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Nogmah D Dennis To: Ms. Caruso, Lecturer July 8, 2011 Ethnicity In Africa: The controversial road to war and peace. Ethnicity has been the major caused of conflicts in Africa, but few consider it the recipe of lasting peace on the continent. For decades Africa has been known as the Dark Continent, not because most of its population is black, but because it has fallen behind other continents in terms of infrastructure, transportation development, agriculture and technology developments. Over the past three decades the continent has experienced civil conflicts in several countries. Many of the past and on-going conflicts like the Biafra war (Tribal war) in Nigeria, the struggle for land between the white and black in Zimbabwe, the Darfur crisis in western Sudan, the Rwandan genocide, the quest for greater power among the Tutsi and the Rwandophone in Eastern Africa are all evidence of the brutality Africa has endured in the name of ethnic cleavages. This paper will elaborate on why this is the case, how this situation has lasted from pre-colonial era to colonial time and yet after independence and which are the success stories from multi ethnic countries. This paper further investigates the Berlin conference and the result it has on the continent modern border. Why it is true that many historians argued that colonization bear a greater responsibility of the fiasco ethnic division has created on the continent, some contemporary scholars differ and blamed the crisis on political greed and corrupt governments. It is with such importance that the issue of ethnic turmoil verse political unrest be addressed and distinguish. It
KemK 7/27/12 8:48 AM
Comment [2]: This is the most important sentence of the paper, the thesis statement, yet it reads long and a little unclear. Maybe make it more concise so your argument stands out better.

KemK 7/27/12 8:48 AM

Comment [1]: You bring up all of these conflicts in the intro, but only talk about Rwanda in the body of the paper. Maybe add more, just a little, about each in the paper.

KemK 7/27/12 8:49 AM

Comment [3]: Capitalize and give what year it took place, 1878

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is with such intended purpose that this research searches for all those answers and fact in other to present a more realistic understanding into Africa biggest night mare. What is Ethnicity and why is it complicated in Africa? An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other through a common heritage, often including common language, culture, religion, ideology or geographical area (Porter). Ethnicity is like a birthmark that never goes away. Prior to western colonization of Africa, communities followed the nature process ethnicization with over lapping and alternate identities with the movement of people intermingling of communities and cultural and linguistic borrowing (Porter). These communities were ruled by various tribal chiefs and a council of elders. Though there has been some report of conflict, the devastation that is now seen on the continent is nothing compare to what is known. Due to the vast number of ethnic groups, it was common for tribal groups to form alliances with the sole aim of aiding each other in time of war, famine or natural disasters. Territory was clearly drawn and rival groups would try as much as possible to respect those boundaries. Due to strong traditional believe then, any conflict evolving as a result of ethnic cleansing or territory disputes was handle in an amicable manner. Though it would be disingenuous to claim that Africa was a complete homogenous society prior to colonization, the fact that borderline and tribal groups lived relatively peaceful than after colonial rule broaden the argument that colonization is responsible for the ethnic turmoil the continent is enduring. Prior to European intervention into Africa national borders, trade among ethnic groups, and land distribution was not much of a concern. Most Africa state then generally followed the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian Peninsula, where a group's territory was compatible with its military or trade influence. Politics was not big of an issue as well due to the
KemK 7/27/12 8:52 AM
Comment [6]: If that is the case, then African already had a history of tension? If military force is how you gained power, then surely there were fights between different African ethnicities.

KemK 7/27/12 8:50 AM

Comment [4]: While this is all good information, perhaps give an example of a particular case from an African country. Providing specifics will only help the reader.

KemK 7/27/12 8:51 AM

Comment [5]: Strengthens the argument

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fact many governments was being led by kings and cultural norms. However, after colonial intervention situation has become tense on the continent. It has become important that African understand their ethnic group, which forms a popular culture on the continent. Ethnicity a Colonial Creation By the beginning of the nineteen century like every other continent, European explorers begin fascinated in exploring the heart of the continent and opening areas of trade, mining and other commercial exploitation. Those adventure was not limited to trade and commerce alone, but also as a means to convert the people from local religious practices to Christianity (Wesseling). The Africa encountered by European colonizers in the 19th century was multiethnic with different forms of self-governing, but mostly peaceful. The colonial power destroyed those ancient African societies with slavery. After claiming landownership, the colonial power defined, classified, numbered and mapped African ethnic groups to create administrative units to facilitate better political and institutional control. The key objective for explorers was to identify the source of the Nile River and to map places on the continent that were rich in natural resources. By mid nineteen century, those sources were identified, leading to the scramble of Africa, thus the birth of colonization followed (Porter). In the late nineteen century European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: Liberia, an independent state partly settled by African Americans; and Orthodox Christian Ethiopia (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia") (Wesseling). Europeans often altered the local balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural resistance detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. The colonial power destroyed those ancient African societies with slavery. After

KemK 7/27/12 8:53 AM

Comment [7]: Name who these colonial interveners were and were they intervened. That will help the reader understand the history more.

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Comment [8]: Name some of the specific resources that made African so important.

KemK 7/27/12 8:55 AM

Comment [9]: For Africa

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Comment [10]: Could mention some of the most important European adventurers that went to African.

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claiming landownership, the colonial power defined, classified, numbered and mapped African ethnic groups to create administrative units to facilitate better political and institutional control. Colonization also created inequalities between ethnic communities based on the manner and degree of involvement in the colonial political economy. This decentralized despotism meant the use of traditional and local chiefs through patronizing relationships where their loyalty was rewarded through access to resources controlled by the colonial power. These sources of wealth and power were distributed unevenly and permitted colonial powers to establish their legitimacy through the strategy of divide and rule (Poeter). Due to the colonization of Africa by western powers, the issues of land ownership, resource distribution, political power and corruption have triggered a new kind of rivalry between or among ethnic clutches that was never seen before. This new trend of land and natural resources distribution created an impact and fueled conflicts. These policies exacerbated existing internal differences of kinship, gender and class. Power was unequally distributed. Some ethnic groups enjoyed power at the expense of other ethnic groups, creating conflicts, frustration and competition (Poeter). These inequalities among ethnic communities were based on the manner and level of involvement a community showed in the colonial power economy. Western powers gave power and wealth to groups that show them more loyalty while forsaking those groups or communities that opposed their rule. Several decades after the colonial ruled, these problems continued to fuel conflicts all across the continent. As a result of these problems, most people in Africa identify with their ethnic group instead of a state that is politically corrupt and bend on western divisions. Rwanda is an example of where colonial unequal distribution of power led to the death of millions of people after several decades. Rwanda has two major ethnic groups the Tutsi and the
KemK 7/27/12 8:58 AM
Comment [12]: This seems like it would be better in the conclusion.

KemK 7/27/12 8:57 AM

Comment [11]: Already wrote this sentence, should delete it.

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Hutu. These groups lived in harmony for several years prior to European colonization. This peaceful coexisting became chaotic after colonial ruled. The Tutsi had enjoyed political power and had better access to the country resources because the Belgiums (Belgium Colonize Rwanda) gave more power and control to the Tutsi as a regard for their commitment to Belgium policies regardless of them being the minority group. As a result of this policy, several years after colonial ruled, these divisions became unresolved and the Hutu staged a coup hijacking power. They established a repressive government in revenge for the anguish they claimed to suffer during Tutsi ruled, resulting into a bloody genocide (ethnicity kills). One who argues that without colonial rule the Rwanda genocide would have been avoid. The Berlin Conference: the borderlines that depicts conflict The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck, the first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, is often seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa (Wesseling). The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity on the part of the European powers, while simultaneously eliminating most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. The European power imposed their power their domain on the Africa continent with complete disregard to preexisting leadership. The Africa political map thus becomes a permanent liability and a source for conflict. From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with renewed vigor, and in the 15 years that remained of the century, the work of partition, so far as international agreements were concerned, was practically completed( Anonymous).
KemK 7/27/12 8:58 AM
Comment [14]: Mention who the powers at Berlin were (besides Portugal and the Germany).

KemK 7/27/12 8:56 AM

Comment [13]: You mention the Scramble for Africa a few paragraphs up and talk about the late nineteenth century. Maybe this paragraph should be moved up. Talk about the Berlin Conference first and then give the example of Rwanda.

KemK 7/27/12 8:59 AM

Comment [15]: Why was there a Berlin Conference, maybe explain that.

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African countries are territories whose border lines were drawn during the Berlin Conference in 1885 by colonial powers. The conference did not recognized tribal leadership, ethnic borderlines neither did it seek the input of African leaders. It was all about meeting the economics and transport conveniences of the western powers. As a result of these new borderdivisions, many rival groups were forcibly united, and land that is preciously cherished in Africa was wrongfully divided or possessed. Current borders on the continent are colonial and against all human tendencies; they will remain the source of bloody conflicts until leaders of vision and strength emerge to change them (Anonymous). Many have argued that there is a need to redraw the borderline, these new borderlines should represent those prior to colonization, but with the quest for political being rampant and corruption in every sector, a new mapping remain unforeseen. The damage seems unfixable, the best solution then would be for tribal groups to learn to reconcile their difference and find a better means to live together. .. ( Paper not complete) Area needed -Distinguish between political unrest and ethnic turmoil Discuss the impact and the benefits of ethnicity coclusion
KemK 7/27/12 9:00 AM
Comment [16]: Thesis statement is clear, that African ethnic conflicts are greatly influenced by past colonial experiences. Chronology might be improved by talking about the Berlin Conference a little earlier in the paper.

Is there a light at the end? Is it possible to have a unified nation with all these ethnic groups? One major step would be to develop a better education program that would reduce illiteracy. Also developing infrastructures and economic growth on the continent would shift the

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poverty level. With economic development, people are going to be more protective of their wealth rather than creating chaos for the few wealthy. These sources were selected because they provide impartial and credible information on ethnicity, colonial activities and corruption in Africa. They are all reputable sources, meeting international standards in disseminating international news and culture. On balance, across investigative and surveys, these sources are seen as some of the most trusted and objective international news providers.

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Work Cited Anonymous. Blood and border.1. bbcnews, 1 February 2011.web. 11 July 2012. Hameso, Seyoum Y. Ethnicity and Nationalism in Africa. New York: Commack NY: Nova Science Publishers, 1997. Print. Porter, Sebastian. Ethnicity in Africa: a road to conflict or a path to peace.1. Africa Faith & Justice Network, 25 July 2011. Web. 12 July 2012 Wesseling, H. L. Divide and ride: the partition of Africa, 1880-1914. Connecticut: Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996. Print. Ethnicity Kills?: the politics of war, peace and ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa. New York: St. Martins Press, 2000. Print