SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry through Contact process. The raw materials for the
manufactured of sulphuric acid in Contact process are sulphur, oxygen and water.


Figure 1
There are three stages in Contact process :
(a) Stage 1 : Combustion of sulphur (to produce sulphur dioxide gas)

- Molten sulphur is burnt in excess air to produce sulphur dioxide gas.
S(l) + O
2
(g) SO
2
(g)
- Sulphur dioxide gas is also produced by heating sulphide ores like iron persulphide, FeS
2
in
excess air.
4FeS
2
(s) + 11O
2
(g) 2Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 8SO
2
(g)

- The mixture is then purified, dried and cooled.

(b) Stage 2 : Oxidation of sulphur dioxide gas (to produce sulphur trioxide gas)
- Sulphur dioxide and access oxygen gas pass over vanadium (V) oxide catalyst at 450c -
550c to produce sulphur trioxide , SO3.

2SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2SO
3
(g)

- Optimum condition used are:
- Temperature: 450c - 550c
- Pressure: 1 atmosphere
- Catalyst : Vanadium(V) oxide

- About 95.5 % conversion occurs under this condition.

(c) Stage 3 : Absorbtion of sulphuric acid (to produce liquid concentrated sulphuric acid)

- Consists of 2 steps:

- Step 1 : SO3 is dissolved with concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum.

SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7

- Step 2 : Oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric
acid.

H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

- H2SO4 can be formed if react SO3 directly to water:

SO3 + H2O H2SO4

- But it is not done in industry because SO3 reacts too violently. A lot of heat and
large cloud of sulphuric acid mist are produced which are corrosive and can pollute
the environment. It is difficult to condense.





















EFFECTS OF THE ACID RAIN TO THE ENVIRONMENT


- Acid rain corrodes the buildings and statues made of limestone. Limestone reacts
with sulphuric acid to form calcium sulphate.
- Acid rain corrodes the metallic structure. Iron react with sulphuric acid to form
iron(II) sulphate.
- Acid rain reduces the pH value of the soil as well as leaches out the minerals and
nutrients in the land. Plants die of malnutrition and diseases, thus destroying the
trees in the forest.
- Acid rain increases the acidity of water in lakes and rivers. Aquatic organisms cannot
survive in acidic water, thus causing the death of aquatic organisms.


WAYS TO REDUCE THE EFFECT OF THE ACID RAIN TO THE ENVIRONMENT

- Reacting sulphur dioxide with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide to produce
ammonium sulphate (used as a fertilizer)
- Reacting sulphur dioxide with calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate to produce
calcium sulphate (used in the manufacture of plaster and cement).



















































USES OF SULPHURIC ACID
Manufacture of
dyes, pigment,
paints
Manufactures of
artificial fibres like
rayon, nylon
Metallurgy :
Cleaning metals
Manufacture of
insecticides
Production of
fertilisers
Manufacture of
detergent
Act as an electrolyte
in car batteries
AMMONIA
Harber process is an important industrial process in the manufacture of ammonia. The raw
materials for the manufacture of ammonia in the Harber process are hydrogen and nitrogen
gas.


Figure 2


- This process combines nitrogen gas from the air with hydrogen gas derived mainly from
natural gas to form Ammonia, NH3.
- Nitrogen gas is obtained from the fractional distillation of liquid air.
- Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas.


- Steps :

1. The ratio of one volume of nitrogen gas to three volumes of hydrogen is passed through
the reactor.
2. The mixture is compressed to high pressure of 200 atmosphere at 450c - 550c
3. Iron is used as catalyst in this process to speed up the reaction.

N2 + 3H2 2 NH3


- The optimum condition are :
- Temperature: 450c - 550c
- Pressure: 200 atmosphere
- Catalyst : Iron

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
- Alkaline
- Miscible in water
- Less dense than air
- Colourless gas
- Pungent smell

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
- React with hydrogen chloride gas to form dense white fumes of ammonium chloride.
- Neutralizes various acids to form ammonium salts.
- The hydroxide ions from the aqueous solution of ammonia react with metal ions to form
precipitates of metal hydroxide.
- Burns in oxygen but not in the air.



































USES OF AMMONIA
Manufacture of wood
pulp, lacquer and
varnish.
Manufacture of niric
acid.

Making ammonium
chloride in dry cell.

Manufacture of
synthetic fibres.

Manufacture of
refrigerant.

Manufacture of
ammonium nitrate
explosives.

Making household
cleaning agent.

Production of
ammonium sulphate
fertilizers.

ALLOY

- Is mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major
component is metal.
- Pure metals are make up of the same type and same size of atoms.
- The orderly arrangement of atoms make the metal ductile and malleable.
- Orderly arrangement of atoms in metal enables the layer of atoms to slide on one
another when force is applied.



- Most pure metals are weak and soft.
- The properties of pure metal can be improved by making them into alloys.
- Alloys are stronger, harder, and resistant to corrosion, have a better furnish and luster.
- The example of alloys :
- Iron alloy
- Copper alloy
- Aluminium alloy
- Pewter alloy













THE AIM OF MAKING ALLOY

- To improve the appearance of the pure metal.

- To increase the strength and hardness of the pure metal.

- To increase the resistance to corrosion of the pure metal.

other than that, changing the physical properties of the base metal;

For instance, carbon and chromium are added to iron to make "stainless steel", which resists
staining and corrosion, making it a good choice for knives, bolts, watch straps, etcetera.

Likewise, you can mix pure gold with copper and silver to get "yellow gold" for jewelry. Yellow
gold is cheaper than pure gold, and since it's harder than pure gold, jewelry made from yellow
gold won't bend as easily.



THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN ALLOY

- The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different size disturb the orderly
arrangement of atoms in the metal. This decrease the layer of atoms from sliding.

- Alloys are strong and hard, not easily bent. Layers of atoms cannot slide over each other
easily as extraneous atoms of different sizes and intrude the orderly arrangement of
metal atoms.

- Pure metals are soft and easily bent (malleable) because layers of atom (of the same
size) can slide over each other easily. This sliding process is call Slip.
































USES OF ALLOY
IRON ALLOY
COPPER ALLOY ALUMINIUM ALLOY PEWTER ALLOY
Steel
(99% iron, 1% carbon)

Properties : hard and
strong

Uses :
To make buildings,
bridges, railway tracks,
body of vehicles, nail,
screw.
Cupro-nickel
(75% copper, 25%
nickel)
Properties : Strong,
shiny
Uses :
To make coins.
Magnalium
(95% aluminium, 5%
magnesium)
Properties : Strong, light,
corrosion resistant
Uses :
To make balances, beams,
light instruments
Pewter
(96% tin, 3% copper,
1% antimony)
Properties : shiny,
strong, corrosion
resistant
Uses : To make
ornaments, souvenirs,
trophies, key-chains.
Stainless Steel
(73% iron, 1% carbon, 18%
chromium, 8% nickel)
Properties : strong, shiny,
does not rust
Uses : To make cutlery,
utensils, automobile parts,
surgical instruments.
Brass
(70% copper, 30% zinc)
Properties : strong,
shiny
Uses : To make musical
instruments, decorative
items, keys, nuts, bolts,
electrical parts.
Duralumin
(93% aluminium, 3%
copper, 3% magnesium,
1% manganese)
Properties : strong, light,
corrosion resistant.
Uses : To make aircraft,
electric cable, pressure
cookers, racing bicycles,
body of bullet trains.
Bronze
(90% copper, 10% tin)
Properties : strong, hard,
corrosion resistant
Uses : To make coins,
medals, statues,
monuments, decorative
items.
POLYMERS

- Polymers are large molecules make up of many identical repeating sub-units called
monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds.

- Polymerization : a process to join the monomer into chains by repeated linking.

- 2 types of polymer :
- naturally occurring polymers
- Synthetic polymers : man-made polymer.
Ex : Polythene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropene, Perspex, nylon and terylena.


NATURAL POLYMERS

- Natural polymers are natural occurring polymers.
- Natural polymers are usually found in lving things.


MONOMER NATURAL POLYMER
Isoprene Natural rubber (polyisoprene)
Glucose molecule Starch
Glucose molecule cellulose
Amino acid Protein


SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

- Are man-made polymers.
- Are used to make plastics, fibres, resins and synthetic rubbers.
- Are usually obtained from petroleum, coal and natural gas.
- There are two types of polymerisation :

(a) Addition polymerisation

MONOMER SYNTHETIC POLYMER USES
Ethene Polythene (polyethene) Plastic bags, shopping bags, containers,
moulded objects, toys
Propene Polypropene Pipes, ropes, carpets, car battery casing
Chloroethene Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) water pipes, electrical insulators, raincoats
footwear.
Styrene Polystyrene Protective packaging, boat buoyancy, cups,
plates, bowls, plastic cutlery


(b) Condensation polymerisation

MONOMER SYNTHETIC POLYMER USES
Benzene Terylene soft drink containers, thermoplastic
containers, clothes, conveyor belts
Hexane Nylon Carpets, guitar strings, ropes, toothbrush
bristles, fishing lines



SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE

1. The manufacture and use of synthetic polymers especially in disposable consumer goods
has grown tremendously.
2. With the increasing use of synthetic polymers, there are some drawbacks:
a. Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable. Disposal of synthetic polymers will use
up a large fraction of available landfill space.
b. The raw materials for these polymers are obtained from petroleum, thus depleting
the supply of non-renewable source.
c. Burning of synthetic polymers releases pollutants and toxic gases that are harmful to
our health. For example burning of PVC releases hydrogen chloride gas. Gases such
as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can
cause the greenhouse effect and acid rain.
d. Improper disposal of synthetic polymers also destroys the beauty of the nature,
causes flash flood and endangers the wildlife.

3. To reduce the demand for landfill space, consumption of limited petroleum reserves and
environmental pollution, we should
a. Reduce, reuse and recycle the non-biodegradable synthetic polymers.
b. Use the biodegradable plastics (Bioplastic) such as polylactide acid (PLA) plastic and
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) plastic.
c. Educate users to the right disposal methods.












GLASS AND CERAMICS

A.GLASS

Glass is made from sand

- The major component: silica, SiO2.

- There are so many types of glass; fused glass is the simplest one which is mainly silica, SiO2.

- Fused glass : Highly resistant glass. It can be heated to an extremely high temperature and
then can be plunged into icy, cold water without cracking.

Its expensive but still widely used because of its;

1. Great purity
2. optical transparency
3. high temperature
4. chemical durability
5. Resistance to thermal shock.

It is used as :
1. Laboratory glassware
2. lenses
3. Telescope mirrors
4. optical fibres.

Ex : Starch, cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural rubber.

- The most common glass : Soda lime glass

Made by heating sand with limestone/ sodium carbonate.
Can be melted at a relatively low temperature
Easy to be shaped and has a good chemical durability.
High thermal expansion coefficient.
Expands a lot when it is heated and contracts a lot too when it is cooled.
Do not withstand heat.
Used to make : flat glass, electrical bulbs, mirrors and glass containers.



- Soda lime glass + Boron oxide, B2O3 Borosilicate glass

Has a lower thermal expansion coefficient
3 times as heat resistant as soda-lime glass
More resistant to chemical attacks because it contains less alkali.
Good to use in cookware, laboratory glassware and automobile headlight.
Used in glass pipelines and applications which require superior resistance to thermal shock
and greater chemical durability.

TYPES, COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES AND USES OF GLASS;
Type of
Glass Composition Properties Uses
Fused Glass Silicon Dioxide Very high melting point laboratory glass rod, telescope
High Transparency mirrors, opticles fibres,

Highest resistance to chemical
attack lenses

Maximum resistant to thermal
shock
(Can be heated to an extremely

high temperature and then
plunged

into icy, cold water without
cracking)
Soda-lime Silicon Dioxide Low melting point Light bulbs, window glass,
Glass Sodium Oxide Easily shaped drinking glass, mirrors
Calcium Oxide high chemical durability
Does not withstand heat
High thermal expansion coefficient
(expand a lot when heated and
contract a lot when cooled)
Borosilicate Silicon Dioxide High melting point
Oven glass, Boiler gage
glassware,
Glass Sodium Oxide Resistant to thermal shock
laboratory glass wear,
automobile
Calcium Oxide Resistant to chemical attack headlights
Boron(III) Oxide Low thermal expansion coefficient
(expands and contracts a little)
Lead Crystal Silicon Dioxide High Density Prism, high reflective lenses,
Glass Sodium Oxide High refractive index
fine crystal tableware,
decorative
Lead(II) Oxide Soft and easy to melt glassware, lead crystal glassware

B.CERAMICS

1.Made from clay. (Ex : Kaolin)

When the clay is heated to a very high temperature, they undergo a series of chemical
reactions and are hardened permanently to form ceramic.

- Ex : clay pots, bricks, tiles and mugs.

- Ceramics are very hard, brittle, chemically inert, do not corrode, high melting point and are
good insulators of electricity and heat.

Suitable for making abrasive, construction material, tableware, insulators in electrical
equipments and refractories.

PROPERTIES AND USES OF CERAMICS;
Properties Uses
Hard and Strong Construction materials
Withstand high pressure
and heat
Resistant to chemicals, do Ornamental articles
not corrode and long lasting
Good electric and heat Electrical appliances
conductor
Have semiconducting Semiconductors
properties and can store
charges













COMPARING THE PROPERTIES OF GLASS AND CERAMICS

How are they alike:

1. Hard
2. brittle
3. strong under compression
4. do not corrode
5. good electrical insulator
6. good heat insulator
7. resistant to chemical attacks

How are they different:

Glass

Ceramics
Highly transparent Optical transparency Opaque
Can be melted and
remoulded
Moulding Cannot be melted and
remoulded
Lower melting point Melting point Very high melting point

COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substances such as metal,
alloys, glass, ceramic and polymers. These materials are created for specific application.

The material formed has properties that are better than the original components.

Reinforced Concrete

- Concrete: Consists a mixture of stones, chips and sand bound together by cement. It is strong
but brittle and weak in tension.

- Steel : Strong in tension.

Concrete reinforced with steel wires, steel bars or any polymers fibres, the resulting
combination is a very tough material with more tensile strength.

The composites are good for the construction of large structures like high-rise building,
bridges and oil platforms.

It is also cheap and can be moulded into any shape.

Superconductors

- Capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to
extremely low temperature.

- They are used in the bullet trains in Japan, magnetic energy-storage systems, generators,
transformers and computer parts.

Fibre optic

- Fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass
cladding.

- They are used to replace copper wire in long distance telephone lines, in mobile phone, video
camera and to link computer within local area network.

- Fibre optic is good to use because they have law material costs, high transmission capacity,
chemical stability and less susceptible to interference.


Fibre Glass

- Formed when glass fibres are used to reinforce plastic.

- Properties : High tensile strength, can be easily coloured, low in density easily moulded and
shaped and can be made into thin layers.

- Used to make household products like water storage tanks, badminton rackets, small boats,
skis and helmets.

*Fiberglass is generally made of glass fibers and a resin. The glass is very good in tension, but is
very bad in compression. The resin, on the other hand, will fail fairly easily in tension but can
take tremendous loads in compression. By combining the two you get a composite material
that is able to take large tensile and compressive loads. This allows a designer to make a part
smaller (ie by using thinner walls on the part, or something like that) as compared with a part
made of steel or aluminum or something like that, when designing for similar loads. The smaller
amount of material, coupled with the low density of the composite, makes for a very light
option for making parts in a weight-sensitive scenario.

Note that Carbon Fiber composites are identical in principle, but have a greater strength, so
they will be lighter when designed for the same stress.

Photochromic Glass

- Produced by embedding photochromic substances like silver chloride, AgCl crystals in glass or
transparent polymers.

- Used for making optical lenses, car windshields, smart energy efficient windows in buildings,
information display panels, lense in cameras, optical switches and light intensity meters.








































































































1. Spotlight alpha SPM Chemistry, Ooi Yong Seang, Pan Asia Publication Sdn. Bhd.,
page 311-337
2. http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/contact.html
3. http://cikguwong.blogspot.com/2011/10/chemistry-form-4-chapter-9-haber.html
4. http://www.scribd.com/faiz_son/d/5462946-chemistry-form-4-chapter-9-manufacture-
substances-in-industry





















PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE MANUFACTURING OF SULPHURIC ACID, AMMONIA,
COMPOSITE MATERIALS, ALLOY, GLASS AND CERAMICS




NAME : AIN NADZIRAH BINTI MOHAMAD ZIN
I/C : 960120-14-5182
CLASS : 4 AT-THAURY
SUBJECT : CHEMISTRY FORM 4
TEACHERS NAME : PUAN HAZWANI
DUE DATE : 12
TH
OF JUNE 2012