EVOLUTION THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION The main theories of evolution are;

1. Lamarckism or Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters The theory of use &

disuse operates in nature ie. the more an organ is put in use, the more it develops & expresses in the subsequent generations. While the more an organ is not put in use, greater are the chances of the organ to get reduced or disappear in subsequent generations. These acquired changes are then inherited by subsequent generations. Eg. Increase in the length of neck & limbs in Giraffe.
2. Darwinism or Theory of Natural Selection discussed below. 3. Mutation theory of De Vries( based on expts. in evening primrose) Evolution is a

discontinuous and a random process brought about by mutation in which new species arise from pre existing species in a single generation and it is not a gradual process. Thus evolution resulting due to a single step large mutation is referred as saltation.
4. Synthetic theory of evolution or Neo- Darwinism ( by Huxley) Genetic variability

and natural selection results in speciation. [Note the 3 postulates of the Theory of special creation(Text pg.128,para 2)] The observations of Charles Darwin & Alfred Wallace totally disproved the propositions of Theory of Special Creation. CHARLES DARWIN

Proposed that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among themselves, but also with living forms that existed millions of years ago. There has been gradual evolution of life forms. Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of Evolution

According to his theory of natural selection, following events led to the process of organic evolution;
1. Geometric rise in population The populations tend to multiply geometrically. So

the number of a species will be much more than can be supported on the earth. Malthius asserted that unless human population is kept in check, it increases in a geometrical progression and soon exceeds food supply.
2. Limited space & food Food increases only arithmetically. Therefore food & space

act as limiting factors to the indefinite growth of a population.

3. Struggle for existence(competition) There is a competition between individuals

having similar requirements w.r.t. food, space, mate etc. The competition can be intraspecific or interspecific or extraspecific.
4. Variations(favourable & unfavourable variations) The everlasting competition

among the organisms has compelled them to change according to the conditions to utilise the natural resources & survive successfully.
5. Natural selection or Survival of the fittest Nature selects only those individuals out

of the population which are fittest ( reproductively fit) ie. with favourable variations and are best adapted to the environment, while the less fit or unfit individuals are rejected by it. This sorting out of the individuals with useful variations from a heterogeneous population by nature was called Natural selection (by Darwin) or Survival of the fittest (by Wallace).
6. Inheritance of favourable variations Selected individuals pass their useful

variations to their offspring.

7. Speciation The useful variations go on accumulating & after a number of

generations the variations become so prominent that the individual turns into a new species. Branching descent According to Darwin, the variations that are inherited in successive generations accumulate over several generations which can eventually lead to origin of a new species. From a common ancestral stock, several descendants emerge which branch further depending on the variations, giving rise to new species. According to Darwin, rate of speciation is linked to the lifespan. [ Refer text, pg.134, para3]

ALFRED WALLACE ( worked in Malay Archepelago) Simultaneous to Darwins theory, he hypothesised that all existing life forms share similarities & share common ancestors. These ancestors were present at different periods in the history of earth(epochs, periods and eras).Therefore the geological history of earth correlates with the biological history of earth. A common conclusion of both of their observations is that earth is billions of years old. EVIDENCES FOR ORGANIC EVOLUTION
1. PALAENTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE

The evidences of evolution based on the knowledge of fossils . Fossils are the petrified remains / impressions of the hard parts of the ancient organisms preserved in the sedimentary rocks

 Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms. Some of them appear similar to modern organisms while some others represent extinct organisms.(eg.Dinosaurs) Study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicate the geological period in which they existed.
Life forms varied over time & certain life forms are restricted to certain

geological time spans.

Age of the fossils is determined by dating the rocks in which the fossils

occur. Done by carbon-14 dating or radiocarbon dating ie.by calculating the half life period .
Missing link Those organisms that had the characters of two different

groups. Eg. The fossil Archaeopteryx, serves as a missing link between reptiles & birds, indicating that birds have evolved from reptilian ancestors.
2. MORPHOLOGICAL & ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES Comparative anatomy &

morphology shows similarities & differences among present day organisms and those that existed years ago.
a) HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS - The organs that have similar basic structure &

developmental origin, while perform different functions. Examples

i.

Forelimbs of vertebrates like seal, bird, bat, horse, man etc. All these organs are made of humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals & phalanges Vertebrate hearts Vertabrate brains. Thorns of Bougainvillea & tendrils of Cucurbita Both organs are modified stems, while thorns serve the function of protection; the tendrils are used for support. Legs of insects Mouth parts of insects.

ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Presence of homologous organs confirm common ancestry and divergent evolution ( same structures have become different in different organisms due to different adaptations).
b) ANALOGOUS ORGANS -The structures that are different in their basic

structure & developmental origin but appear similar & perform similar function. Examples -

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Wings of an insect and a bird Insect wing is formed from integument, while wings of a bird are modified forelimbs. Both the organs are used for flight. Leaf of a plant & cladode of Ruscus Both look alike and perform the function of photosynthesis but are different in origin. Cladode is a modified stem. Sweet potato is a fleshy adventitious root while potato tuber is an underground stem. Both are adapted for storage of food & vegetative reproduction. Eye of octopus and of mammals. Flippers of Penguins & Dolphins.

Analogous organs indicate convergent or parallel evolution.

c) CONNECTING LINK - The living organisms having the characters of two

different taxonomic categories. Such organisms indicate transitional forms of organic evolution. Eg. Duck billed platypus act as connecting link between mammals & reptiles.
d) VESTIGIAL ORGANS- Those organs of the body which are non functional or

rudimentary in the possessor, but were functional in the ancestors and functional in related animals. Presence of vestigial organs indicate common ancestry. Eg. Nictitating membrane, caecum & vermiform appendix .

3. BIOCHEMICAL SIMILARITIES Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry. 4. Selective breeding of plants & animals by man has created new breeds. Therefore, it proves that if man could develop new breeds in a time span of 100 years, then nature could have done it over millions of years. 5. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCES The similarities in the early embryos of vertebrates show that all the vertebrates have some common ancestry.

Examples of evolution by natural selection 1.Industrial melanism ( in the moth Biston betularia ) [Refer text pg131, para 4&5] 2. DDT resistant mosquitoes Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc. has resulted in selection of resistant varieties in a much lesser time scale. When DDT was not being used, the DDT resistant remained dominated by DDT sensitive mosquitoes. But when the use of

DDT as insecticide started, the DDT resistant property spread over more members of the population. So now the mosquito population is dominated by DDT resistant ones. 3. Antibiotic resistance in microbes Excessive use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics etc. has resulted in selection of resistant varieties in lesser time scale. Therefore the above examples indicate evolution by anthropogenic actions ( human activities).Therefore evolution is not a directed process, but based on chance events in nature & chance mutation in the organisms. 4.Adaptive radiation The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point & literally radiating to other areas of geography ( habitats). Examples 1. Darwins finches Darwin found that the finches( about 20 varieties), found on different islands of Galapagos islands, differ from one another mainly in size & beak shape due to different feeding habits but were closely related to one another. These birds have evolved from a common ancestral seed eating ground finches that adapted differently in their feeding habits.
2. Australian marsupials A number of marsupials each different from the other

evolved from an ancestral stock, but all within the Australian island continent. 3. Placental mammals Adaptive radiation in mammals is based on limb structure. All the above examples of adaptive radiation indicate divergent evolution. When more than one adaptive radiation occur in an isolated geographical area, it indicates convergent evolution. Natural selection can induce animals of two different groups to undergo similar adaptation for survival in the similar habitats ie. their phenotypes have converged ( resemble in appearance ). Eg. Some marsupials of Australia resemble the placental mammals of Australia which live in similar habitats. [refer fig.7.7 in text, pg.134] Mechanism of evolution
The origin of variation and the process of speciation was further clarified by studies

in population genetics. It is the study of the frequencies of genes in populations.

Evolution within population is indicated by the change in relative frequencies of

different types of DNA with time. If there are two forms of a specific enzyme in a population & if the relative frequencies of the individuals possessing each form of enzyme changes, then certainly there is evolution.
According to Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium law, the relative frequency of alleles in

a population are stable & is constant from generation to generation . Such kind of stability at the genetic level is called genetic equilibrium when gene pool remains constant.

 Hardy-Weinberg principle acts as a tool to determine the degree of evolutionary

change by comparing allele frequencies at the starting point and at some future time. The amount of deviation between observed frequencies and those predicted by Hardy-Weinberg principle indicates evolutionary change. According to Hardy-Weinberg equation, the sum total of all the allelic frequencies is taken as 1, while individual frequencies are named as p, q etc. If in a diploid organism, the frequency of allele - A and allele - a ,are represented as p and q, then; Frequency of AA individuals in the population = p2 Frequency of aa individuals in the population = q2 Frequency of Aa individuals in the population = 2pq Then sum of AA, aa and Aa individuals will represent the gene pool of the alleles. So, p2 + q2 +2pq = 1 or ( p+q)2 = 1 Any change in the frequency of alleles in a population would indicate the evolutionary change. Factors affecting the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium :
1. Gene migration / gene flow - [Refer text, pg.137, para 2] 2. Genetic drift It is the random change in the frequency of alleles occurring by

chance fluctuations. Eg. In a small population, a chance event like snow storm may increase the frequency of a character. Genetic drift occurs when a small group separates from a larger population& may not have all the alleles of the parental population. These small groups that colonise in new habitat are referred as founders which may later form new species. This effect is called founder effect.
3. Mutation It results in sudden large heritable changes in the base sequences of an

organism and are directionless.

4. Recombination Occurence of non parental combinations due to crossing over

during gametogenesis. Only reshuffling of already existing characters takes place and no new genes are produced.
5. Natural selection The above 4 factors result in changed frequency of alleles in

future generation and when coupled with natural selection ,helps to establish a different population, as it operates through differential reproduction. ie.better adapted individuals out of a heterogeneous population are allowed to propagate compared to less adapted individuals. Types of natural selection: [Refer text, pg.136, fig.7.8]
1. Stabilising selection It favours the average or normal phenotypes, while

eliminates the individuals with extreme expressions ie. more individuals acquire mean character value. Eg. Sickle cell anaemia in humans individuals with this

disorder are mostly found in areas of tropical Africa where malaria is very common. The sickle shaped cells of heterozygotes can kill the parasite & resist infection compared to homozygous individuals for normal haemoglobin. Thus the natural selection has preserved it along with normal haemoglobin in malaria infected areas. The bell shaped population curve narrows in the graph.
2. Directional or progressive selection In this, the individuals at one extreme (less

adapted) are eliminated, while individuals at other extreme (more adapted) are favoured.ie. more individuals acquire value other than the mean character value. Eg. Industrial melanism the number of light coloured moths decreased gradually, while that of melanic moths increased. Thus the peak of population curve shifts to the right in the graph.
3. Disruptive selection It favours extreme expression of certain traits to increase

variance in a population. It is usually rare & eliminates most of the members with mean expression, hence producing two peaks in the population graph. Eg. In sea, there are 3 types of snails viz. white, brown & black coloured. The white coloured snails are invisible when covered by barnacles & the black coloured ones are invisible on barren rock. But the brown coloured snails are eaten by predators in both the conditions & thereby eliminated gradually.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE It is the tabulated form showing the sequence and duration of the eras & the periods with their dominant form of life since the beginning of life on earth.
The duration of the earths history has been divided into 6 geological time spans

called eras AZOIC, ARCHAEOZOIC, MESOZOIC & COENOZOIC. smaller time spans called periods.

PROTEROZOIC,PALAEOZOIC,

Of these, the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Coenozoic eras are further divided into

Palaeozoic (6 periods)viz.Cambrian,Ordovician,Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous

& Permian. Mesozoic (3 periods) viz. Triassic, Jurassic & Cretaceous. Coenozoic (2 periods) viz. Tertiary & Quaternary.
Some of the periods are further divided into still smaller time spans called epochs,

which is characterised by some specific living organisms.

Geological time scale of earth ( To be read from below upwards) [TIME FROM BEGINNING TO PRESENT MILLIONS OF YEARS] Era Coenozoic (Era Modern life) Mesozoic of Tertiary Cretaceous 184 144 Period Quaternary Age 1.81 Life forms Modern man, mammals, birds, fishes, insects dominant. Angiosperms dominant. Emergence of man, rise of first monkeys & apes, rise of first primates. Extinction of giant reptiles & toothed birds, rise of first modern birds, rise of monocot angiosperms. Rise of toothed birds, reptiles dominant, Dinosaurs became large, Gymnosperms remain dominant. Rise of first Dinosaurs & egg ,mammals, Gymnosperms dominant. laying

(Era of Medieval Jurassic life)

208

Triassic Palaeozoic Permian

245 285

(Era of Ancient life) Carboniferous 360 Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian Proterozoic Archaeozoi c Azoic 408 438 505 544

Extinction of marine invertebrates, rise of modern insects& mammal like reptiles. Origin of reptiles; amphibians abundant, first seed plants, abundant vascular plants. Origin of amphibians; fishes abundant, origin of jawed fishes & wingless insects. Jawless vertebrates dominant, origin of vascular plants. All invertebrate phyla established, marine algae abundant. Origin of first simple marine invertebrates, algae dominant.

PRECAMBRIAN PERIOD ( Origin of earth ; Origin of life)

EVOLUTION OF MAN (HOMINID EVOLUTION)

HOMO sapiens sapiens - 10,000 years before

HOMO sapiens - 1,00,000 - 40,000 years before

HOMO erectus

1.5 mya

HOMO habilis -

2mya

AUSTRALOPITHECUS - 5mya

RAMAPITHECUS -10 -15 mya

DRYOPITHECUS

- 15 mya

8ujThe common ancestor of apes and man is a primate Dryopithecus that lived 15 mya. Dryopithecus evolved into the Ramapithecus. Both were hairy & walked like gorillas.

Ramapithecus which was more man like is the forerunner of hominid evolution. Australopithecus Fossils found in Tanzania & Ethiopia. Brain capacity 450 600 cc. Hunted with weapons, but ate only fruits. Homo habilis Lived in East African Grasslands Brain capacity 650 800 cc Probably did not eat meat Homo erectus Fossils were found in Java. Brain capacity 900cc Probably ate meat. Homo sapiens Neanderthal man & Cromagnon man might have lived between 1,00,000 40,000 years before. Neanderthal man lived in east & central asia. Brain capacity 1400 cc Homo sapiens sapiens

Modern man arose during the ice age between 75,000 10,000 years ago. Learned to cultivate plants & domesticate animals. Pre historic cave art developed about 18,000 years before. Agriculture started about 10,000 years back Human civilisation started.