High Voltage Engineering

Electrical Strength

Ionization
Ionization is the process by which an electron is removed from an atom, leaving the atom with a nett positive charge (positive ion) First ionization potential is energy required for removing of electron from its normal state in atom to a distance well beyond the nucleus

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Ionization Processes
Ionization by simple collision

1 2 > 2 + +

+ 2

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Ionization Processes
Excitation (excited molecule)
+ + Excited molecule M*can give out a photon of

emitted energy h

Double electron impact

+ + + 2

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Ionization Processes
Photo-ionization
Ionization by photon of frequency v with energy hv greater then ionization energy of the molecule
+

+ +

Electron Attachment/detachment
If a gas molecule has unoccupied energy levels/when a negative ion gives up its extra electron + +
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Breakdown in Gases
Electron Avalanche Mechanism (Townsend Breakdown Process)
One free electron between electrodes is supposed and electrical strength is sufficiently high Simple collision of free electron produce 2 free electrons and one positive ion Electrons and positive ions create electron avalanche

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Townsends first ionization process

Towsends first ionization coefficient
Number of electrons produced by an electron per unit length of path in the direction of the field

nx is number of electrons at a distance x from the cathode Increase in electrons dnx in additional distance dx :
=

0
0

ln

= 0
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Townsends first ionization process

If the anode is at distance x=d from cathode, the number of electrons nd striking the anode per second is:
= 0

On the average each electron leaving the ( 0 ) cathode produces new electrons. In terms of current
= 0
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Townsends second ionization process

Make the log on both sides of previous equation
ln = ln 0 +

From observations the real current increased more rapidly

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Townsends second ionization process

The additional current is given by presence of positive ions and photons The positive ions release the electrons by collisions with gas molecules and bombardment of the cathode The photons also release electrons after collisions with gas molecules or after impact on cathode
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Townsends second ionization process

Let n0 be the number of electrons released from the cathode by UV radiation and n+ the number of electrons released from cathode by positive ion collisions Townsend second ionization coefficient is number of electrons released from cathode per incident positive ion, then
= (0 + + )

n is number of electrons reaching the anode

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Townsends second ionization process

Then the number of electrons released from gas is
0 + +

Each electron has one positive ion and is assumed that each positive ion releases electrons from the cathode
+ = 0 + + + =
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(0 ) 1+
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Townsends second ionization process

Substituting n+ in previous expression for n :
= 0 +
0 1+

0 + 1+

0 1 1

In terms of current
=
0 1( 1)

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Townsend Breakdown Mechanism

If the voltage between electrodes increasing the current at the anode is
=
0 1( 1)

For case of infinite current

1 1 = 0
1 = 1

1
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Townsend Breakdown Mechanism

The condition = 1 is known as Townsend criterion or Townsend breakdown criterion Townsend criterion defines the threshold sparking condition, if < 1 the current I is not self-sustained

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Streamer or Kanal mechanism

When avalanche reaches critical size the combination of space charge field and applied field lead to intensive ionization and excitation of the gas particles in front of avalanche Then the recombination of electrons and positive ions producing photons
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Streamer or Kanal mechanism

Photons generate secondary electrons by the photoionization process

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Paschens Law
From the experimental results for the breakdown voltage and uniform field gaps as a function of gap length and gas pressure can be derived expression of coefficient as a function of field strength E and gas pressure p

Substituting this into Townsends criterion, we have

= +1

After modification and substituting =

for uniform field we get

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Paschens Law
This shows that the breakdown voltage is a function of the product of gas pressure and gap length
=

This relation is known as Paschens law

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Paschens Law

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Polarity Effect

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Polarity Effect

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Liquid Dielectrics
Sizable electrical strength (5 30 kV/mm) Ability to dissipate heat Protect solid insulators from humidity and air Ability to arc extinction Electrical strength is mostly influenced by the sort and quantity of solid or liquid particles (fibers or water drops)

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Influence of Water Content on Vb

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Measured quantities of liquid insulators

Analytical
Acid value Sediments Water content

Physiochemical

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Electrical strength Resistivity Loss factor Relative permitivity

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Electrical Strength of Mineral Oils

Sparking voltage of the distance 2.5 mm is measured, the mineral oil is continuously blended Following values are recorded in a protocol
6 measured values of Vb (kV) Mean value Standard deviation s Variation coefficient =

Measurement is satisfactory if the variation coefficient < 20 %

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Breakdowns in Solid Materials

The dielectric strength of solid materials is affected by many factors (temperature, humidity, duration of test, impurities or structural defects, type of voltages, etc.) There are various mechanism:

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Intrinsic breakdown Electromechanical breakdown Breakdown Due to Treeing and Tracking Thermal Breakdown Electrochemical breakdown
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Variation of Vb with time application

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Intrinsic Breakdown
In case of pure and homogenous dielectric materials, the temperature, environmental conditions suitably controlled and if the voltage is applied for very short time (10-8s) the dielectric strength increases rapidly to an upper limit intrinsic dielectric strength The required voltage stress is in order of 1MV/cm In practice no insulating material is pure!
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Electromechanical Breakdown
Due to the presence of electric induction the dielectric materials are subjected to electrostatic compressive forces When these forces exceed the mechanical withstand strength the material collapse reduction of thickness For any real value of voltage the thickness reduction shouldnt be more then 40%
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Treeing and Tracking

In solid materials some gas or liquid pockets are often present The dielectric strength of material is always equal to dielectric strength of weakest impurities The charge concentration at voids within the dielectric lead to breakdown step by step The breakdown is not by single discharge channel but by a tree like structure Treeing can be observed in all dielectric materials where the non-uniform field is applied
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Treeing and Tracking

Tracking is process when the conductive paths (usually carbon) on insulation surfaces are formed The presence of organic substances is needed to tracking phenomena will occur
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Thermal Breakdown
When the insulating material is subjected to electrical field, the material is heated up due to dielectric losses and conduction currents The conductivity of material is increasing with temperature positive feedback The point of instability is reached when the generated heat exceeds the heat dissipated by material - breakdown
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Thermal Breakdown
Under alternating currents the total heat generation is:
2 + 2 tan

Whereas the heat is generated primarily from dipole relaxation dielectric losses

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