Science Notes

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate
physics Summary of different type of electromagnetic waves Type of Wave Radio Waves Microwaves uses Transmit radio and TV Signals, radar in air traffic control Cooking, radar speed guns used by police Given off by hot objects, used to take temperature pictures and find people in collapsed buildings. Positives N/A Negatives Large doses of radio waves are believed to cause cancer, leukaemia and other disorders. Prolonged exposure to microwaves is known to cause "cataracts" in your eyes, which is a clouding of the lens, preventing you from seeing clearly.
N/A
Infrared waves
Far Infrared Radiant (FIR) heat relieves pain by expanding blood vessels and increasing circulation. Better circulation allows oxygen to reach injured areas of the hand and helps reduce cold, tension, pain and speeds up the healing process. Activate healthy body functions Able us to see Too much light can damage the retina in your eye causing blindness Sun burnt, Skin Cancer
Visible Light
Seeing, photosynthesis, photography Fluorescent lamps, sterilising
Ultraviolet
Sun tan, progressive adaption to heavier doses of Ultraviolet light N/A
X-rays
Radiography, treating cancer, finding faults in metals, examining crystals. Measure thickness of metals, sterilise medical equipment.
Cause cells to malform causing cancer
Gamma Rays
Chemo therapy
They can induce DNA alteration by effect of whole-body gamma-irradiation.
Electromagnetic waves do not need medium to transfer energy. They are transverse waves.

Glossary Word Longitudinal wave Mechanical wave Medium Sonar Spectrum Vibration Wave model: Meaning A compression wave where the particles travel to and fro the axis A wave form in which the particles of the medium swing in order to transmit energy The material space in which a wave travels Sound navigation and ranging; a technique where reflected sound waves are used to measure distance A range of frequencies or wavelengths An shaking of motion
- Waves are carriers of energy and there are two types of waves: 1. Electromagnetic waves and 2. Mechanical waves. o All waves transfer energy without moving material in the direction that they are moving. They may be vibrations that go up and down, or back and forth. 1. The lower the frequency in a wave, the longer the wave length. 2. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wave length. - Electromagnetic waves are composed of electric and magnetic fields and do not need particles to transfer energy, that is, they can travel through a vacuum. - Mechanical waves need a medium to move in. -The electromagnetic spectrum contains several types of electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves and travel at the speed of light but they travel slightly slower through matter. Electromagnetic waves travel through space at the speed of light and there are 2 types of electromagnetic waves: o Transverse waves and o Longitudinal waves. - Transverse waves: in transverse waves the particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of the wave. I.e.: Vibrates Up and down. The wavelength of a transverse wave is the distance from one crest to the next. Examples include water waves, light waves, radio waves, vibrating strings and surface earthquake waves. They can only go through solids and over the surface of solids or liquids. Longitudinal waves or compression waves do not look wavy; they can be seen as a pulse along a stretched spring. The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance between two compressions. They look a bit like a slinky. They vibrate along the axis of propagation of the energy. Some examples of longitudinal waves or compression waves include sound waves, some earthquake waves and some longitudinal spring oscillations.
Parts of wave:
Crest: Crest is the top part of a wave. Trough: The trough is the bottom part of a wave. Wave Length: Wave length is the distance between 2 crests or troughs. They are measured in cm or metres.
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate Amplitude is the distance from the imaginary line to the crest or the imaginary line to the trough. Frequency: the number of occurrences within a given time period, measured in Hertz (Hz)
Period- the time for 1 complete wave to pass a fixed point. Wave Speed (m/s) = Frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)
Sound waves These are an example of mechanical wave motion, they can travel through solids, liquids and gases. Sound waves in air are caused by transference of energy from a vibrating source. Sound waves are used in echo location, sonar, medicine and in seismic surveys.

Newtons laws of motion and forces Glossary: Acceleration- A type of motion where the speed increases Deceleration- a type of motion where speed continues to slow down Displacement- how far you end up from where you started Distance- how far you travel in an certain amount of time Elastic potential energy- energy released when something is let go Energythe ability to do work Force- A push, pull or twist that changes the motion or shape of an object on what it acts Friction-A force that opposes motion when surfaces move over each other Gravity- the rate of acceleration at which objects fall. Instantaneous speed- speed of an object an any moment Mass- The amount of matter in a body Potential energy- stored energy Speed- the rate at which distance is covered Terminal velocity- when an object cant fall any faster Velocity- A measure of speed in a fixed direction Weight- force acting on a body due to gravity Forces A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either: increase its speed (accelerate) decrease its speed (decelerate) change its direction, or change its shape. Contact forces Friction: acts between any two surfaces that try and slide over one another. Acts in the opposite direction to the movement or attempted movement. Air resistance and drag: friction of air (or liquid or other gases) as it travels across a moving object. Like friction, it acts in a direction opposite to the movement. Buoyancy: floating force. Acts upwards, opposing the weight force. Surface tension: tiny forces between particles on the surface of a liquid that form a skin on the liquid. Lift: caused by air moving over a wing or airfoil. Acts at 90 to the surface of the airfoil. Thrust: caused by gases or liquid being pushed out othe rear of an engine, jet or rocket. Non-contact forces Weight: caused by gravity. Acts downwards, towards the centre of the planet. Electrostatic: repulsion of like charges (+/+ or /) or attraction of unlike charges (+/). Magnetic: repulsion of like poles (N/N or S/S) or attraction of unlike poles (N/S). Ticko timers A ticker-timer is an instrument that breaks movement into a series of small intervals. It gives us a way of accurately measuring distances travelled and times taken, and provides the data from which speeds can be calculated. A small electric hammer strikes a piece of carbon paper 50 times a second or 50 Hz. Motion is then recorded as dots on a strip of paper that passes under the hammer.
Graphing motion Distancetime graphs show the total distance travelled by an object as time progressed. Time is always placed on the

horizontal axis. Steep graphs indicate that the object is covering more distance and travelling faster than flatter graphs. Speedtime graph A graph of speed against time gives another picture of what is happening in the motion of an object. As before, time is placed on the horizontal axis. If the object is getting faster, the graph rises. If slowing, the graph falls. Constant speed gives a flat graph.
Mass and weight: - Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object. The unit used to describe mass is Kilograms. - The larger an objects mass, the more force is needed to start it moving and to stop it moving. o Mass = force / acceleration - The more force is needed to change its direction when it is moving. - Weight is a force experienced when placed in a gravitational field. Measured in newtons. - The larger is the force of attraction it exerts on another object. - The force of attraction between objects or masses is called gravitational force or gravity. - Gravitational forces hold the earth in orbit around the sun and the moon around the earth. The gravitational force on an object is called its weight. - Weight: o Is the downward force of gravity (N) o Is a measured in newtons like all other forces. o Weight (N) =mass (Kg) x acceleration due to gravity (N/Kg) o w=m x g Distance, speed, time, Acceleration and deceleration: o Acceleration is a measure of the rate at which it changes speed, or when an object moves in a straight line. average acceleration = Change in speed /Time taken The more the friction the less the acceleration. 2 things that affect acceleration: - Mass & forces (friction) Deceleration is the decrease in speed. The average speed =distance moved/ time taken The instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any time
o
o o o o
Uniform acceleration A object will undergo uniform acceleration when acted on a constant force. Speed/time and distance relationship: o Speed= Distance/time o Distance= speed x time o Time = Distance/speed Formulas Item/concep Formulas t Speed

where v is speed in metres per second, s is distance in metres, and t is time in seconds Velocity
where v is velocity in metres per second, d is displacement in metres, and t is time in seconds Acceleratio n where a is acceleration in m/s2, v is change in velocity in metres per second, and t is time in seconds Weight W = mg where W is weight, m is mass in kilograms and g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (on Earth, acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2) F = ma where F is force in newtons, m is mass in kilograms, and a is acceleration in m/s2
Force
Measurements For this value... Speed and velocity (symbol) ...use this unit of measurement
metres per second (m/s) kilometre per hour (km/h) miles per hour (mph) metres per second per second (m/s2) metres per second per second (m/s2)
Acceleration Gravitation Acceleration Mass Weight Force Power
A G
M W F
kilograms (kg) (scientifically preferred) grams (g) newtons (N) Newtons (N). watts (W)
Newtons laws Newtons First law: INERTIA- An object will remain at rest, or will not change its speed direction unless it is acted upon by

an outside or opposing force. Inertia is an objects resistance to change in motion, depending on its mass. Anything that is moving will keep moving at the same speed and in the same direction unless a force changes it. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia. An example of Newtons first law is a ball, it is rolling in the north direction, if something hits it, and it will change direction.
Newtons second law- The stronger the force, the higher the acceleration. If the force goes up the mass goes up. An example of this is 2 balls if I throw 1 ball and it goes 10m and if the other ball is heavier, i need to use more force. Force= mass x acceleration, Mass = Force / acceleration Acceleration = Force / mass
Newtons Third law: --For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For example, if we can walk forward as the ground pushes forward on our feet when we push backward against the ground.

Glossary: Word Batter Conductors Insulators Current: Circuit Electric cell: Resistance Resistor: Voltage: Static electricity Capacitors thermistor Electricity meaning electrical source consisting of electrical cells in series materials through which electricity can flow. Copper, silver and aluminium are good conductors. materials through which electricity cannot flow. Glass and plastic are good insulators. flow of electric charge and measured in amps from one side of the power source to the other device that produces electrical energy by chemical reactions : property of a conductor that restricts current flow and measured in ohms device that resists the flow of current Electrical pressure that causes currents to flow and measured in volts. ::is electricity that is not moving. store small amounts of charge, a device whose resistance drops when it is warmed up
Laws of Static Electricity Opposite charges attract Like charges repel Charged and uncharged objects attract
Electrical circuit symbols
Current (Dynamic) Electricity: Current (dynamic) electricity is electricity that is moving. The electrons move around in a set path (circuit). Electricity moves faster in metals and copper and it doesnt move in wood or glass. Electrical Circuits: An electrical circuit is a complete conducting pathway for the flow of electricity from one terminal of an electrical cell/battery back to the other terminal. Parts of a Circuit
DC energy source > where the electricity is generated e.g. battery Circuit controls > switches used to open and close the circuit Wires > conductors that transfer the current between each component of the circuit Resistors > materials that resist the current flow e.g. light bulbs, appliances Measuring devices > ammeters (measures current flow) and voltmeters (measures voltage or difference across resistors) Fuses or Circuit breakers > safety feature which stops the flow of electricity when circuits overheat
When the circuit is open, electricity does not flow through; if it is closed electricity goes flow through.

Series Circuit ----If you arrange two globes one after the other in a line with the battery, the globes are said to be in series. Electrons have only one path to follow Parallel Circuit -- If you arrange the globes next to each other but on separate branches you have built a parallel circuit. Electrons have two or more paths to follow and each path has its own switch. Circuit Series Advantages - Less wiring One switch for entire circuit Disadvantages If component is faulty, the others dont work. Power supplys voltage is divided among the components. If the fuse blows, the whole circuit is inoperative Parallel If one component fails, the others still work. The power supplys voltage is fully available to each component. Each component can be protected by a fuse/circuit breaker More wiring Each component may need individual switches.
Electric Current -- the size of electric current depends on how many electrons pass a point in a circuit every second. More electrons mean a larger current while fewer electrons mean a smaller current. An electrical current is the flow of positive charge. Electrical currents are measured using ammeters which are placed in series. Amperes are the unit in which the size of an electric current is measured. Symbol > I Force (Voltage) is the force is needed to make electricity move. Force pushes electrons in a circuit to make them move. The voltage is the measure of the potential energy differences between any 2 points in a circuit. Voltmeters are devices used to measure the voltage and are placed in parallel to the circuit or globe. The bigger the voltage, the faster the current. Volts are the unit in which the voltage is measured. Symbol > V Resistance Resistance is a measure of the electrical conductivity of the conductor. Materials that are not very good conductors of electricity are said to offer resistance to current flow. Silver and copper are good conductors and have little resistance. Materials that block the current flow are called insulators, examples include plastic and glass. The symbol for resistance is R. Ohms - Unit in which the amount of resistance is measured - Symbol > Ohms Law - Ohms law shows that current, voltage and resistance are all related. - Mathematically : R = V/I - If you increase the voltage the current will also automatically increase at the same rate thus the resistance remains the same
The relationship between current I, voltage V and resistance R is often expressed in terms of a mathematical formula called Ohms Law. The law states that as current increases, the voltage must increase. But when resistance increases, the current must decrease.

V= voltage in volts I= current in amps R= resistance in ohms
Voltage in volts= current in amps * resistance in Resistance =Voltage * current
ohms
Superconductors: Superconductors are conductors of electricity where the resistance is non-existent or very little. The resistance to the electricity in a wire will occur as the temperature is cooled towards absolute zero (273.14 degrees C). The temperature that a metal becomes superconducting is called its critical temperature.
They are used to: conduct electricity without losing power (increasing efficiency) Create magnetic storage systems that can be used to store electricity. reduce the heat in electronics levitate maglev trains Environmental Impacts of producing electricity: Types of Energy: o o Non-renewable: energy sources that will eventually run out. Renewable: energy sources that wont run out because they are continually being replaced.
Air Pollution: Major Pollutants: o Smoke, dust, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead. o Low concentrations may harm living organisms, including humans, and high concentrations may kill them. Water Pollution: Major pollutants: o Industrial wastes, oil and pesticides may be toxic to living organisms; the addition of sewage and run-off from fertilised soils reduced the oxygen level and the number of organisms which can be supported. Suspended solids, washed into waterways as a result of soil erosion, reduce light levels and may cause silting, changing an aquatic ecosystem completely.
10

Dumping wastes: Major pollutants: o Waste materials from urban and industrial areas may be deposited untreated and in bulk in other ecosystems. Sewage, toxic metals and waste from industry and tonnes of household garbage are disposed of everyday on to the land or into the water. Some of these materials may be toxic to living things. Plastic, may be non-biodegradable.
o o
Energy Sources: Energy is a limited resource. Around 80% of the worlds energy comes from the burning of fossil fuels which are formed by the remains of plants and animals millions of years ago. The majority of the generation of electricity is caused by the burning of coal, natural gas and oil. Australia has a large supply of coal, which is burnt and the steam that is produced turns a generator. It isnt efficient, with only 35% of the energy produced is used. There are other types of energy sources that can be used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy is one, however, the radioactive waste and the safety of a reactor has damaged its credibility. Renewable energy is energy that can be replaced all the time. They are clean and safe. However, they can be expensive and can cause damage to plants and animals. These include wind power, wave power, hydro-electric power, tidal power, geothermal power, solar power and biomass power. For -Most dont produce greenhouse gases. They have more efficiency, and uses energy that can be replaced (renewable) Against Expensive Construction of these devices may destroy habitats.
Pollution: This is the disruption of the natural world by the release of chemicals or other agents. This is different to contamination, which is the spread of an agent through an eco-system. The major type of pollution in Australia is chemical pollution, caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The combustion of coal leads to a large amount of CO2 being released.
11

Communications technology In the electromagnetic spectrum, the variations in wavelength, frequency and energy give rise to a variety of everyday uses. The table on the right shows the uses. Radio waves are the longest and have the lowest frequencies. Different frequency radio waves can be generated. FM or AM waves may be generated. The lower the frequency, the more distance the waves can go. AM or amplitude modulated radio waves vary with time. The typical wavelength for them is 600 to 200m. Television uses high frequency (VHF: 30MHz) and ultra high frequency bands (3000-300MHz). These waves are limited to 100km. Very low frequencies are used for radio waves and submarines. Microwaves are used for satellite communication, radar and mobile phone communication. Infrared radiation is just below visible red light. They are used for burglar alarms, infared cameras, satellites and for remote controls. White light is a mix of all the colours in the visible spectrum. Optical fibres are very thin pure glass fibres that use internal reflection. Ultraviolet rays are used for sterilising equipment and fluorescent tubes. X rays are used for cat scans.
12

Light Glossary word Converge Diverge opaque refraction Transmis sion Transluce nt transpare nt Meaning To come together To spread apart A material that lets no light pass through it Bending of light rays when they pass through different medium at any angle Passage of light rays into a medium and out the other side Something that partially transmits and scatters light rays. A material that lets light to pass through it without scattering
- An object that lights is called a Luminous Object, e.g.: Sun, switched on light bulbs, and burning wood. - An object that light shines upon is called an illuminated object, e.g.: the moon, in fact most things are illuminated. - A small luminous body is called a point source. - A light that spreads out greatly is called an extended light source. - Light travels in a straight line, it moves along 300 000 km/s, light doesnt need any medium in order to travel. - When light strikes matter, 3 things happen, it can be: absorbed, reflected or transmitted. 1. When light is absorbed, its taken in by the matter it strikes. Substances like wood and metal do not transmit light they only absorb, we cant see through them at all. They are called opaque. 2. When light is reflected, it bounces off the substance it strikes. A mirror is a common example. Light that is transmitted passes through the matter it strikes. Transparent substances transmit light e.g.: window glass, water and air. 3. Substances that scatter the light are called TRANSLUCENT, because we can see the light through them but we cannot see any details, e.g.: waxed paper and frosted glass. Reflection: Angle of reflection is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray. Angle of incidence is the angle between the normal and the incident ray. Angle of incidence and angle of reflection are always equal. The normal is an imaginary line between the angle of reflection and angle of incidence; it bisects the angle in half. Refraction: Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. When light passes through a glass slab, the light is transmitted and bent. This bending of light is called refraction. Air is less dense than glass. Light bents when the medium changes. Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another. When light travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium the lights travel towards the normal. When light travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium the lights travels away from the normal. Different substances have different densities. For example water is denser than air. Laws of Refraction:
13

1. Light that moves at an angle from an ales dense medium to a more dense medium bends towards the normal. 2. Light that moves straight on from one medium to another does not bend. It is not refracted. 3. Light that moves at an angle from a denser medium to a less dense medium bends away from the normal.
Total internal reflection When light travels from a more optically dense substance into a less optically dense one (say from glass into air), it sometimes reflects instead. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. Total internal reflection is used in bike reflectors and optic fibres. Optical fibres are also increasingly being used instead of copper wire to transmit data and communications because they are thinner, cheaper, more durable and can carry more information.
Lenses There are two main types of lenses: Convex lensesthese curve outwards and are fatter in the middle Concave lensesthese curve inwards (a little like a cave) and are thinner in the middle. In a convex lens, an incoming ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal focus (F). In a concave lens, an incoming ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted so that it appears to come from the principal focus (F). The distance from the plane of the lens (centre line of the lens) to F is called the focal length of the lens. Instruments like the telescope, binocular and microscope use lenses. Colours When a thin beam of white light is refracted by a triangular prism, it may be split into the colours of the rainbow. This effect is known as dispersion, and the colours of light produced are called the visible spectrum. In rainbows the colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet are formed from dispersion. Seeing colours We see a red T-shirt, its because white light from the Sun or a ceiling light hits it and reflects red light to our eyes. The red T-shirt absorbs all other colours.
14

Glossary: word Alpha particle Beta particle Gamma rays Fission Fusion radioactivity Nuclear Energy Meaning Radiation composing of a positive particle composed of 2 protons and neutrons Radiation which has a fast electron High frequency electromagnetic waves Splitting of nuclei into smaller nuclei by neutron bombardment Joining of the nuclei of lightweight elements to form a heavier element with the release of Emission of rays or particles due to decay of unstable nucleous
The 3 types of radioactive rays are :
Gamma rays these are short-wave electromagnetic radiation and can be stopped by 1cm of lead or 1m of concrete. These waves are the most penetrating and the most dangerous. Beta rays these are fast moving streams of electrons and can be stopped by 3mm of aluminum. Alpha rays these are positively charged particles (helium nuclei) moving at high speed and can be stopped with paper or clothing Nuclear energy is the energy that binds together the neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom. A change in the nucleus causes energy to be released. The energy from the Sun and stars comes from nuclear reactions. Todays technology allows scientists to manipulate nuclear energy for the production of electricity. Nuclear Fission
A fission reaction involves the splitting of a large, generally unstable nucleus like uranium by bombarding it with neutrons. Nuclear fission is used in nuclear power stations and atomic bombs. Nuclear fission does produce clean energy but it also produces dangerous wastes, which must be stored safely for a long time. Nuclear energy is produced in nuclear reactors. The following is a diagram highlighting this process. Inside a nuclear reactor, uranium fuel is sealed inside rods within the reactor core. When a neutron strikes a uranium atom, the atom undergoes radioactive decay where the uranium atom will split and release three free neutrons and energy. The neutrons in turn will strike other uranium atoms, triggering a chain reaction. When nuclear energy is released, this energy is harnessed to boil water into steam to turn a turbine. This turbine then turns a generator, producing electricity.
When the chain reaction begins in the reactor core, the process is often controlled through the use of control rods, commonly made out of boron which can be raised or lowered to control the chain reaction. The reactor is often surrounded by a moderator to contain the reaction. Water or graphite could be used. During the chain reaction, dangerous radioactivity is produced where in order to contain this, the reactor assembly is shielded by thick walls of steel and/or concrete. Nuclear Fusion Electricity could also be produced by nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is the fusing together of tiny nuclei, such as deuterium (a special form of hydrogen). This reaction is the most powerful source of energy known and involves a minimum of dangerous waste. Fusion is used in hydrogen bombs but has not been successfully developed for power stations as for the enormous heat required to start the nuclear process.
15

Advantages of Nuclear Power It produces little atmospheric emission. It not produce carbon dioxide so it does not contribute to the greenhouse effect, acid local pollution from particles. Nuclear power can also be economically beneficial. does rain or
Disadvantages of Nuclear Power The transport and disposal of radioactive material is damaging to the environment if not carefully coordinated. Nuclear power plants have a limited life due to the dangerous radioactivity where as nuclear power plants reach this date, nuclear power plants would have to be dismantled. This is a relatively expensive process and nobody knows where to store the most radioactive parts. The cost of constructing and maintaining nuclear power plants is high. Nuclear power plants are also potentially dangerous as problems are potential and the results will be disastrous. Nuclear energy resources provide a security threat.
16

Electricity Production: o o Modern technology uses large amounts of electrical power. This is normally generated at power plants which convert some other kind of energy into electrical power. There are several ways to produce electricity, they are: Fossil Fuels: the burning of fossil fuels releases energy which has been stored as chemical energy. The burning of fossil fuels affects the atmosphere, problems such as the greenhouse effect, acid rain and smog. Nuclear Power: its fuelled by Uranium; it has problems with disposing radioactive waste left by the fission process. Accidents: Chernobyl USSR in 1896. Tidal power: Tides occur because of the gravity of the sun, moon and planets; water can be trapped behind a dam at high tide and used to drive a turbine when its out. Biomass: is any matter derived from biological sources, such as plants, animals (WASTE) Wind power: is one of the most promising of the renewable energy technologies for generating electricity. Geothermal power: rocks deep down in the ground can be used to change water into steam, which can be used to generate electricity. Solar Power: Solar energy is transformed into electrical energy in solar cells and panels.
Energy Efficiency: Ecological sustainability means that the needs of the present population can be met without endangering the ability of future generations to meet their needs o o o o o o Dont use electric blanket, when not needed. Or replace it with a couple of warm blankets to keep you warm. Take showers instead of baths. Wash only full load of clothes and use hot water only for dirty clothes. Try to avoid opening the refrigerator and freezer to browse, because each time we do, cold air escapes and the energy costs increase. Use the microwave instead of an oven for cooking meals, to save energy. Open your curtains in winter, so light will come in and warm your room. Unplug all electronic devices that are not in use e.g.: DVDs, televisions, microwave etc, because they still use energy when theyre plugged in even though theyre switched off. Pollution
17

The periodic table Glossary: word atom Atomic number Electron Electron configura tion Isotopes Mass number Nucleus Proton neutron shells Atom Molecule Element: Compou nd: Meaning Smallest unit of an element Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom Negatively charged subatomic particle The arrangement of electrons in their shells
Atoms with same atomic number but different mass numbers The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom The core of an atom A positively charged subatomic particle located in the nucleus Neutral subatomic particle located in nucleus Energy levels or orbits around nucleus an atom is the smallest unit in an element that can exist by itself. a molecule is 2 or more atoms joined together. Element is made from one type of atoms only. A pure substance composed of 2 or more elements that are chemically combined
The Arrangement of the Periodic Table - The elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their increasing atomic number - The elements are arranged in rows and columns o Rows are called periods o Columns are called groups Recognising the Elements on the Periodic Table - Each element is represented in a separate box on the periodic table - Each box has four different characters: o 1. the atomic number o 2. the symbol of the element o 3. the atomic weight o 4. the name of the element The Periodic Table
The periodic table is a classification of all known elements. The periodic table is classified so that elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number across a grid.
The periodic table is classified so that all elements are arranged in a series of rows and columns
in accordance to the elements chemical properties. The rows of the periodic table are known as periods. Elements in the same periods tend to have the same number of electron shells. These are commonly numbered 1 to 7 down the periodic table.
18
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate The columns of the periodic table are otherwise known as groups. Elements in the same groups
will have the same valency where it is the atoms in the same group that will likely have the same chemical properties. These are labelled in several ways but most commonly either by Roman Numerals from I to VIII or from 1A to 8A/0. The following properties can be observed across all periods: Relative atomic size decreases from left to right. Electrons are held more strongly by nucleus. Atoms have a greater tendency to attract electrons. Metallic character decreases, non metallic characteristics increases, ends in a noble gas. Thus, elements gradually change from metallic to metalloid to non-metallic. The metals between group II and group III are known as the transition metals. These metals have varying valencies and hence are not categorised as part of the grouping arrangements of the periodic table. All transition metals tend to be relatively hard and most have similar, high melting points.
Group1 can be otherwise known as the alkaline metals. The alkaline metals have the following
properties: Reactivity of metals down a group increases. Size of atoms down a group increases. Ability to hold onto outer electrons decreases Metallic character of elements down a group increases. Group 2 can be otherwise known as the alkaline earth metals. Group 4 can be otherwise known as the carbon family. Group 7 can be otherwise known as the halogens. Group 8 can be otherwise known as the noble gases.
19

Atoms and atomic theory Atomic Theory: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of a given element are alike Atoms of different elements are different. Chemical changes take place when atoms link up with, or separate from, one another. Atoms are not created or destroyed by chemical change.
Structure of an atom: - The atoms of all matter are electrical and are made up of three small subatomic particles: Summary of the 3 different subatomic particles
Proton Charge Location of particles Atomic mass Positively charged Nucleus 1.008
Neutron No charge Nucleus 1.009
Electron Negatively charged Electron clouds 0.00055
Atoms are held together by a strong attraction between protons and electrons. Particles with opposite charges attract one another. E.g.: opposite poles of a magnet. Protons and neutrons make up the very dense nucleus of the atom and the tiny electrons are arranged in shells of different energy levels and orbit around the nucleus. The maximum number of electrons in the first shell is always two, the second is eight and the third is eighteen, last is 32. Electrons fill the inside shells first. The outer shells around the neutron are called valence shells. Electrons in those shells are called valence electrons. Important aspects:
1. atomic number= number of protons 2. mass number= number of protons +neutrons 3. neutron number= mass number atomic number
In this diagram, we can see that it is the symbol fluorine. By calculating the numbers, the amount of neutrons would be 10.
Attractions between atoms: o o o o o o Ions The addition or removal of electrons from atoms or groups of atoms creates ions. Atoms are held together by a strong attraction between the protons and electrons. Particles with opposite charges attract one another, like opposite poles of a magnet. The attractions of the ions form new compounds. More electrons then protons are negative. More neutrons than electrons are positive. The protons and electrons keep the compound together.
20
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate An atom that has lost one or more of its electrons is positively charged and is called a cation. An atom that has gained one or more electrons is called an anion and is negatively charged.
All atoms will tend to react to gain or lose electrons to have a full shell of electrons at its outer shell. This number of electrons will vary depending on its position from the nucleus. The shell closest to the nucleus is named the K shell, the next the L shell, the M shells and so on. An atoms valency number refers to the number of electrons an atom is away from a complete outer electron shell. Say the valency of an atom is +1. This atom would have one extra electron in the outer electron cloud and would attempt to lose this electron to have a valency of 0 and hence a complete outer electron cloud. As atoms have a valency number closer to 0, the atoms reactivity increases. Examples can include sodium (+1) and chlorine (-1). When atoms gain or lose electrons, the atoms changes in the number of electrons result in a change towards the electric charge of the atom. Say if sodium lost 1 electron. As the number of protons is greater than the number of electrons, it now has an overall charge of +1.
Isotopes These are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For example oxygen16 has 8 protons, 8 neutrons and electrons. Oxygen 17 has 8 protons, 9 neutrons and electrons. Electron configuration The arrangement of electrons in the shells is called the atoms electronic configuration. Silicon (Si) has 14 electrons. Two electrons go into the first shell, eight into the second and the remaining four go into the outer shell: its electronic configuration is written as 2,8,4.
21

glossory Elements, molecules and compounds and reactions Glossary with words and definitions Molecule Element: Compound: Anion Cation Combustion Compound Corrosion Convalent bond Convalent compound Decomposition effervescence Indicators Ion Ionic bond Ionic compound Neutralisation Precipitation Reactants: Products: A Chemical equation: 2 or more atoms joined together by bonds. Element is made from one type of atoms only. A compound is made up from many molecules joined together chemically Negative ion Positive ion Reaction of fuel and oxidiser A pure substance composed of 2 or more elements that are chemically combined Degradation or wearing away of metal from exposure to environment A chemical bond where electron pairs are shared Compound where atoms are joined by convalent bonds Breaking down of substance into more simpler parts Gas bubbles in a liquid Dye molecules that change colour in the presences of acid A charged atom An attraction between oppositely charged aions A compound in which atoms are joined by convalent bonds Destruction of the properties of acids and bases Formation of an insoluble solid on mixing solutions of ionic compounds Reactants are the starting substances in the chemical reaction Products are the substances produced in a chemical reaction chemical equation summarises the events of a chemical reaction
Compounds are not mixtures of elements but they have their own special characteristics. For example mercury oxide is a red powder that forms when mercury is gently heated in oxygen. Its physical and chemical properties are quite different to the 2 elements it came from. Mercury is a liquid, oxygen is a gas. Compounds may be organic, inorganic, ionic and covalent. Organic compounds contain carbon, inorganic compounds dont. Methane is an organic compound; it contains 4 hydrogen atoms and 1 carbon atom. Covalent compounds share atoms. Ionic compounds are formed when metals and non metals react.
22
Chemical Reactions: Chemical reactions are where atoms react to gain or lose electrons to gain full valence shells. The substances may change physically, chemically or both. Burning methane gas is an example of chemical change because water and carbon dioxide are formed, and they werent present at the start of the reaction. Melting ice is a good example of a physical change, the ice changes shape. Reactions that absorb energy are called endothermic. Reactions that produce energy are called exothermic. Some signs of chemical reactions are: There is a permanent colour change. A gas is given off. Energy is produced or absorbed. A precipitate (solid) forms from a solution. Precipitate is an insoluble substance that forms when two clear solutions are mixed together. One metal deposits or forms on another. Exothermic (gives off heat) . Types of chemical reactions Endothermic (heat is absorbed
Metal/acid Reaction: acid+metalsalt+hydrogen gas. I.E: Hydrochloric +Magnesium Magnesium Chloride + hydrogen in other words when a metal reacts with a acid, it will give a salt and hydrogen gas
COMBUSTION: substance + oxygen= substance oxide. I.E. Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water in other words when a substance reacts with oxygen it will release heat and sometimes light.
Neutralisation (ACID/BASE reaction) :acid + basesalt +water I.E: Sulfuric acid + calcium Hydroxide calcium + water--the reaction between an acid and a base, the acid may be neutralised
Acid carbonate Reaction: acid+carbonate salt +carbon dioxide +water In another words, acid carbonate reaction is when limewater goes from visible to cloudy/turbid. Nitric Acid + calcium carbonate calcium nitrate + Co2 +H2o
Decomposition reaction: AB A + B-- i.e 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 --- in other words, when a substance absorbs too much energy, its elements will break apart
Precipitation reactions: soluble salt A + soluble salt B insoluble salt C + soluble salt D- i.e. silver nitrate + sodium chloride silver chloride + sodium nitrate--- in other words reactions result in an insoluble solid (called a precipitate) being formed when two clear solutions are mixed
23
24

Conservation of mass and chemical equations Conservation of Mass: Chemical equations show that atoms are conserved in the reaction; this is known as the conservation of mass Total mass of products = Total mass of reactants In a chemical reaction, no atoms are destroyed or created
Chemical equations are equations that summarises the events of chemical reactions. They may be written as word or symbolic equations. The small numbers (like the 2 in H2) are called subscript numbers. These show how many of that type of atom or ion is in the formula. The larger numbers in front of formulas indicate how much of each chemical is being used. This is how to write them: 1. Write the reacting chemicals first 2. The new substance formed is written last 3. An arrow separates the reactants and products 4. The equation must be consistent with the law of matter conservation. Example: silvery magnesium is heated with a fire and burns with a dazzling bright white light and a white powder. The hot magnesium atoms react with oxygen molecules in the air to form a white ionic compound called magnesium oxide. Word equation: magnesium + oxygen Symbolic equation: 2MG+ 02 2MGO magnesium oxide
Naming ionic compounds and formulae Ionic compounds form when positive and negative ions attract each other. When naming formulas there are valency rules. Each metal is assigned a valency. The valency is equal to its charge. In ionic compounds, the total positive charge of the cations must equal the total negative charge. Examples 1. Determine the chemical formula of zinc sulphide. Zinc sulphide: valency of zinc = +2 (Zn2+) ---------- Valency of sulphur = -2 (S2-) Therefore there is 1 zinc ion and 1 sulphur ion so the formula is ZnS. 2. Determine the chemical formula of calcium chloride Calcium chloride: valency of calcium = +2 (Ca2+) ------------- valency of chlorine = -1 (CI-) There is one calcium ion and 2 chloride ions in the compound. Therefore the formula is CaCI2+) When doing the formulae for ionic compound firstly: 1. Name the metal first 2. Name the non metal second 3. Delete the last few letters of the non-metals name and substitute ide Example 1 : Metal is zinc Non metal is sulphur Ionic compound is zinc sulphide Naming covalent compounds and formulae Covalent compounds form when atoms bond by sharing outer-shell electrons. When naming covalent compounds, there are naming rules, these are: 1. Name the non metal with the lower periodic group number 1st 2. Name the non metal with the highest periodic group number 2nd 3. If the first element exists as a Single atom, no prefix is used. 4. Use the Greek prefixes on the right 5. Delete the last few letters of the second non metals name and substitute -ide. Some examples are: 1. CO2 = carbon dioxide 2. CO = carbon monoxide 3. N2O5 = dinitrogen pentoxide 4. CCl4 = carbon tetrachloride When naming covalent compounds, there are valency rules, these are: 1. Each non metal atom is assigned a valency
25

2. For a simple covalent compound, with 2 elements, the total valencies must be the same
Question 1: determine the chemical formula of silicon dioxide Valency of silicon is 4, valency of oxygen is 2. We need 2 atoms of oxygen as valency of oxygen is 2. Therefore the chemical formula is (SiO2) Question 2: determine the chemical formula of dinitrogen trioxide Valency of nitrogen is 3, valency of oxygen is 2. To make the valencies equal we need 2 atoms of nitrogen and 3 atoms of oxygen so, therefore the chemical formula is (N2O2) Polyatomic ions or radicals Some ions are made up of more than one type of atom and are called polyatomic ions or radicals. These ions have special names. The table below shows some of the more common ones. When more than one polyatomic ion is required in a formula, brackets are used. For example aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3, three sulphate ions are required so brackets are used.
26

Acids, bases and indicators Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions when they dissolve in water. Properties of Acids: Acids have certain properties which distinguish it from bases: o Taste sour o Corrosive o React with solid substances o Acids turn blue litmus red. o Acids conduct electricity in aqueous (water) solution. Some common acids Benzoic acid Ascorbic acid Sulfuric acid 4-chloro-2methyl phenoxyacetic Hydrochloric acid Subic acid Vitamin C Battery acid Car batteries. manufacturing fertilizes MCPA Herbicide Spirit of salts Brick cleaners, cleaning metals Bases are substances that neutralise acids. Properties of Bases: Bases have certain properties which distinguish it from acids: o Taste Bitter o React with the hydrogen in acids o Have a soapy flavour Some common bases Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda Making soaps, cleaning ovens Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime Reducing acidity in soil Ammonium hydroxide Cleaning' ammonia Balding soda. bicarbonate of soda Cleaning products Preservatives in foods Vitamin supplement antioxidant
Sodium hydrogen carbonate Sodium carbonate
Cooking
Washing soda. soda ash
Washing powders
Acids and oxides The general reaction of an acid with an oxide is: acid + oxide salt + water Examples of dilute acids reacting with solid oxides are: Hydrochloric acid + calcium oxide calcium chloride + water 2HCl(aq) + CaO(s) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
27

Power of Hydrogen scale or ph scale: The pH scale is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. The pH is a measure of how much free hydrogen is present in a solution. The lower the pH the more acidic the solution. Strongly acidic solutions have pH around 0 to 2. The higher the pH the more basic the solution. Strongly basic solutions have pH around 12 to 14. A neutral substance is neither acidic nor basic and has a pH of 7.
Indicators Indicators are substances that can be used to tell whether a substance is an acid or base. Some are more precise, some are less precise. Universal indicators are more precise. Litmus, which is made from plants is red in acidic solution and blue in alkaline. Many plants, like beetroot, red cabbage, hydrangeas and hibiscus, produce dyes that can be used as indicators. Hydrangeas, for example, have blue flowers in acidic soil and pink flowers in alkaline soil. Types of Indicators - An example of an indicator is litmus paper o Acid turns blue litmus paper red o Acids do not change the colour of red litmus paper - Another example of an indicator used for acids is the metal test o Acids wear away metals o Hydrogen gas is given off while the metal is changing
28

The universe and planet earth Glossary: Astronomical unit- the distance between sun and earth. Big bang theory- a theory of the origin of the universe; it states that the universe came into existence about 13 billion years ago due to the creation of space time and conversion of energy into matter Cosmic background radiation: electromagnetic radiation in space that remains after the big bang. Galaxy: vast collections of stars held together by gravity Light year: the distance light travels in one light year Nuclear fusion: the process in which nuclei of light elements join together, with the release if large amounts of energy Red shift- the shift in frequencies towards the red end of electromagnetic spectrum Theories explaining the creation of the universe There were many theories that were said to explain the creation of the universe and space and they were the big bang theory, steady state theory and the pulsating universe theory. Pulsating universe theory: theory that gravitational forces will increase and the universe will collapse into a big crunch another big bang will follow after that. Steady state theory: theory that states that universe is expanding, but has no beginning and does not change over time because new matter is formed from energy to keep density constant. Big Bang theory: The big bang theory states that the universe exploded in all directions from a single point (called a singularity) containing an enormous and incredibly concentrated amount of energy. During the BIG BANG everything was compressed to about the size of an atom and there was a huge explosion that produced quantities of hydrogen, helium & small amount of lithium. Light was able to escape. Gravity acted on the matter and they condensed and cooled forming the stars and planets. The spiral arms of galaxies grow by collecting gas from space, they form clouds then stars are born there. Stars are born in Stella nurseries in the clouds of gases. Evidence supporting the big bang theory: 1. Light was moving towards the further red side of the electromagnetic spectrum. 2. Cosmic background radiation was found at the temperature of -270 degrees Celsius which was the temperature of the cooling galaxies billions of years ago 3. The ratio of hydrogen to helium is consistent to the ratio of hydrogen to helium when the universe was formed after the big bang Life cycle of a star Stars are born in a dense cloud of gas and dust. The raw ingredients of a star are called a nebula. Dense regions in these clouds collapse under their own gravity. The nebulas gas and dust come closer together forming a prostar. As more material is packed into the protostar, the centre gets hotter and hotter and nuclear reactions begin. Atoms of hydrogen are fused together to form helium. At this stage, a main sequence star, like our Sun, is formed. Stars that are the size of our sun form red giants. They use helium as a fuel, producing carbon in the process. Without the pressure the centre collapses under its own gravity to form a small, very dense core called a white dwarf. Stars with a mass ten times that of the Sun become blue supergiants. They then form a
29

red supergiant. The core collapses causing a huge explosion called a supernova. The remains of the star form a neutron star. If the star is dense enough, it will form a black hole. The sun The Sun is the nearest star to earth. It is a bright yellow dwarf star Sun is about 4.6 billion years. The sun belongs to a galaxy called Milky Way. It is composed of Hydrogen and a smaller amount of helium. Inside the sun, hundreds of huge nuclear explosions occur each second. - Stars cant be seen during the day because the sun blinds us from seeing them. - Distance in space is measured in light years. - Galaxies are a huge collection of stars. Globular clusters: o Globular clusters are small and very old stars packed together, they are found outside galaxies. o Omega Centauri is a name of a globular cluster. Inside the stars: o The atomic reaction in a star occurs in the core. o It takes over 100 000 years for the light and heat produced by the atomic reaction to reach the surface of the star. o The energy leaves a star in the form of heat light. ULTRA VIOLET. Types of stars: o The outer planet of our solar system are made of gas same as the stars. o There are 4 types of stars: 1- Red Dwarf ( Smallest star 0.2 solar mass) 2- Yellow Dwarf ( solar mass) 3- White Dwarf ( 10 solar mass) 4- Blue dwarf ( 40 solar mass) Largest star o The temperature of the star depends on the size of it. o The size of a star determines its fate, which means the bigger the star, the longer its life will be. o The smaller the star, the shorter the life. How is a star born? - Gases fall into the centre of a cloud - A protostar is formed but it is not yet hot. - Gases spin to form a rotating disc. Planets form in this disc. - The protostar in the middle of the disc collects more hydrogen. - The squeezing air together (compression) of gases causes the gases in the protostar to heat up. - When the temperature is hot enough the hydrogen gas is squeezed together to form an atomic fusion reaction. - A star is born. Features of universe: - Galaxy: Collection of billions of stars and matter held together by gravity. Galaxies are spread over thousands of light years. The Milky Way which the sun belongs to is an example of a galaxy. - Nebula: A contracting, swirling cloud of dust, ice and gas that forms a concentric series of rings from which the planets were formed. - Black hole: - A region containing a huge amount of compacted mass. They makes its pull of gravity so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from it. - Neutron stars: - Dense objects - They form after a supernova occurs. - Quasars- centres of violent galaxies, they emit lots of energy - Dark matter- cool non radiating matter and subatomic particles emitted by stars. - Pulsars: - Special types of neutron stars that emit beams of radio waves, and also spin. - Nuclear fusion occurs when hydrogen nuclei fuse together and release energy. - Hydrogen (Nuclear fusion) Helium + Energy. Future space travel There are obstacles to space travel which includes water, food and fuel. To counter this we need to reduce travel time and new rocket propulsion. Here are some proposals below: 1. Antimatter- Atoms of antimatter consist of a negative nucleus surrounded by positive electrons. When antimatter and matter combine, both are destroyed, and huge amounts of energy are released.
30
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate 2. Collecting fuel as you go- in space there are stray atoms and subatomic particles. Less fuel 3. Ion drive engines- Ion-drive engines work in a similar manner to conventional rockets, but emit
a stream of faster moving, positively charged xenon ions. would need to be carried if these particles could be collected
4. Nuclear bombs- scientists propose that we can attach a giant plate and nuclear explosions would
push that plate.
31

word Reproducti on gametes hermaphro dite sperm flagellum ova ovulation Fertilisatio n Self pollination embryo Reproduction: definition a life function, it means creating new life. sex cells plants or animal that has both male and female reproductive organs The sex cells or gametes produced by males Tail used by sperm to move The gametes produced by females The release of an ovum When two gametes successfully join together to form a zygote. For fertilisation to occur, the gametes must be released at the same time, When pollen from an anther is transferred to the stigma on the same flower. a bundle of cells
Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction occurs when there is only on parent. It occurs in less complex organisms such as unicellular organisms. Asexual reproduction is useful if: The environment is constant, the organism is suited to it and there is no advantage in changing The species is rare and there is not much chance of meeting an organism of the same type and of the opposite sex The organism cant move much. Sometimes change happens Types of asexual reproduction include fission, budding, spores and fragmentation followed by regeneration. 1. Fission produces new cells that are identical to the parent cell. The parent cell simply grows and then divides across the middle, causing a split or fissure. 2. Budding is when the parent cell divides, the buds later form buds of their own. 3. Spores- spores are released from spore vessels. When the spores reach a suitable environment, they grow and form a new organism 4. Fragmentation---- occurs when pieces break off from an organism. Each of these parts can then regenerate into a new organism. Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves 2 parents, a male and female. It occurs in more complex living organisms. This is how it happens in humans. Sperm are brought into contact with the female egg through sexual intercourse. A male will normally release several hundred million sperm in this process. Once inside the vagina, the sperm swim towards the fallopian tubes. If an egg is encountered, the sperm will surround it, although only one sperm will eventually fertilise it. After one sperm has entered the egg, the surface of the egg changes to stop any more getting in. Any sperm left outside the egg will eventually die, Reproductive Systems Female Reproductive System Ovaries - Two ovaries - Circular in shape - Produce female sex cells > eggs or ova - Produce female hormone > oestrogen Fallopian Tubes - Also known as oviducts - Provide a passageway between ovaries and uterus for the eggs to travel - Fertilisation occurs in fallopian tubes Uterus - Also known as the womb - Where the fertilised egg implants itself, grows and develops from a zygote to an embryo to a foetus - Wall of the uterus provides nutrients for embryo Cervix - Interface between the uterus and the vagina
32

- Supports baby during pregnancy Vagina - Also known as vaginal canal/birth canal - Where the sperm enters the female reproductive system
Male Reproductive System Testes - Two testes - Circular in shape - Produce male sex cells > sperm - Produce male hormone > testosterone Scrotum - Skin sac which holds the testes outside the male body Vas Deferens - Also known as sperm duct - Tube which connects the testes to the urethra, providing pathway for the sperm Urethra - Starts at the vas deferens to the external environment - Primary job: carry urine - Secondary job: transport sperm Seminal Vesicle - Produces fluid to nourish sperm Glans Penis - Transfers sperm from the male to the female Types of fertilization There are two main types of fertilization. Internal fertilization During internal fertilization, eggs are fertilized inside the female's body. Animals, like reptiles and birds, lay eggs after fertilization. New offspring develop outside the female's body. All eggs are covered by a protective shell. Mammal females, except monotremes, develop a new embryo inside their body. This extra protection increases an organism's chances of survival. External fertilization During external fertilization, the egg is fertilized outside the female's body. Male and female gametes are released into these species' surroundings where they fuse, forming a zygote. This type of fertilization usually occurs in water. Amphibians and fish are examples of animals that reproduce in this way.
33

Earths fragile crust word supercontinent Pangaea gondwana Alfred Wegener convection currents Definition Very large continent All the continents stuck together One of the lands that later became separate continents A famous man that suggested there was once a very large supercontinent called pangea hot air rises pushing the cold air down so that it in turn heats and rise again causing a cycle
Lithosphere/crust: the earths crust which includes landforms, rocks and soils. Mostly solid rock, rigid and contains high strength. 5-7km Mantle: Partially molten rock. 500 to 2000 degrees. It is 2900km thick. The asthenosphere is the hot, soft, semifluid upper part of the mantle. Outer core: molten iron and nickel. 4000 to 6000 degrees. It is 2300km thick. Inner core: Mostly iron. Solid because of pressure. 7000 degrees max. It is 1200km thick. Hydrosphere: The water on or at the surface of earth. Eg- oceans, lakes, rivers Atmosphere: Blanket of gas surrounding Earth. It is 145km above sea level, and nitrogen and oxygen make
up most of it. Convection currents
The most commonly accepted theory that explains why plates move are convection currents. Hot air and liquids rise and so does hot molten rock. Likewise, cool rock drops. Heat from deep within the Earth causes the molten rock of the mantle to move upwards. When this hot mantle rock comes into contact with the relatively cold crust, it cools and sinks. Theory of Plate Tectonics: The theory says that the Earths crust is divided into a number of plates, which move across the layer of partially molten rock in the asthenosphere. Convection currents and gravitational forces cause the plates to move. Heat from the core causes mantle rock to rise and spread out. It then cools and falls due to gravity. The plates movement vary from 2-10 cm per year. There are 13 major plates. Movement of the crust can cause earthquakes and most volcanoes.
Evidence: 1. Geometric fit of the continents: jigsaw can make super continent called Pangaea 2. Age of rocks and fossils: rocks and fossils are similar and of the same age on sides of continental margins. 3. Earthquakes and volcanic distribution: these occur on location of plate boundaries
34

4. Mid-oceanic ridges: they show where new plates are formed, pushing plates apart. 5. The structure and rock composition of mountains in eastern North America can be matched to those of mountains across north-western Europe 6. Magnetic reversals 7. Coal has been found above the Arctic Circle. These regions seem to have shifted from one with a warmer climate where plants could grow. Sea-floor spreading: The idea of sea-floor spreading is that new crust is being made in the mid-oceanic ridges. Half of the new crust goes to each side of the ridge. The growing ridge pushes the continents apart. The rock to make crust is supplied in the mantle. Mid-Oceanic Ridges: They are an underwater mountain range, and are usually made by tectonic plates. Magma constantly emerges onto the ocean floor through a rift. Usually, the magma builds up and forms new crust. The rocks that make up the sea floor are usually younger near the centre of the ridge and the older ones are further away. It is evidence of the emergence of new magma. As the crustal plates move about, the magma emerges. Divergent boundaries/Spreading zones eg-Mid Atlantic Ridge: At divergent boundaries, plates are moving apart from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crust due to the process of sea-floor spreading. Convergent boundaries eg- Himalayas: At convergent boundaries, plates collide with each other. However, if one plate is pushed under the other plate, it is called a subduction zone. They are usually indicated by chains of volcanoes and ocean trenches. If a thin oceanic plate collides with the thick continental plate, the oceanic plate is usually pushed down. The plate that is pushed downward into the mantle melts and molten rock rises in a line of volcanoes. A deep-sea trench forms where 1 plate is subducted under the other. When two continental plates collide, they either crumple and compress, or one plate burrows under or overrides the other. This creates mountain ranges. When two oceanic plates converge, they form an island arc as oceanic plate is subducted. Transformational boundaries: They occur when plates slide and grind along transform faults and usually causes earthquakes. An example is the San Andreas Fault. Volcanoes: It is a vent or chimney, and its surrounding is built up of volcanic material, which connects the magma in the magma chamber with the surface. The study of volcanoes is called vulcanology. A person who studies volcanoes is called a vulcanologist. A volcano erupts when the pressure of magma within the volcano gets so high that it moves upwards through a weakness in the crust. Volcanoes can be classified by their recent history of activity:
1. Active: any volcano with some form of current activity egeruption release of lava or seismic activity. 2. dormant: any volcano that hasnt erupted for a long time but could do so again 3. extinct: any volcano that will not erupt again The thickness of the lava extruded from a volcano is the main force behind the eruption type and that is the main factor controlling the shape of a volcano.
1. Composite (stratovolcanoes): formed from viscous lava, made up of pyroclastic (erupted rock
fragments such as pumice) and lava, they have steep slopes eg-Mt. Fuji. Formed from convergent boundaries. 2. Shield volcanoes: formed from less viscous lava which flows away from the vent and over time forms low sloping volcanoes. 3. Caldera: erupt so explosively that little material builds up near the vent. Eruptions empty part or the entire underlying magma chamber, causing the region to sink under its weight. This results in a basin shaped depression. It is roughly circular, and can be several kms in diameter.
35

What comes out of a volcano? Gases eg- carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, sulphur dioxide Aerosols: sulphur dioxide reacts with water to form liquid aerosol particles of sulphuric acid Liquids: lava Solids: lava, fine dust
Earthquakes These are a sudden violent shaking of the ground caused by movements within the crust. Most earthquakes occur on or near plate boundaries. They usually occur when transform fault plates grind pass each other. Rocks in these plates contain a lot of elastic potential energy. When the rock reaches its breaking point, it breaks the rocks and releases that energy, causing earthquakes. The energy travels as a wave motion. Waves that travel through the earth are called seismic waves. The Seismic waves can be split into two categories: body wavesthese travel through the body of the Earth and can be either primary (P) or secondary (S) surface wavesthese travel on the surface of the Earth and are either Rayleigh (R) or Love (L). P waves can travel through both solid and liquid rock and subject the rocks to an alternating push-pull motion, hitting the surface with an up-and-down motion. S waves are slower than P and are the next to be recorded. They are transverse waves and have an up-down movement just like water waves. S waves travel only through solid rock. Molten rock blocks them. S waves hit the surface with a shaking or side-toside motion. The epicentre is the place on earth above where the earthquake has occurred. The focus is the exact point where an earthquake occurred. The waves that travel out, causes the earth to shake. The shaking is detected using a seismograph, which measures and records details of an earthquake. The chart it records to is called a seismogram. The most commonly used scale for measuring earthquakes is called the Richter scale, which measures the power of an earthquake. Earthquakes can cause a lot of damage to buildings and other structures. They can cause landslides. Measuring earthquakes Scientists can use seismographs to estimate the energy of an earthquake at its epicentre. An earthquakes strength is measured on a scale called the Richter scale. It is an open-ended scale that starts at 0. The mercalli scale measures the intensity of the earthquake rather than its magnitude.
36

Fossils Fossils are remains of plants and animals. They are usually found in sedimentary rocks. They are important because they tell us what happened millions of years ago. They help us to learn more about the earths history and climate, geology and environment. Most fossils are excavated from sedimentary rocks. How are fossils preserved? 1. When plants and animals die, they generally rot or are eaten away. This happens quickly in a matter of days or months. 2. The hardest parts (wood, teeth and bone) are the last to decay. 3. If they become buried in sediment such as gravel, sand, silt and especially mud, they are most likely to be fossilised. 4. Fossilisation often involves shell, bone and wood being slowly replaced by minerals. Radioactive dating Rocks contain radioactive substances that gradually change or decay into other substances over a long period of time. By comparing the amount of uranium and lead in a rock, the age of the rock may be determined. This type of radioactive dating is used to determine the ages of fossils more than 100 million years old Evolution word Comparativ e anatomy Embryology Evolution Extinction Gene pool Geographic isolation Half life Natural selection variation Species speciation Definition The science of comparing similar structures in the bodies of animals The study of embryos The genetic change in organisms that leads to the production of new species Permanent disappearance of a species Collection of all genes found in a population of organisms Habitats that are isolated from one another by geographical features like oceans, cliffs, deserts The time for radioactivity of a radioisotope to halve The process where species naturally reproduce and pass on to their offspring characteristics that make them suited to the environment Differences in characteristics in a population A group of organisms that can naturally breed to produce fertile offspring The formation of a new species
Evolution of a theory Specific structures, functions and behaviours increase organisms chances of surviving, at least until the organism is able to reproduce. These characteristics are called adaptations. They are inherited and are passed from parents to offspring. Adaptations take many forms and can be classified as either structural (where the adaptation is physical) or behavioural (where the adaptation controls the way they act). 1. Structural adaptations- many animals blend in, some organisms resemble non living things, some animals use colours like red to warn other animals to stay away, 2. Behavioural adaptations- Some animals have learned to sit very still or move slowly to avoid predators, others are active only at certain times of the day or year to avoid unfavourable conditions such as extremes of heat or cold. Some have learnt to use tools to access difficult food. Many larger animals form herds to provide protection from predators.
37

Variation These are Differences in characteristics in a population. Much of this variation comes from the differences in genes and chromosomes that each individual inherits from their parents. Further genetic variation occurs as a result of mutations. Other variations come from environmental factors such as the amount of exposure to the Sun and differences in diet. Natural selection Natural selection is the process in which the environment selects favourable characteristics, reducing the frequency of unfavourable characteristics. This means that after many generations of selection, a species will become better adapted to its environment. Natural selection takes several generations to become obvious. Speciation The formation of a new species is called speciation. Natural selection over long periods of time, combined with other factors such as isolation and mutations, can lead to new species forming. Speciation occurs over long periods of time. It occurs due to: 1. Geographic isolation- if a population was split, each population would change due to natural selection and gene mutations. Eventually, the 2 populations offspring would be different to each other. 2. Reproductive isolation- If the isolation of the population was long enough, the change might be sufficient to make them incapable of interbreeding. At this point a new species has emerged.
Types of Evolution: Evolution can only take place if the living things in a population are not all the same. The theory of natural selection proposes that it is the environment that selects favourable variations and eliminates harmful ones. There are 2 type, they are:
1. Divergent evolution- The idea is that new environments are inhabited, causing the evolution of
new species. As the ancestral organisms adapt and evolve in their different environments, they take on new forms. 2. Convergent evolution- when organisms evolve and end up having similar adaptations. In similar habitats the same types of characteristics are selected for, resulting in organisms that look similar despite having very different genes. 3. parallel evolution- occurs where related species evolve similar features while separated from each other. The result is organisms that look alike and have common ancestry, but are found in different locations.
The 4 basic steps of evolution: 1. There are variations in the genes carried by individuals. 2. Environmental pressures select some individuals and reject others. 3. The best adapted individuals have the gene that allows them to survive the environmental pressures. 4. Genes are passed on to many generations. Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution: In any population there are variations, all the members of one species are not identical.
38

In any generation there are offspring that do not reach maturity and reproduce; the characteristics of these organisms are removed from the population. Those organisms that survive and reproduce are well adapted to that environment, they have favourable variations. Favourable variations are passed on to offspring; they become more and more common in the population.
Evidence supporting evolution 1. Comparisons of the anatomy of various plants and animals provide indirect evidence of their evolution from common ancestors. The front flipper of a seal, a cats paw, a horses front leg, a bats wing and your own hand all look different and perform different functions. However, they all consist of the same number of bones, muscles. 2. Evidence from comparative embryology showed that the vertebrate embryos in their early development stages from the fertilised egg show great similarity in structure. This suggests that the genes were inherited from an ancestor in the past. 3. Evidence from geographic distribution of living things showed that comparisons of various reptile and fern fossils from along the margins of separated continents show that modern species shared a common ancestor. 4. Evidence from biochemistry and DNA analysis showed that the DNA that humans and chimpanzees are 98.4% in common. This supports evolution as it shows the common ancestor gave rise to the humans. 5. Fossils- the fossil collected and analysed showed that the earliest life forms were simple and they changed into more complex organisms. Fossils also revealed that sometimes a new species would develop from an earlier existing species. Human evolution Humans belong to the order Primates and have many of the features of the primate group. Primates (including us) have: forward-facing eyes that allow binocular vision pentadactyl digits (five fingers/toes on each limb) four upper and four lower incisor teeth opposable thumbs (for grasping things) nails (not claws) on the fingers and toes large brains for their body size a flexible skeleton Humans have changed in many non-physical ways. We have learned how to use tools, and have developed speech, forms of writing, artistic creativity, reasoning powers and a sense of right and wrong.
39

Genetics
Adenine: One of the four bases in DNA that make up the letters ATGC, adenine is the "A". The others are G for guanine, C for cytosine, and T for thymine. Adenine always pairs with thymine. Cytosine always pairs with guanine. These letters are used as shorthand for the sequences of fragments of DNA e.g. CCAAGTAC. These sequences are the code for genetic information. Allele: Alternative form of a gene; a single allele for each locus is inherited separately from each parent Base pair (bp): Two nitrogen bases (adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine) held together by weak bonds. Two strands of DNA are held together in the shape of a double helix by the bonds between base pairs. A set of two bonded nucleotides on opposite strands of DNA. Chromosome: Long thin threads that Contains chemicals which control what the cell does Human cells have 46 chromosomes except for sex cells which have 23 chromosomes Chromosomes hold DNA as a compact coil Cytosine: One of the four bases in DNA that make up the letters ATGC, cytosine is the "C". The others are A for adenine, G for guanine, and T for thymine. Cytosine always pairs with guanine. Adenine always pairs with thymine. These letters are used as shorthand for the sequences of fragments of DNA e.g. CCAAGTAC. These sequences are the code for genetic information. Diploid: A full set of genetic material, consisting of paired chromosomes one chromosome from each parental set. Most animal cells except the gametes have a diploid set of chromosomes. The diploid human genome has 46 chromosomes. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The molecule that stores genetic information. DNA is a doublestranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The four nucleotides in DNA contain the bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In nature, base pairs form only between A and T and between G and C; thus the base sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its partner. DNA sequence: The relative order of base pairs, whether in a fragment of DNA, a gene, a chromosome, or an entire genome. Double helix: The shape that two linear strands of DNA assume when bonded together. Gene: the unit of hereditary information, made of DNA that acts like a chemical instruction Gene expression: the appearance in the organism of the characteristic that the gene codes for. Genetic profile: A collection of information about a person's genes. Genetics: The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits. Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism Guanine: One of the four bases in DNA that make up the letters ATGC, guanine is the "G". The others are A for adenine, C for cytosine, and T for thymine. Guanine always pairs with cytosine. Adenine always pairs with thymine. These letters are used as shorthand for the sequences of fragments of DNA e.g. CCAAGTAC. These sequences are the code for genetic information. Haploid: A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material), present in the egg and sperm cells of animals Heredity: The handing down of certain traits from parents to their offspring. The process of heredity occurs through the genes. Homologous chromosomes: Chromosomes having the same pattern of genes. Karyotype: A picture of the chromosomes in a cell that is used to check for abnormalities. A karyotype is created by staining the chromosomes with dye and photographing them through a microscope. Meiosis: the division of a cell that results in each daughter cell receiving exactly half the number of chromosomes Mitosis: a division of cells to form 2 daughter cells, each with a nucleus containing the number of chromosomes of the mother cell Mutagens: mutation causing agents, these include radiation, xrays, and ultraviolet rays. Mutation: A permanent structural alteration in DNA. In most cases, DNA changes either have no effect or cause harm, but occasionally a mutation can improve an organism's chance of surviving and passing the beneficial change on to its descendants. Nucleotides: the basic components that make up a DNA molecule.
40
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate Nucleic acids: organic acids found in a cells nucleus responsible for storing genetic information Pedigree: A simplified diagram of a family tree that shows family members' relationships to each
other and how a particular trait or disease has been inherited. Phenotype: Our external features are called our phenotypes and are very different. We have a wide array of skin colour, eye shape and colour, hair texture. However our interior profile or genotype - the organization of our genes on our chromosomes-identifies us all as Homo sapiens. Protein: A large molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids in a specific order; the order is determined by the base sequence of nucleotides in the gene coding for the protein. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the bodys cells, tissues, and organs, and each protein has unique functions. Examples are hormones, enzymes, and antibodies. Replication: the process where the DNA molecule makes a copy of itself Sequencing: Determination of the order of nucleotides (base sequences) in a DNA or RNA molecule or the order of amino acids in a protein. Sex Chromosome: The X or Y chromosome in human beings that determines the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. The sex chromosomes comprise the 23rd chromosome pair in a karyotype. Compare autosome. Thymine: One of the four bases in DNA that make up the letters ATGC, thymine is the "T". The others are A for adenine, G for guanine, and C for cytosine. Thymine always pairs with adenine. Cytosine always pairs with guanine. These letters are used as shorthand for the sequences of fragments of DNA e.g. CCAAGTAC. These sequences are the code for genetic information. Traits: Ways of looking, thinking, or being. Traits that are genetic are passed down through the genes from parents to offspring. Triplet code: a sequence of 3 nitrogen bases True-breeding plants- those that consistently produce offspring the same as the parents for a particular trait. X-Chromosome: A chromosome that is different in the two sexes and involved in sex determination. The female in our species has two X chromosomes. Y-Chromosome: A chromosome that is different in the two sexes and involved in sex determination. The male in our species has one Y and one X chromosome. Inheritance
The story of genetics begins in a monastery in Austria in 1856. Here a monk, Gregor Mendel, taught science, carrying out experiments in his spare time to study how characteristics are inherited. Mendel grew garden peas and studied their characteristics, which occurred in two specific forms, called traits. There are 2 traits in genetics: 1. dominant traitthis is the trait that appeared in the first generation 2. the recessive traitthis is the trait that was masked in the F1 generation and reappeared in the second, F2, generation. We now call Mendels factors genes. A gene is a hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic. Many thousands of genes are located in each of the cells of your body. Together, your genes can be thought of as a set of instructions or genetic program that determines the many characteristics that make you what you are. Each gene is made of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for short. Genes are located on structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are long, coiled, thread-like structures made of DNA and protein. Chromosomes exist in pairs. Humans have 46 sets of chromosomes. One of the pair was inherited from the father, the other from the mother. Simple inheritance
41

The gene that controls pod colour in pea plants comes in two forms: one codes for green pods, the other for yellow pods. Different forms of the same gene are called alleles. The allele for green pods is a dominant gene. The allele for yellow pods is a recessive gene. For pea pods, the possible genotypes are: GG (called homozygous as both alleles are the same) Gg (called heterozygous as the two alleles are different) gg (also homozygous recessive). The genotypes GG and Gg would both be green since G is a dominant allele. Punett squares Punnet squares are a much simpler way to represent the inheritance. Punnett squares can be used to predict the results of reproduction (crossing) between different organisms. Types of inheritance Incomplete Dominance: Incomplete dominance is when the two alleles inherited from the parents are neither dominant nor recessive, but blend together to give a physical trait that is somewhere between the two. Codominance: Co dominance is quite similar to incomplete dominance in that neither parental trait is dominant nor recessive. However, with co dominance, the two traits both appear in the offspring, often showing up in different parts of the plant or animal. Examples of Incomplete Dominance and Codominance in Plants In plants, snapdragons exhibit incomplete dominance for color traits. When a red snapdragon and a white snapdragon are crossed (mated), the color of the offspring is neither white nor red. Instead, the resulting snapdragon will be pink. With codominance in flowers, on the other hand, the resulting offspring between red and white parents would not be pink. Instead, they would be red with white spots or white with red spots, the result of both colors being codominant.
DNA STRUCTURE: o o o o o DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA, the molecule of life
The molecule of DNA contains millions of atoms and is found in the cell nucleus. It is made up of 2 strands, which twist around each other to form a shape called a double helix. The strands are held together by the bases. The exact sequence of these bases forms genetic information that varies from one living thing to another. Bases always pair up precisely, these are called base pairs. Adenine always pairs with thymine, and cytosine always pairs with guanine. This precise pairing of bases provides a complimentary copy of the first helix strand.
o
o
42

Nucleotides are building blocks of DNA arranged to form a genetic language or code. There are four different nitrogenous bases. Nucleotides make up gene. o Adenine (A) o Thymine (T) o Cytosine (C) o Guanine (G) Base Pairing Rule > A is chemically attracted to T > C is chemically attracted to G Proteins are Instructions in the gene code for the production protein which are essential to the cell. The life processes inside your body are carried out by a group of proteins called enzymes. Before the instruction can be carried out it must be copied so that the master plan remains in the cell RNA is the copy of the DNA sequence. It passes through the pores of the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm to the ribosome where proteins are manufactured. It is the code for the production of the protein is carried in messenger RNA DNA Replication 1. When a cell divides, its DNA molecules copy themselves, or replicate, in order to pass on a set of instructions to each new cell. 2. During replication, each DNA molecule unzips itself, so that its strands separate. 3. The two strands then from complementary copies of themselves. 4. Two new DNA molecules are produced, each with one old strand and one new strand. of
The genetic code A gene consists of a segment of DNA with a sequence of up to 1000 bases. The difference between one gene and another is the order of bases. This code describes the type and sequence of amino acids that cells use to make protein molecules. Proteins are polymers made up of small units called amino acids. The genetic code actually consists of sets of three bases, called codons. Each set of three bases codes for a particular amino acid. A small number code for stop and start type instructions. The order of the codons on a length of DNA spells out the order of the amino acids on a length of protein. Gene expressions Gene expression refers to the appearance in the organism of the characteristic that the gene codes for. Genes contain information about where and when the gene is to act. As the body develops, certain genes are switched on or off. For example, in animals the gene for haemoglobin production is switched off in nervous tissue. This switching may be done by chemicals within the cell. Sometimes this mechanism is also affected by environmental factors. DNA Mutations Mutations are the continual source of variation on which natural selection can act. Cancers are due to a genetic change in a single cell. Mutations that occur in body cells are known as somatic mutations. Mutations are a source of new alleles in an organism. Mutations may involve only one gene, with a section of DNA being incorrectly copied. The disease sickle cell anaemia results from such a single-gene mutation. Most mutations involve changes in the DNA sequence. Large changes may alter the structure of chromosomes and be visible when looking at chromosomes under the microscope. When groups no longer share a pool of common genes, they are likely to become separate species over time. Parts of chromosomes may break off and rejoin, or whole chromosomes may be lost or added. Sometimes during meiosis, a pair of homologous chromosomes fails to separate. The gamete then has an extra chromosome. The cell resulting from gamete fusion will have three chromosomes instead of a pair.
43

Generally mutations cause more damage than improvement. However, sometimes a mutation may prove beneficial. The Granny Smith apple was the result of mutation in an apple tree in a Sydney backyard. Breeders of various species use mutations to develop new and improved varieties of organisms. Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are organic compounds made up of small molecules called nucleotides. There are 2 types of nucleic acid- DNA and RNA. DNA carries genetic information and is stored inside the nucleus. RNA acts as a shuttle service, copying the DNAs information and carrying it to where it is put into action.
Types of Cells:
A homozygous cell is a cell that has identical alleles that control its particular features. They are either both dominant and recessive. A heterozygous cell is a cell that has one dominant and one recessive allele for its characteristics. o o During sexual reproduction genes are shuffled like cards in a pack. Alleles that are close to each other on the same chromosome often stay together.
Alleles:
Allele: one of two or more forms of the same gene. A dominant allele is the allele that will most likely express itself. Dominant characteristics are written as capital letters. A recessive allele is partnered by a dominant allele, is usually masked by the dominant one. It is part of the genotype and can be passed on to the next generation. Recessive characteristics are notated with lower case letters.
Genetic Engineering: In genetic engineering, scientists deliberately change genotypes by moving genes from one organism to another. Genetic engineering can therefore give an organism characteristic that it does not normally have. different ways that cells divide Mitosis is the type of cell division that leads to the growth and development of an organism. Mitosis occurs in all cells except for sex cells. Human cells have 46 chromosomes. T ypes of Cells Mitosis Produces: Cells needed to make an adult organism from a fertilised egg. Cells needed to heal cuts, wounds and broken bones Cells that replace dead skin cells. Process of Mitosis
Step One: o o Step Two: o
Cell becomes larger Chromosomes become visible Chromosomes double by splitting into two and pair up
44

Step Three: o Double chromosomes line up across the equator of the cell o Membrane of nucleus disappears Step Four: o Doubles separate o Chromosomes move on the spindle form to go to opposite poles (ends) of the cell Step Five: o Membrane divides the cell into two o Each new cell have the same number of chromosomes as the original Step Six: o Chromosomes form nucleuses of the new cells Meiosis: Meiosis is the division of cells to create sex cells. Sex cells only have 23 chromosomes.
Process of Meiosis
Step One: o Cell becomes larger o Chromosomes become visible Step Two: o Chromosomes double by splitting into two and pair up Step Three: o Membrane divides the cell into four o Each new sex cell has half the number of chromosomes the original Step Four: o Chromosomes form nucleuses of the new cells
as
45

Sense and control word Antibodies Antigens Cerebellum Cerebrum CNS Connector neurons Endocrine system Motor neurones Pathogen Placenta Sensory neurones synapse meaning Proteins made by the immune system to fight pathogens Microbes that stimulate the human bodys immune system Part of the brain Part of the brain that contains higher order thinking Central nervous system Neurones that transfer information between motor neurones Control and co ordination system that makes hormones Carries nervous impulses Disease causing organism Special tissue linking a developing foetus to the uterine wall of its mother Carries electrical impulses from sense organs to CNS small gaps between neurons
The eye Colour vision The retina contains special cells called rods and cones. Rods are more sensitive than cones, but respond only to light and dark, helping us to detect shapes. Cones need more light to be activated and come in three types, which detect the colours red, blue and green.
46
The ear The ear consists of three main sections: the outer, middle and inner ear. The outer and middle ear is filled with air, and the inner ear is filled with fluid. The outer ear consists of the pinna, which helps to collect sounds and funnel them into the auditory canal. The auditory canal connects the outer ear with the eardrum. The eardrum is the beginning of the middle ear and is made of a thin sheet of muscle and skin that vibrates in response to sounds. Vibrations are passed to a set of three tiny bones: the hammer, anvil and stirrup. This group of three bones is known as the ossicles. The stirrup vibrates against the middle ear and inner ear, causing vibrations to pass into a coiled, fluid-filled tube called the cochlea. This fluid passes vibrations to a layer of tiny hairs connected to auditory nerves. These send messages to the brain, which are then interpreted as sounds. Nervous system -The nervous system is divided into 2 parts: o The Central Nervous System and o The Peripheral Nervous System. - The Central Nervous System is divided into 2 parts: The brain and the spinal cord. - CNS represents the largest part of the nervous system. It consists of spinal cord down to legs and arms - The spinal cord carries out 2 main functions: o Connects large parts of the peripheral nervous system to the brain. o The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating centre responsible for some simple reflexes like the withdrawal reflex. The brain: The brain is part of the nervous system. It is made up from the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Cerebrum, Medulla and cerebellum. It receives nerve impulses from the spinal cord and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It also Analyses and stores data, directs the action to the body. Part of the brain cerebrum cerebellum medulla brain stem Pituitary gland hypothalamu s function Responsible for complex thoughts. The right side is responsible for artistic, musical, intuitive and perceptual abilities. The left takes care of language, learning mathematics and logical thinking. The cerebellum controls complex muscular movements like cycling, walking and running. The medulla controls vital activities you do not have to think about, like breathing and heartbeat Responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Its job is to produce and release hormones into your body If your body is too hot, the hypothalamus tells it to sweat. If you're too cold, the hypothalamus gets you shivering. Stimulus Response:
47

A stimulus is what causes an organism to react. - A response is a reaction to the stimulus. - There are various nerves in the body which detect stimuli: 1. When a stimulus is detected, your brain sends the message to your muscles. 2. A bad smell is a stimulus for the receptors in your nose. 3. Moving your hand from hot water is a response to a stimulus. The path of stimulus: StimulusSense OrganSensory Neuroninto the neuronsMotor NeuronsEffectors Muscle. The nervous system process: 1. Stimuli from the sense organs change to electrical signals. 2. These electrical signals do not stay in the sense organs. Nerves carry the signals to the brain and spinal cord. 3. The brain decides what each stimulus is. The brain also decides how to respond to each stimulus. 4. Nerves carry *what to do * messages away from the brain. The messages go to the part of the body that will answer or respond to the stimuli. 5. Most what to do messages go to muscles. Some, however, go to glands. Most responses are carried out by muscles. Nerves/ Nerve cells: -
Nerves are part of the nervous system. What do they do? o Nerves carry electric pulses backwards and forwards from the brain, spinal cord and muscles. o Nerves are located through the body. o Nerve cells work together to coordinate our body. o They have the special name of neuron or neurone. o Neurons have the shape and features to allow them to carry messages. o Nerves are bundles of neurons.
Part of the nerve dendrites axon, myelin
function Make contact with other cells and receive information from them. which carries information away from the cell Which insulates the axon, enables messages to pass more quickly along the axon Sends messages to other nerves Control centre of cell Carries out important cell functions
1. Sensory neurons- these are in our sense

organs, they have specialised endings sensitive only to stimuli such as heat and light. They care messages in one direction from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord. 2. Interneuron- transfers these electrical messages within the CNS. 3. Motor neurons- transfer messages from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles.
Types of neurons
Axon terminal nucleus Cell body
48
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate Reflex: A reflex is when you accidentally touch a hot stove and you pull your hand away quickly, so quickly that your brain does not know about it. The normal action is for a stimulus to be received in a sense organ, and then detected by a sensory neuron. The impulse is transmitted to the interneuron. Then it will be sent down several motor neurons to an effector organ, such as a muscle to produce a movement. Whereas in a reflex action the message in the sensory neuron is passed directly to a motor neuron in the spinal column. The effector muscle receives the message to move sooner. Reflex pathway: 1. Stimulus detected by heat receptors in skin.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Sensory neuron carries impulse. Spinal column relays impulse. Motor neuron carries impulse. Effector organ pulls hand away.
Receptors: o o
Receptors are highly specialised cells that are able to pick up a stimulus. Types of receptors: 1. Light receptors 2. Taste receptors 3. Smell receptors 4. Sound receptors 5. Touch receptors 6. Temperature receptors 7. Pressure receptors Effectors are the parts of the body that respond to a stimulus when it is
Effectors: o sent to them.
49
Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate The Endocrine System Endocrine system helps the body to adjust to the changes outside and inside the body What does the Endocrine System do? 1. It produces hormones (Chemical messages) 2. Helps control chemical reactions 3. Hormones move through ducts and they do not empty directly into the blood stream, where the hormones are used.
Hormones These are chemical messengers. A hormone has a specific shape that fits chemically into a receptor on the target cells membrane. Parts of the Endocrine System: Glands Location 1- The Thyroid gland 2- Adrenal Glands 3- Ovaries Attached to windpipe On top of the kidney Reproductive system Under the brain Hormones Produced Thyroxin Adrenalin Oestrogen Functions Controls the speed of chemical reactions in cells. Prepares your body for action Gives girls their female feature such as breasts, soft skin, and a feminine voice. Control growth. In females it controls the release of eggs from ovaries & the birth of a baby. Insulin controls the amount of glucose in the blood Give boys their male features such as deeper voices and more body hair than females.
4- Pituitary glands
Makes many hormones
5- The pancreas 6- Testes
Below the stomach Reproductive system
Insulin Testosterone
50

Word pathology organism microorganism pathogen host parasite vectors infection pus Immunisatio n Non infectious diseases tumour benign growth malignant growth Health and disease meaning The study of disease any plant or animal. a very small organism that can be seen only by using a microscope something that causes disease Organism being affected by the disease an agent that uses the host for food or shelter. Carriers of disease is an invasion of the body by foreign organisms. dead white cells A process of introducing vaccines that contain tiny parts of the disease so that next time the body encounters that disease, it will be ready. Diseases that are not caused by a pathogen and cannot be shared from one person to another. any abnormal growth in the body where the cells are not rapidly dividing. Uncontrollable growth is occurring
Causes of diseases in general micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Parasites such as worms could be caught from other infected people. Some part of the body could malfunction due to some imperfection or fault. For example, diabetes Environmental factors might cause your body not to function Lifestyle factors can also cause disease. Genetic disorders or diseases that your parents either had or carried. Causes of non Infectious diseases:
Non infectious diseases are diseases that are not caused by a pathogen and cannot be shared from one person to another. Some causes are: 1. genetic disorders- there may be abnormalities in the genetic code caused by genetic mutautions Haemophilia is an example of an inherited genetic disorder where people lack an important clotting factor in their blood. 2. Diet- poor diets may result in diseases like obesity. 3. Cancer- Cancer occurs when the cell division that produces new cells occurs uncontrollably. Cancer may occur anywhere in the body. 4. Alcohol- alcohol may cause damage to the liver, heart damage and may destroy brain cells. 5. Radiation- radiation is energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles. Radiation may cause mutations or death Causes of Infectious diseases: Infectious diseases are those that can be spread or transferred from one person to another. Infectious diseases are triggered by an infection or the growth of pathogen.. The micro-organisms that cause disease are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Pathogen A disease producing organism Pathogenic bacteria damage the cells of animals and plants causing disease. Sometimes they produce poisonous wastes or toxins. A pimple is caused when a bacteria gets into you sweat glands. Microbe: A microbe is usually just a single cell and so cannot be seen without a microscope. Microbes are used to make bread and cheese.
o o o o
o o
51

Bacteria: Bacteria are one-celled organisms; they are among the smallest and simplest living things. They carry out all the life functions. o They may be rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral (spirilla) or spherical (cocci). Bacteria cells dont have a definite nucleus. Most bacteria cant move by themselves, they are carried by air or moving water. Diseases caused by bacteria Disease What it does How it spreads Tonsillitis Headache, sore throat, Sneezing, coughing, spitting. raised temperature. Whooping cough Bad cough, raised Sneezing, touching, spitting temperature Salmonella food poisoning Diarrhoea, feeling sick Eating infected food Tuberculosis Very ill, a bad cough Water droplets in the air Protozoa Protozoa are tiny, mostly microscopic animals each consisting of a single cell or a group of more or less identical cells. Diseases caused by protozoa (sometimes called protists) are most often seen in tropical and subtropical areas. Like bacteria, protozoa are single celled. The table below shows diseases caused by protozoa. Transmission Disease Causal Agent Vector Primary Amoebic Naegleria fowleri Water meningoencephalitis African Sleeping Sickness Trypanosoma Tsetse fly brucei ( Glossina) Malaria Plasmodium spp. Mosquito ( anopheles) Viruses: Viruses are bundles of genetic material that attack cells and take chemicals from them. They cannot exist on their own. Some viruses are easier to catch than others and sometimes you dont catch them again after you have had them once. o If viruses come into contact with a suitable cell (called a host cell) they can attach to the cell and enter it. They hijack the cell and force it to make more virus particles. Examples of viruses: Disease Influenza Measles Chicken pox Mumps AIDS Ross river fever What it does Aches, pains, runny nose, high temperature Small red spots and a skin rash Raised itchy spots on skin Swollen cheeks and neck Destroys some of the cells of the immune system Fatigue and high temperature How it spreads Water droplets in the air Close contact Close contact Close contact Sexual contact or blood Blood-sucking insects
o o
o o o
o
o
Parasites: A parasite is an organism that benefits at the expense of the host. Vectors carry parasites and pathogens from one host to another. Diseases caused by parasites What it does Severe recurring fever Fever, muscle pain, rash Diarrhoea, blood in the faeces How it spreads Mosquito Lice, mites, ticks, fleas Protozoan in food and water
Disease Malaria Typhus Amoebic dysentery
52

Bilharzias Rash, cough, diarrhoea Fungi: Fungi have their own Kingdom separate from plants and animals. Unlike plants, fungi lack chlorophyll and therefore do not manufacture their own energy. Fungi are opportunistic pathogens. They are not usually associated with infection, but they can cause infection if the conditions are ideal or if the persons immune system is not working properly. Disease Casual Agent Description of Agent Candidiasis, Vaginitis, Thrush, Candida albicans Intestine, Vagina,Skin, Onychia Mouth tinea Pedis Trichophyton Spp. Skin Tinea Captis Microsporum Spp. Skin Tinea Corporis,Tinea Barhae Epidermophyton Skin spp. Transmission and control of diseases You can get infectious diseases by direct or indirect transmission. Direct transmission comes about by direct contact with the infected person or by contact with droplets of body fluid. Diseases transmitted by direct contact are called contagious diseases. Indirect transmission occurs through an intermediary agent like an insect, air or contaminated water. The human body has several mechanisms for coping with disease, they are the skin, white blood cells, and antibodies are acids. 1. The first defence is the outer layer of the skin, consisting of dead cells. Harmful pathogens on the skin can be shed with the dead cells. They are non specific. 2. The second line of defence is in your blood, as white blood cells or leucocytes. They travel in the blood to the site of infection, converge on the pathogens, digest them and engulf their remains. Dead microorganisms and dead white cells are left behind and form the discharge call pus. They are non specific. White blood cells are divided into three classes: Granulocytes - Granulocytes make up 50% to 60% of all leukocytes. Granulocytes are themselves divided into three classes: neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Granulocytes get their name because they contain granules, and these granules contain different chemicals depending on the type of cell. They engulf foreign particles and bacteria. Lymphocyte - Lymphocytes make up 30% to 40% of all leukocytes. Lymphocytes come in two classes: B cells (those that mature in bone marrow) and T cells (those that mature in the thymus). They produce antibodies and help provide immunity. Water snail
Monocyte - Monocytes make up 7% or so of all leukocytes. Monocytes evolve into macrophages. They Ingest foreign articles like dust and smoke, ingest bacteria and other microbes and clean up dead white blood cells as part of the healing process.
3.Antibodies are the third line of defence. They are special proteins that are produced by cells of
the immune system and circulate in the blood. Antibodies attack pathogens when they enter the body, the immune response makes the invader harmless. The immune system produces substances that are specifically selected to attack a particular invading pathogen. 4.Acids are the last. The pathogens might meet acids which will kill the microbes or slow them. 5.antibodies Specific Types of immunity Two types of immunity can be produced by vaccines: 1. Active immunity: the body is stimulated to make its own antibodies. This usually involves injecting a live but disable version of the virus or bacteria. 2. Passive immunity: the body is injected with antibodies previously produced by another organism. This is good in emergency situations, where immunity is needed quickly. Unfortunately it does not last as long as active immunity.
53

Organisation of organs in human body: Organs: o An organ is a structure that contains at least two different types of tissue functioning together for a common purpose. o There are many different organs in the body: the liver, kidneys, heart, even the skin is an organ. Organ Systems: o Organ systems are composed of two or more different organs that work together to provide a common function. There are 10 major organ systems in the human body. 1Skeletal system: The main role of the skeletal system is to provide support for the body, to protect delicate internal organs and to provide attachment sites for the organs. - Major organs: Bones, cartilage, tendons and ligaments. 2Muscular system: The main role of the muscular system is to provide movement. Muscles work in pairs to move limbs and provide the organism with mobility. Muscles also control the movement of materials through some organs, such as the stomach and intestine, and the heart and circulatory system. - Major organs: Skeletal muscles and smooth muscles throughout the body. 3Circulatory system: The main role of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients, gases (such as oxygen and CO2), hormones and wastes through the body. - Major organs: Heart, blood vessels and blood. 4Nervous system: The main role of the nervous system is to relay electrical signals through the body. The nervous system directs behaviour and movement and, along with the endocrine system, controls physiological processes such as digestion, circulation, etc. - Major organs: Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. 5Respiratory system: The main role of the respiratory system is to provide gas exchange between the blood and the environment. Primarily, oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. - Major organs: Nose, trachea and lungs. 6Digestive system: The main role of the digestive system is to breakdown and absorbs nutrients that are necessary for growth and maintenance. Major organ: Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. 7- Excretory system: The main role of the excretory system is to filter out cellular wastes, toxins and excess water or nutrients from the circulatory system. Major organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. 8- Endocrine System: The main role of the endocrine system is to relay chemical messages through the body. In conjunction with the nervous system, these chemical messages help control physiological processes such as nutrient absorption, growth, etc. - Major organs: Many glands exist in the body that secrete endocrine hormones. Among these are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, pancreas and adrenal glands. 9- Reproductive system: The main role of the reproductive system is to manufacture cells that allow reproduction. In the male, sperm are created to inseminate egg cells produced in the female. - Major organs: Female: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and mammary glands. Male: testes, seminal vesicles and penis. 10- Lymphatic/Nervous system: The main role of the immune system is to destroy and remove invading microbes and viruses from the body. The lymphatic system also removes fat and excess fluids from the blood. Major organs: Lymph, lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells, T- and B- cells.
54

Ecosystems: word Food chains producer herbivore carnivore Scavenge rs Decompo sers Food webs Definition They show the flow of energy in food chains Something that produces food Organisms that only eat vegetables Organisms that only eat meat consumers that eat dead animals they make the materials produced by decomposition available to plants a series of interacting food chains
Food chains: these show the flow of energy from one living thing to another can be shown diagrammatically in a food chain: Green plant plant-eateranimal-eater Food chains begin with plants (producers). Plant eaters are herbivores. Animal eaters are carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and animals are omnivores. Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores are all consumers. Scavengers are consumers that eat dead animals. Decomposers have an important role to play: they make the materials produced by decomposition available to plants. Food webs: Food webs are a series of interacting food chains link up to form a food web. It is a complex set of interacting food chains within an ecosystem. The feeding level of an organism is sometimes called its trophic level. Conservation of energy All energy is conserved within an ecosystem. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but instead converts from one form into another. Energy conversions begin in the Sun, where nuclear fusion converts nuclear energy into massive quantities of heat energy and light energy. Plants are able to trap the Suns light energy and use it as the power source for food production. They convert light energy into chemical energy. Conservation of matter the Law of Conservation of Mass, the law states can be recycled, allowing them to be used again and variety of different structures. Food pyramids They show the dry weight of the organisms involved level. The food pyramid also shows that the total energy at each level decreases. that atoms again in a
at each amount of
55
Biotic and abiotic features of the environment: Ecosystem:
o
o o o
Ecosystem is any environment living organisms that interact with each other and with the nonliving parts of the environment. Ecosystems are largely self-sustaining, because materials and energy are exchanged between the organisms and their environment. Energy from sunlight enters the system through photosynthesis in plants, and then flows through other living organisms via food webs. Environments have: - Abiotic and - Biotic features.
The habitat of an organism is the place where it lives. The study of the relationships living organisms have with each other and with their environment is called ecology. In an ecosystem there is no re-use of energy: it is either used by a living thing or lost as heat. Because of this, a continual input of energy is needed to keep living systems functioning.
o
o
Abiotic and biotic features: Abiotic means non-living, they include physical and chemical factors such as the temperature, rainfall, type of soil, and the salinity of the water. Biotic means living, it includes all the living organisms, how many types there are, their numbers, distribution and interactions. Cycles of nature:
The water cycle: o o Water in the atmosphere falls to the earths surface as rain or snow. Water falling on land will evaporate back into the atmosphere, drain into the oceans via lakes or rivers, or become trapped far below the surface in artesian basins. water on land such as ponds, lakes and rivers evaporate into the atmosphere, completing the cycle.
o Water in the oceans and in all bodies of
56

The carbon-oxygen cycle: o Carbon dioxide is absorbed from air by land plants during photosynthesis, and incorporated into plant compounds. Oxygen is released back into the air by plants. Respiration by living organisms uses oxygen and returns some carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. When living things die, their bodies are broken down by decomposers and more carbon dioxide is released. A large amount of carbon is stored in coal, oil and natural gas deposits. Burning these fuels returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Volcanoes also emit carbon dioxide when they erupt. Carbon cycles very quickly though ecosystems.
o o o o o
Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by which plant cells capture energy from sunlight and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugars and oxygen. All living things depend on photosynthesis. The compounds plants make during photosynthesis provide nutrients and energy to organisms that consume plants.
Respiration cycle: Respiration is the process by which cells obtain energy. In respiration organic molecules, particularly sugars are broken down to produce carbon dioxide and water, and energy is released. Respiration and photosynthesis might appear to be almost the reverse of each other. This is not true: the sequence in one is not the reverse in the other.
Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere as a colourless and odourless gas Atmospheric Nitrogen is converted to nitrates in storms Once inside the plant, nitrogen plays an essential part in the formation of amino acids These nitrogen compounds are then consumed by animals when the plants are eaten. The animals now have a source of nitrogen from which they can produce their own proteins and nucleic acids.
57

When the animals die, decomposers decompose the animal and the nitrogen goes back into dirt. The processes themselves are related because energy from the sun is incorporated into the products of photosynthesis.
58

Global issues Global Warming: o Global warming refers to the average increase in the earths temperature as a result of a build up of greenhouse gases. E.g.: These chemicals cause changes in the climate: Co2, Methane Nitrous oxide o o These changes have some effects on earth by making it warmer. A warmer earth may lead to changes in rainfall patterns, a rise in sea levels, and a wide range of impacts on the environment and humans.
The Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect is caused by the gas carbon dioxide (CO2) together with other trace gases in the atmosphere. These gases, commonly called greenhouse gases, provide a blanket that keeps the Earth warm. The trapping of heat is called the greenhouse effect. The gases (carbon dioxide, methane) in the atmosphere trap some of this heat. At night, the heat escapes. Carbon dioxide traps more heat than any other gas. Too much of this can cause a rise in temperatures and sea levels. The increase in temperature in a glass or plastic wall structure (greenhouse) caused by radiant energy from the Sun allows heat to enter, but not leave. A similar effect may cause the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere to rise. Energy from the Sun is able to pass through the atmosphere to the Earth. However, the heat energy radiated back by the Earth has a greater wavelength, and is absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapour, thus warming the atmosphere. Car exhausts, coal and gas power stations and industry are leading producers of carbon dioxide. With our modern demand for fuel and electricity, humans are making more carbon dioxidearound 27 billion tonnes per yearthan ever before. Some is absorbed, but the rest builds up in the atmosphere. The thinning of the ozone layer Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in the stratosphere at about 20 to 30 kilometres above the Earths surface. Ozone is a colourless gas that has a very pungent odour. Ozone is created when UV light splits oxygen molecules in the stratosphere into single oxygen atoms. Ultraviolet light also splits ozone molecules, so ozone is continually being created and destroyed, with UV light being absorbed in the process. The region of the stratosphere in which ozone is thinly distributed is called the ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in the 1920s and are now still used. We know that CFCs are greenhouse gases and can destroy ozone. They do this by drifting upwards into the stratosphere where they break down, releasing chlorine. Each chlorine molecule released this way reacts with ozone molecules, breaking them apart into oxygen molecules and oxygen atoms. It is then free to go on and destroy more ozone molecules! The thickness of the ozone layer is measured in Dobson units or DU. CFCs are not the only ozone destroyers. Nitrogen oxides also speed up ozone destruction. These gases are produced when jet aircraft engines burn fuel.
59

The space shuttle releases ozone-attacking hydrogen chloride when its boosters fire during launch. Volcanoes also release hydrogen chloride. Lightning causes reactions that split ozone molecules.
Energy crises The world is running out of resources to create electricity We need to quickly find alternative sources of energy, as fossil fuels will run out in the next 50 years if we continue to use them at current rates. Nuclear energy is an alternative energy source to fossil fuels. Although not a renewable resource, it provides vast amounts of energy from a small amount of fuel. Some alternatives to fossil fuels are: 1. Nuclear energy- Nuclear energy is when subatomic particles in the nucleus are split and release energy and heat. This heat makes steam that turns a turbine. The turbines turn the generators that create electricity. Disadvantages of nuclear energy are that it is very dangerous, Nuclear power plants cost a lot and the waste is hard to get rid of. Advantages are that it creates no gases, makes a lot of energy from a little bit of uranium and it is reliable all the time.
2. Wind energy- this is using wind to turn wind turbines which

turns generators. It is good and useful in the mountains The bad things are that you need strong winds to push the big blades, they are noisy, they look ugly and you need a lot. The good things about it is that wind farms need no fuel, it Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
3. Wave power- wave power is when waves hit a wave power

station which turns a turbine that generates electricity. Advantages are that no fuel needed, no waste is produced, it is not expensive to operate and maintain and it Can produce a great deal of energy. Disadvantages are that you dont always get strong waves, it has to be near the coast, it is noisy,
4. Solar power- this is when you use solar collectors that

collect the suns energy which is transformed into heat or electrical energy. Advantages are that it needs no fuel and produces no waste or pollution. It can also be used in remote places. Disadvantages are that it doesnt work at night, there isnt always a lot of sun, and it is very expensive to build solar power stations.
5. Hydroelectric power- this is using a dam to trap water,

water then flows through tunnels that turn turbines which turn generators. Advantages are that it produces no waste or pollution, it is reliable, and electricity can be constantly
60

generated. Disadvantages are that the dams are very expensive to build, it causes problems for animals and water quality and quantity downstream can be affected, which can have an impact on plant life.
6. Geothermal power- this is generated from heat inside rocks which boil water that turns a turbine
which in turn generates electricity. Advantages are that Geothermal energy does not produce any pollution, and does contribute to the greenhouse effect, the power stations do not up much room, there is not much impact on the environment no fuel is needed. Disadvantages are that there are not many places where you can build a geothermal power station, Sometimes a geothermal site may "run out of steam" and Hazardous gases and minerals may come up from underground not take and
61

Title o o Introduction o o o Introduce the topic with an interesting paragraph relating to the topic. This section should be no shorter than half a page. You should always quote the source at the end of the introduction. Designing an experiment
The title should be clear stating the experiment. The date, your name and class year should be written on the front page.
Aim- This should explain what you are trying to find out by doing the experiment. Hypothesis o o o What you think is going to happen. It is also a broad general explanation of a collection. Write it down before you start the experiment. This is an educated guess. The hypothesis should not be more than one sentence long. The hypothesis should start with, My hypothesis is
Diagram / Equipment list o o o Method o o o Results o o o What happened as a result of carrying out your experiment. Your results should be clearly presented, usually in the form of a table or graph. Just state the results do not talk about them here. This should include all the steps in the order that you carried them out, so that someone else could repeat the experiment in exactly the same way if need be. Number the steps in the order that you carried them out. It is often a good idea to include safety points if needed. Your diagram should be in pencil and should not be just a sketch. Label your diagram using red pen and use blue or black pen lines drawn with a ruler to point out what parts are what in your diagram. List all equipment used and amounts.
Discussion-- Answer any relevant questions relating to the experiment here. Conclusions o o o Write a two sentence statement that would summarize your results here. Compare your results with your original hypothesis. Was your Hypothesis proven or disproved, state whether it was or was not. When you mention your hypothesis you must always state what it was, Variables
Independent variable- The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist, e.g. type of plants, type of solids, amount of sunlight, the environment Dependant variable- the variable being measured, e.g. time taken to evaporate, time taken to dissolve, time taken to die Controlled variable- the variables that are kept the same throughout the whole experiment, e.g. environment, amount of liquids, amount of sunlight.
62

reliability, accuracy, validity Accuracy describes how well a measuring instrument determines the variable it is measuring. The level of accuracy of a measuring instrument determines the detail to which it can measure. In order to be accurate in their work scientists need to first select a measuring instrument that allows an appropriate measure of accuracy. This could be a micrometer for the diameter of a piece of wire, and a ruler marked in mm for its length and then to calibrate it. Reliability is a repeatability or consistency. Test/retest is the method to estimate reliability. Simply put, the idea behind test/retest is that you should get the same score on test 1 as you do on test 2. A valid experiment is one that fairly tests the hypothesis. In a valid experiment all variables are kept constant apart from those being investigated, all systematic errors have been eliminated and random errors are reduced by taking the mean of multiple measurements. Extrapolating and interpolating Interpolation is figuring out a value you don't have but which lies within the range of data you do have. Extrapolation is figuring out a value you don't have that lies outside the range of data you do have. To interpolate, you look at the graph and use the axis to find a value against another value. In this graph, if we were to see how many students had birthdays during a certain month, we look at the month and see how high it goes. To extrapolate we need a formula, we use the formula and substitute values into the formula.
Why science is valuable to society? Without science, the world doesn't make as many important advances with technology and we don't accomplish much. Science makes people's lives easier every day and helps people a lot. Science is important to society because it helps address issues that are of concern to the general population. Scientific principles have been and continue to be applied to address issues, concerns, and problems that people face in the day-to-day aspects of living. More scientific research leads to an increase in technology which leads to a better standard of living through medicine, understanding of past, complex process and ultimately, satisfies the human need of curiosity.
63

Science Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Science Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Seeing, photosynthesis, photography Fluorescent lamps, sterilising

Sun tan, progressive adaption to heavier doses of Ultraviolet light N/A

Cause cells to malform causing cancer

They can induce DNA alteration by effect of whole-body gamma-irradiation.

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Acceleration Gravitation Acceleration Mass Weight Force Power

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Electrical circuit symbols

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Voltage in volts= current in amps * resistance in Resistance =Voltage * current

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

The 3 types of radioactive rays are :

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Neutron No charge Nucleus 1.009

Electron Negatively charged Electron clouds 0.00055

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Sodium hydrogen carbonate Sodium carbonate

Washing soda. soda ash

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

up most of it. Convection currents

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

DNA STRUCTURE: o o o o o DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA, the molecule of life

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Step One: o o Step Two: o

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Year 10 Science Yearly Notes /School Certificate

Part of the nerve dendrites axon, myelin

1. Sensory neurons- these are in our sense

Axon terminal nucleus Cell body

Effectors: o sent to them.