FATIGUE DESIGN OF WELDED CONNECTIONS FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES

Goel Ravindra Kumar

(Presented in International Seminar organized by Indian Institute of Welding, Mumbai, Feb. 2005)

ABSTRACT The design of the connections forms an important part of the overall design of a bridge structure. The bridge designer while designing the connections has to consider the factors such as optimum location of the joint, the type of connections bolted or welded, shop connection or field connection, sizes of fabricated members and their transportation requirement to site besides the strength considerations. Careful attention is required to be given to the strength and fatigue behaviour of the chosen connection. Different types of welding techniques are used in fabrication of structural members depending upon their strength requirements and criticality from fatigue consideration. The philosophy of fatigue design has been briefly discussed in this paper and the Indian Railway practice for design and manufacture of welded components for bridges has been presented. Shop welding has been adopted by Indian Railways using submerged arc welding technique to reduce the number of rivets drastically. However, the field connections have still been kept riveted. The performance of the welded connections provided has been reported satisfactory. The different types of welded and non welded connections adopted have been listed and the need of research in assessing fatigue strength of welded connections in Indian conditions has been identified. KEY WORDS Welded connections, fatigue behaviour, bridge structure, welding techniques, stress concentration, welded components, fatigue strength, submerged arc welding technique. AUTHOR DETAILS Ravindra Kumar Goel is Director/Steel Bridge in Bridges & Structures Directorate at Research Designs & Standards Organisation, Ministry of Railways, Lucknow-226011 (U.P.), India. He has earlier worked as Dy. Chief Engineer/Bridges and In-charge of Bridge Workshop, Northern Railway, Jalandhar Cantt. He has good experience of fabrication of steel structures and bridges using riveted as well as welded connections. Fabrication of welded bridge girders was started at Bridge Workshop, Northern Railway, Jalandhar Cantt. under his guidance. He has also developed and implemented quality system ISO-9002 for fabrication of steel structures and bridges at the Fabrication Workshop. 19

1.0

INTRODUCTION On Indian Railways, majority of bridge superstructures are of steel. Till 1985, only riveted connections were being used, as proven welding technology and requisite infrastructural facilities for fabrication of bridge girders was not available. The riveted connections tend to make the structure heavy and thus uneconomical besides posing maintenance problems. During the last two decades proven welding technology has been established and use of welded connections has been started on Indian Railways. Railway bridges are subjected to heavy dynamic loads and fluctuations of stresses may cause fatigue failure of members or connections at lower stresses than those at which they would fail under static load. Such failures are primarily due to stress concentrations introduced by constructional details. All details are therefore to be designed to avoid as far as possible stress concentration likely to result in excessive reductions of the fatigue strength of connections. In view of above the welded connections are designed for non-critical locations only.

2.0 2.1

PHILOSOPHY OF FATIGUE DESIGN Design Approaches & Design Input Requirement Two major approaches are extensively followed in engineering applications, they are safe-life design and fail-safe design approach. The safe-life design approach aims at determination of life of the structure, before the end of which the structure can be repaired, replaced, or retired. At the same time, it has also been recognized that some structural damage are inevitable and failure would occur and that the catastrophic failure is rarely tolerable. Fail-safe design recognizes that fatigue crack may occur and arranges the structure so that cracks will not lead to failure of the structure before they are detected and repaired. Multiple load paths and crack stopper built at intervals into the structure are some of the means to achieve fail-safe design. There are two primary groups of information that are necessary as an input for a comprehensive fatigue analysis. One group of information is the data related to the material behavior when subjected to cyclic loading, such as laboratory tests for constructing S-N curve, and other factors that would help to evaluate life of the structure. The laboratory tests must simulate the stress environment that the structural component will experience. The second group of information is the determination of the total number of cycles that the structure will undergo throughout its life (Load Spectrum). With these two groups of information available, complete fatigue analysis can be done. 20

Having S-N curve and load spectrum available, cumulative damage theory is introduced that relates cycles of magnitudes to the S-N curve in order to predict the total life of the structural component. 2.2 S-N Diagrams In evaluating the number of cycles to failure for given structure subjected to fluctuating loads, fatigue test data representing the load environment must be available. Fatigue test data is represented in the form of S-N diagrams. The S-N diagram is a plot of stress amplitude, stress range or the maximum cyclic stress, S (selected as the controlled or independent variable), versus the number of cycles of failure, N (the dependent variable). For most materials, the logarithmic plot of S-N curve is approximated by a straight line. For some alloys, including ferrous alloy, the logarithmic plotting will generate additional straight (horizontal) to account for the endurance limit also called the fatigue limit, (Figure 1). The endurance limit is an important parameter while designing an element to have an infinite life.

Log (Stress.S)

Endurance limit Log (number of cycles)

(Figure 1) Idealized S-N curve (logarithmic plot) Factors influencing the endurance limit include, the stress ratio, degree of surface finish, head treatment, stress concentration and corrosive environment. Therefore, it is expected that the fatigue limit will have a wide range of values depending on conditions described above. Studies have been conducted abroad on experimental data and it has been shown that certain alloys, such as ferrous material, exhibit a clear fatigue limit. For the maximum applied stress below this limit, failure will not occur, and therefore, the material has infinite life. However, sufficient studies are not available in Indian conditions. 21

The number of cycles to failure, N, obtained by S-N curve (under load or stress condition) is related to total life of the member up to failure. In reality fatigue cycles throughout the life of the structural part consists of two phases crack initiation and propagation. Propagation means stable crack growth up to crack instability. The S-N curve approach of assessment of fatigue damage does not separate the crack initiation phase from the propagation phase. Thus it is assumed that the crack is already initiated in the member and the total number of cycle associated with crack propagation to failure is determined. 3.0 3.1 IRS METHODOLOGY OF DESIGN Methodology IRS methodology of fatigue design is based on stress ratio of minimum and maximum principal stresses to be transmitted by the connection. The allowable stress P depends on the ratio of minimum stress fmin to maximum stress fmax, number of repetitions of stress cycle N, the method of fabrication and the type of connection. In determining the ratio fmin/ fmax gross area is used. To allow for the effect of fatigue the allowable working stresses are determined from Appendix G of IRS Steel Bridge Code. This appendix covers mild and high tensile steel fabricated for connected by welding, riveting or bolting. The allowable stresses given in the Appendix are the principal stresses at the point under consideration depending upon the weld details. Thus in the design of girder web, the combined effect of bending and co-existent shear stresses is taken. There are seven classes of details from A to G where A is the most superior details and G is the most inferior detail (Figure-2)

A (Inferior most)

(Inferior most) (Figure 2) Detail class of connection

The permissible fatigue stress, P is a function of s tress ratio (f min/fmax on gross area, No. of cycle N method of fabrication and type of connections where, fmin = minimum force/stress primarily function of dead load.

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fmax N

maximum force/stress primarily function of DL+LL+ impact. No. of cycles for the specified route/section. Permissible fatigue stress values are available for 0.6, 2, 4 & 10 million of cycles for mild and high tensile steel. Details of joints depends upon method of fabrication, type of connections, direction of force on the weld, location of weld in the member etc. For intermediate values of N, log interpolation is permissible.

A-G

Note :

3.2

Design Steps (1) For sections, depending upon the number of locomotives run per day the number of cycles of loading N is decided. The class of welding and method of fabrication to be complied with is already decided. The minimum stress or loads for different members for dead load is calculated by any acceptable method of structural analysis. The maximum stress or loads for different members for DL+LL+Impact is calculated. The ratio of fmin/fmax is obtained. This may be (+) ve or (-) ve depending upon the nature of stresses/force. The permissible stress in fatigue is picked-up from relevant class of details depending upon N and ratio fmin/fmax.

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

The actual stress in the members must be less than the permissible stress in the members. 4.0 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES IN WELDS Since fatigue strength of welded structures depends upon the constructional details, this is to be decided in consultant with the fabrication agency. It is apparent that any improvement in welding technology adopted in the fabrication would be taken in to account at the stage of deciding the construction detail. Accordingly, the permissible stresses and the size of members and weld sizes are determined. 23

Stresses due to dead load, live load and impact, stresses resulting from curvature and eccentricity of track, and secondary stresses as defined in clause 3.3.2 (a) of IRS Steel Bridge Code, are considered for effects due to fatigue. All other items mentioned in clause 3.1 of IRS Steel Bridge Code and secondary stresses as defined in clause 3.3.2 (b) thereof, are ignored when considering fatigue. Permissible Stress in butt welds are not to exceed the permissible stresses of the parent metal as specified in IRS Steel Bridge Code. However, all the butt welds are to be examined radiographically or any equally effective non-destructive test method The basic permissible stress in fillet welds based on a thickness equal to the throat thickness is limited to 100 N/mm2 (10.2 kg/mm2) where a fillet weld is subjected to shear stress in two directions, the actual stress shall be taken as the vector sum of the separate shear stresses and not to exceed 100 N/mm2 (10.2 kg/mm2). Load carrying fillet welds are designed such that the stress on the total effective area of fillet welds does not exceed the relevant values specified in Table for Class G Constructional details, Appendix G to IRS Steel Bridge Code, subject to a maximum of 100 N/mm 2 (10.2 kg/mm2). These welds are also designed so that secondary bending stresses are not developed (e.g. single lap joints shall not be used). 5.0 5.1 REDUCTION IN PERMISSIBLE STRESSES The permissible stresses for field welds of structural members are reduced to 80%. As per existing policy field welds are not permitted for bridges carrying road/railway loading. Thus all the welding in railway bridges is limited to shop connections and all the field connections are still riveted. If over-head welds are unavoidable, the stresses permitted are reduced to 80% and further reduced to another 80% if field welding is involved. In structures subjected to dynamic loading, tensile or shear stresses in butt welds is not permitted to exceed 66 2/3% of the permissible stresses unless the welds are examined radiographically, ultrasonically or other non-destructive testing methods which are equally effective and present satisfactory evidence to the Engineer that welds are meeting the quality requirement. These permissible stresses are reduced to 80% for over-head welding and further reduced to 80% for field welding. 24

5.2

5.3

6.0

WELDED & NON-WELDED CONNECTIONS ADOPTED From different considerations all the connections in fabrication of steel bridges cannot be welded. Direction of welding with respect to the direction of principal stresses plays an important role in determining the class of connection. The basic permissible stresses are determined accordingly and the decision to adopt the connection as welded is taken on the basis of relative advantages and economy. Sometimes, the classification of connection so determined, forces the designer to increase the complete cross-sectional area and the advantages sought by adopting welded connections are nullified. As all field connections are to be riveted one, the choice also depends on the transportation facilities likely to be available from the shop to the site. The different types of welded and non-welded connections adopted on IRS bridges are listed as under Table 1 IRS Type of Connections Welded Non-welded

1. Web to flange connection 1. Intermediate stiffener to web in of stringer/plate girder. plate girders. 2. Connection of end stiffener 2. Lateral bracings (top & bottom) to web in plate girders 3. Connection of horizontal 3. All diaphragm stiffener to web not used. girders connections to

4. Shear connector to top 4. Lateral connections such as flange batten and lacings in built up members. 5. Longitudinal connections in fabricating built up members of open web girder bridges 6. Butt welds in web and flange Out of these welded connections web to flange connection is the main connection involving major quantum of welding work. This connection is designed to transmit the horizontal shear force combined with any vertical loads which are directly applied to the flange. Where a load is directly applied to a flange, it is considered as dispersed uniformly through the flange to the web at a slope of two horizontal to one vertical. Butt welding has also been successfully adopted in place of 25

spliced joints in plate girder bridges. The typical cross sections of butt welded joints and the members built up by longitudinal fillet welding using submerged arc welding are shown in Figure 3.

(a) Typical cross section of butt weld

(b) Typical cross section of a welded plate girder

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(c) Typical cross sections of the built up members of a truss girder

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(d) Typical cross sections of other members of a truss girder

7.0 7.1

MATERIAL & CONSUMABLES USED Raw Steel Mild steel conforming to IS:2062 Grade B fully killed and fully normalized/controlled cooled is permitted for use in dynamically loaded structures. However, plates less than 12mm thick need not be normalized/controlled cooled. Wherever, the service temperatures are likely to go below zero degree census steel conforming to IS:2062 grade C is recommended ensuring impact properties at (-)200C to (-)400C. There is a general difficulty in getting rolled sections like angles, channels, I-sections etc conforming to IS:2062 in Grade B or C apparently due to a small requirement of construction industry. Therefore, rolled section in Grade A are permitted till such time they are readily available in grade B/C. High tensile steel complying the requirement of IS:8500 grade 540 (copper bearing quality) is prescribed for welded work. All finished steel is to be well and cleanly rolled to the dimensions, sections and masses specified. The finished material is ensured to be reasonably free from surface flaws; laminations; rough/jagged and imperfect edges; and all other harmful defects.

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7.2

Welding Electrodes All welding electrodes used for fabrication of welded components are to be strictly as per IRS M-28 & IRS M-39 for metal arc welding and submerged arc welding wire flux combination respectively. Welded construction work is to be carried out generally in accordance with the provisions of Indian Railway Standard Welded Bridge Code. The electrodes have been classified into 20 different classes. The purpose for which, each class of electrode is to be used, together with the range of codings is given in of IRS M:28-1976. Filler wire for CO2 welding should be as per RDSO specification for CO2 welding filler wire (Tentative). RDSO issues periodical list of approved suppliers of electrodes for metal arc welding.

8.0 8.1

WELDING TECHNIQUES All welds are done by submerged-arc welding process either fully automatic or semi-automatic. Carbon dioxide welding or manual metal-arc welding may be done only for welds of very short runs or of minor importance or where access of the locations of weld do not permit automatic or semi-automatic welding. Except for special types of edge preparation, such as single and double U the plates which are to be joined by welding may be prepared by using mechanically controlled automatic flame cutting equipment and then ground to a smooth finish. Special edge preparation is made by machining or gouging. WELDING PROCEDURES The welding procedure is to be such as to avoid distortion and minimize residual shrinkage stresses. Properly designed jigs are used for assembly. The welding techniques and sequence, quality, size of electrodes, voltage and current required are monitored as prescribed by manufacturers of the material and welding equipment. Site welding is not to be undertaken except in special circumstances with the approval of the Engineer. Site welding should be confined to connections having low stresses, secondary members, bracings etc. Manual metal arc welding is permitted with adequate precautions as per IS:9595 and under strict supervision of competent supervisor.

8.2

9.0 9.1

9.2

9.3

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10.0

SEQUENCE OF WELDING AND WELD PASS Distortions may occur due to heat emission during welding process. To avoid such distortions proper sequence of welding is followed. The correct sequence is quite often developed with experience for which frequent interaction of designer with the fabrication is necessary. Some of the cases are illustrated as under:

10.1

For fabrication of welded composite girders, channel shear connectors shall be welded on top flange plate prior to assembly of Isection. This facilities correction of any distortion of flange plate developed during the welding of channel shear connectors. In making of a typical I-section four fillet welds are to be made. The welding sequence to be followed is indicated by number 1 to 4 as shown in the Figure 4. Whenever a square butt weld in a 10 or 12mm thick plate is required to be made, the sequence to be adopted is shown in Figure 5.
1 10mm or 12mm 2 (Figure 4) Sketch showing sequence of square butt welding

10.2

10.3

(Figure 5) Sketch showing the sequence of fillet welding for fabricating the Isection

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11.0

QUALITY CONTROL To ensure required quality of welded connections, a proper quality assurance programme is to be decided before starting the fabrication. To ensure that quality of fabrication does not suffer in any way, inspection of bridge girders, has been entrusted to Research, Design and Standards Organisation, Ministry of Railways, Lucknow. RDSO looks after in detail the various aspects involved in the fabrication and inspection of these girders (such as specification of steel, welding process, fabrication techniques, stage inspection etc.) to maintain the quality of not only the end product but quality of the process as a whole.

12.0

CONCLUSION: Indian Railways is in the process of adopting more and more welded connections for design of railway bridges. So far the welding has been used to make shop connections in fabricating individual bridge members. The connections have been made using submerged arc welding technique and besides reducing the dead weight, these are found quite convenient from the maintenance point of view. However, the use has been restricted to shop welding only, that too for non critical locations because of proneness of welded connections to fatigue failure. So far, the welded connections have been used extensively at the location of web to flange connections of stringers and plate girder bridges. Longitudinal fillet welding has also been used extensively to fabricate built up members of open web girders. Further research is required to correctly assess the fatigue strength of different types of welded connections under different type of loading conditions. There is also a need to improve the reliability of welded connections for increasing its use in Railway bridges which are subjected to dynamic loading. Any improvement in the welding technology adopted and its reliability from fatigue consideration will greatly help the designers in adopting welded connections for other critical locations also.

13.0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author gratefully acknowledges the encouragement and support provided by Executive Director (B&S), RDSO in preparation of this paper. The assistance provided by Shri A.K. Pandey, Section Engineer and Smt. Suman Verma, Steno Grade-1 of B&S Dte.,RDSO/ Lucknow is also thankfully acknowledged.

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