, like carbides, oxides, scales, etc., present in the work material.

Adhesion. By now, it should have been quite clear that due to the excessive pressure a lot of friction occurs between the sliding surface of the chip and the tool face. This gives rise to an extremely high localized temperature, causing metallic bond between the materials of tile tool face and the chip. But, an important point to be noted here is that the surfaces of both the chip underside and the tool face, although appear to be smooth apparently, are microscopically rough.

Therefore, the contact between these surfaces is not truly a surface contact but a point contact, as shown in Fig.

Point contact and metallic bonds formed between mating surfaces

Due to the excessively high temperature at the chip-tool interface a metallic bond takes place between the chip material and tool material at the contact points, in the form of small spot welds, as shown in the diagram. When the chip slides, these small welds are broken. But this separation is not along the line of contact. A small portion of the welded tool contact is also carried away by the sliding chip. Thus, small particles from the tool face continue to be separated through this phenomenon and carried away by the chip by adhesion to its underside. The amount of material so transferred from the tool face to the chip will depend upon the contact area and relative hardness of the chip and the tool materials.

Diffusion: Solid state diffusion which consists of transfer of atoms in a metal crystal lattice is another cause of wear. This transfer of atoms takes place at elevated temperatures from the area of high concentration to that of low concentration. The favorable condition for diffusion is provided by the rise in localized temperature over the actual contact area between the chip underside and the tool face. In such a condition, the metal atoms are transferred from the tool material to the chip material at the points of contact. This weakens the surface structure of the cutting tool and may ultimately lead to tool failure. The amount of diffusion depends upon Temperature at the contact area between the tool face and the chip. The period of contact between the tool face and the chip. The bonding affinity between the materials' of the tool and the chip.

Chemical wear. This type of wear occurs when such a cutting fluid is used in the process of metal cutting which is chemically active to the material of the tool. This is clearly the result of the chemical reaction taking place between the cutting fluid and the tool material, leading to a change in the chemical composition of the surface material of the tool.

1.14 TOOL LIFE Tool life can be defined as the time interval for which the tool works satisfactorily between two successive grindings (sharpenings). Thus, it can be basically conceived as functional life of the tool. As already discussed earlier, the tool is subjected to wear continuously while it is operating. Obviously, after some time, when the tool wear is increased considerably, the tool loses its ability to cut efficiently and must be reground. If not, it will totally fail. The tool life can be effectively used as the basis to evaluate the performance of the tool material, assess machinability of the work piece material and know the cutting conditions. There are three common ways of expressing tool life : As time period in minutes between two successive grindings. In terms of number of components machined between two successive grindings. This mode is commonly used when the tool operates continuously, as in case of automatic machines. In terms of the volume of material removed between two successive grindings. This mode of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for heavy stock removal.

The method of assessing the tool life in terms of the volume of material removed per unit of time is a practical one and can be easily applied as follows: Volume of metal removed per minute = .D.t.f.N mm3/min Where D = dia. of work piece in mm

t = depth of cut in mm f = feed rate in mm/rev. N = No. of revolutions of work per minute If 'T be the time in minutes to tool failure, then: Total volume of metal removed to tool failure = .D.t.f.N.T mm3 From cutting speed, DN = V x 1000 Total volume of metal removed to tool failure = V x 1000 x t x f x T mm3

Therefore, tool life, (TL) in terms of the total volume of the metal removed to tool failure is given by: TL = V. 1000. t . f. T (mm3)

1.15 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE The life of a cutting tool is affected by the following factors: 1. Cutting speed 2. Feed and depth of cut 3. Tool Geometry 4. Tool material 5. Work material 6. Nature of cutting 7. Rigidity of machine tool and work 8. Use of cutting fluids.

EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED Out of all the above factors, the maximum effect on tool life is of cutting speed. The tool life varies inversely as the cutting speed, i.e., the higher the cutting speed the smaller the tool life. Generally, the reduction in tool life corresponding to an increase in cutting speed is parabolic, as shown in Fig. 5.30. Based on the pioneer workV .TF.W.C of n Taylor, the relationship between cutting speed and tool life can be expressed as :

T o o l
l i f e , T ( m i n )

L o g T

V = Cutting speed, m/min

C = Taylor's constant
T = Tool life in min n = Tool life exponent, 0.1 to 0.15 ---High
speed steel tools 0.2 to 0.5 -----cemented carbide tools

0.6 to 1.0 -----Ceramic tools

For assessing tool life the tools are operated at different cutting speeds to failure and the results recorded. If the relationships between different cutting speeds and the corresponding tool lives

are plotted on a log-log graph, straight lines are obtained as shown in Fig. 5.31, which reveal that the tool life decreases with the increase in cutting speed.

1.16 MACHINABILITY Machinability of a material gives the idea of the ease with which it can be machined. The parameters generally influencing t1lemachinability of a material are: 1. Physical properties of the material, 2. Mechanical properties of the material 3. Chemical composition of the material 4. Micro-structure of the material and 5. Cutting conditions

Since this property (machinability) of t1le material depends on various variable factors, it is not possible to evaluate the same in terms of precise numerical values, but as a relative quantity. The criteria of determining the same may be as follows: 1. Tool life - The longer the tool life it enables at a given cutting speed the better is the machinability. 2. Surface finish - It is also directly proportional, i.e., the better the surface finish the higher is the machinability. 3. Power consumption - Lower power consumption per unit of metal removed indicates better machinability. 4. Cutting forces - The lesser the amount of cutting force required for the removal of a certain volume of metal or the higher the volume of metal removed under standard cutting forces the higher will be the machinability. 5. Shear angle - Larger shear angle denotes better machinability. 6. Rate of metal removal under standard cutting conditions.

Machinability index As mentioned in the previous article, the machinability of a material is a relative quantity. The machinabilities of different materials are compared in terms of the machinability indexes. For this purpose the machinability index of free cutting steel serves as a datum, with reference to

which all other machinability indexes are compared. The machinability index of the steel is taken as 100. For computing the machinability index of any oilier material the following relationship is used:

Machinabil ity Index

Cutting speed of metal for 20 min. tool life 100 Cutting speed of standard free cutting for 20 min. tool life

But this is only one method out of many methods used for determining machinability ratings of different materials. The selection of a suitable criterion or met1lod for evaluating the machinability will depend upon the type of cutting operation. For example, a comparison between the cutting forces required for machining a particular material and those required for a standard material may form t1lebasis of evaluating relative machinability. Similarly, a comparison between the rate of wear on a cutting tool while machining certain material with that obtained with a standard material under similar conditions may also form a basis for evaluating machinability. However, all these methods fail to provide standard ratings due to the involvement of several variable factors and, hence, not considered very reliable. Considering that the machinability index for free cutting steel is 100% the relative machinability indexes for some materials are given in Table as representative figures.

1.17 FORCE RELATIONSHIP IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING It is clear from Fig. 5.16 that a number of forces act on the chip during metal cutting. The relationships among these forces were established by Merchant with the following assumptions: 1. Cutting velocity always remains constant. 2. Cutting edge of the tool remains sharp throughout 'cutting and there is no contact between the work piece and the flank. 3. There is no sideways flow of chip. 4. Only continuous chip is produced.

5. There is no built-up edge. 6. No consideration is made of the inertia force of the chip. 7. The behavior of the chip is like that of a free body which is in the state of a stable equilibrium due to the action of two resultant forces which are equal, opposite and collinear.

Fig. illustrates the forces acting on a chip in orthogonal cutting. The forces represented are the following: Fs = Metal resistance to shear in chip formation, acting along the shear plane, or shear force. Fn = Backing up force exerted by the work piece on the chip, acting normal to the shear plane. N = Force exerted by the tool on the chip, acting normal to the tool face. F = .N= Frictional resistance of the tool against the chip flow, acting along the tool face , being the coefficient of friction between the tool face and the chip = F/N

Cutting forces These forces are vectorially represented in the free-body diagram shown on the right hand side in Fig. It will be observed that forces Fs and Fn can be easily replaced by their resultant R and forces F and N by their resultant R'. Thus, all these forces are resolved to only two forces R and R'. For equilibrium, these forces R and R' should be equal, act opposite to each other and should be collinear, i.e., &

For the convenience in studying further relationship, the two triangles of forces of the above free body diagram have been combined together in Fig. called the Merchant's circle diagram for cutting forces, in which the following new components figure: Fc = Horizontal cutting force exerted by the tool on the work piece. Ft = Vertical or tangential force which helps in holding the tool in position and acts on me tool nose.

These two forces can easily be found out with the help of strain gauges or force dynameters. The angle is a known quantity, being the rake angle of the tool. When all these four values, i.e., of Fc, Ft, and , are known, all the other forces can be easily calculated with the help of geometry.

With reference to Fig. 5.17, as follows:

Again

( ( ( ( ( Later ) )

) (

( (

) ) ) )

) (

( ) )

On dividing numerator and denominator both by

From the right angled triangle ABC,

Where

coefficient of friction between the upward sliding chip and tool face

= Angle of friction = Further, Therefore, ( )

Also for orthogonal cutting, the resultant R can be calculated from the components Fc, Ft, Fr can be determined from the relation