Introduction Soap is integral to our society today, and we find it hard to imagine a time when people were kept

sweet-smelling by the action of perfume rather than soap. However, the current widespread use of soap is only a very recent occurrence, despite the fact that it has been made for more than 2500 years. The first recorded manufacture of soap was in 600BC, when Pliny the Elder described its manufacture by the Phonecians from goats tallow and ash, and it was known among the British Celts and throughout the Roman Empire. However, these people used their soap medicinally, and it was not until the second century AD that it was used for cleaning, and not until the nineteenth century that it began to be commonly used in the Western world. Early this century the first synthetic detergents were manufactured, and these have now taken the place of soap for many applications. Their manufacture is covered briefly in the second part of this article Fats and oils are used to make a number of prod- ucts. One of these is soap, the manufacture of which is one of the oldest chemical industries. In this topic you are going to consider the industrial manufacture of both soap and soapless detergents and learn about their cleansing action. Types of Soap: The type of fatty acid and length of the carbon chain determines the unique properties of various soaps. Tallow or animal fats give primarily sodium stearate (18 carbons) a very hard, insoluble soap. Fatty acids with longer chains are even more insoluble. As a matter of fact, zinc stearate is used in talcum powders because it is water repellent. Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid (12 carbons) which can be made into sodium laurate. This soap is very soluble and will lather easily even in sea water. Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer carbons are not used in soaps because they irritate the skin and have objectionable odors. INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION GENERAL Soap Manufacturing The term "soap" refers to a particular type of detergent in which the water-solubilized group is carboxylate and the positive ion is usually sodium or potassium. The largest soap market is bar soap used for personal bathing. Synthetic detergents replaced soap powders for home laundering in the late 1940s, because the carboxylate ions of the soap react with the calcium and magnesium ions in the natural hard water to form insoluble materials called lime soap. Some commercial laundries that have soft water continue to use soap powders. Metallic soaps are alkali-earth or heavy-metal long-chain carboxylates which are insoluble in water but soluble in nonaqueous solvents. They are used as additives in lubricating oils, greases, rust inhibitors, and jellied fuels. Detergent Manufacturing The term "synthetic detergent products" applies broadly to cleaning and laundering compounds containing surface-active (surfactant) compounds along with other ingredients. Heavy- duty powders and liquids for home and commercial laundry detergent comprise 60 to 65 percent of the U.S. soap and detergent market and were estimated at 2.6 megagrams (2.86 million tons) in 1990. Until the early 1970s, almost all laundry detergents sold in the U.S. were heavy-duty powders. Liquid detergents were introduced that utilized sodium citrate and sodium silicate. The liquids offered superior performance and solubility at a slightly increased cost. Heavy-duty liquids now account for 40 percent of the laundry detergents sold in the U.S., up from 15 percent in 1978. As a result, 50 percent of the spray drying facilities for laundry granule production have closed since 1970. The introduction of superconcentrated powder detergents will probably lead to an increase in spray drying operations at some facilities.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION Soap Process Description From American colonial days to the early 1940s, soap was manufactured by an alkaline hydrolysis reaction called saponification. Soap was made in huge kettles into which fats, oils, and caustic soda were piped and heated to a brisk boil. After cooling for several days, salt was added, causing the mixture to separate into two layers with the "neat" soap on top and spent lye and water on the bottom. The soap was pumped to a closed mixing tank called a crutcher where builders, perfumes, and other ingredients were added. Builders are alkaline compounds which improve the cleaning performance of the soap. Finally, the soap was rolled into flakes, cast or milled into bars, or spray-dried into soap powder. An important modern process (post 1940s) for making soap is the direct hydrolysis of fats by water at high temperatures. This permits fractionation of the fatty acids, which are neutralized to soap in a continuous process as shown in Figure 2.2-1. Advantages for this process include better control of the soap concentration, the ability to prepare soaps of certain chain lengths for specific purposes, and easy recovery of glycerin, a byproduct. After the soap is recovered, it is pumped to the crutcher and treated the same as the product from the kettle process. Detergent Process Description The manufacture of spray-dried detergent has three main processing steps: 1) slurry preparation, 2) spray drying and 3) granule handling. The three major components of detergent are surfactants (to remove dirt and other unwanted materials), builders (to treat the water to improve surfactant performance) and additives to improve cleaning performance. Additives may include bleaches, bleach activators, antistatic agents, fabric softeners, optical brighteners, antiredeposition agents, and fillers. The formulation of slurry for detergent granules requires the intimate mixing of various liquid, powdered, and granulated materials. Detergent slurry is produced by blending liquid surfactant with powdered and liquid materials (builders and other additives) in a closed mixing tank called a soap crutcher. Premixing of various minor ingredients is performed in a variety of equipment prior to charging to the crutcher or final mixer. Figure 2.2-2 illustrates the various operations. Liquid surfactant used in making the detergent slurry is produced by the sulfonation of either a linear alkylate or a fatty acid, which is then neutralized with a caustic solution containing sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The blended slurry is held in a surge vessel for continuous pumping to a spray dryer. The slurry is atomized by spraying through nozzles rather than by centrifugal action. The slurry is sprayed at pressures of 4.1 to 6.9 kPa (600 to 1000 pounds per square inch) in single- fluid nozzles and at pressures of 340 to 690 kPa (50 to 100 psi) in two-fluid nozzles. Steam or air is used as the atomizing fluid in the two-fluid nozzles. The slurry is sprayed at high pressure into a vertical drying tower having a stream of hot air of from 315 to 400EC (600 to 750EF). All spray drying equipment designed for detergent granule production incorporates the following components: spray drying tower, air heating and supply system, slurry atomizing and pumping equipment, product cooling equipment, and conveying equipment. Most towers designed for detergent production are countercurrent, with slurry introduced at the top and heated air introduced at the bottom. The towers are cylindrical with cone bottoms and range in size from 4 to 7 meters (12 to 24 feet) in diameter and 12 to 38 meters (40 to 125 feet) in height. The detergent granules are conveyed mechanically or by air from the tower to a mixer to incorporate additional dry or liquid ingredients, and finally to packaging and storage. Soap Manufacture Soaps and detergents are widely used in our society. Soaps are the product of the reaction between a fat and sodium hydroxide: fat + 3NaOH glycerine + 3 soap

Soap is produced industrially in four basic steps. This article lists different steps because in the industrial processes described each of these is done over several process steps, but in principle it could be done in the three steps outlined here. Step 1 - Saponification A mixture of tallow (animal fat) and coconut oil is mixed with sodium hydroxide and heated. The soap produced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. Step 2 - Glycerine removal Glycerine is more valuable than soap, so most of it is removed. Some is left in the soap to help make it soft and smooth. Soap is not very soluble in salt water, whereas glycerine is, so salt is added to the wet soap causing it to separate out into soap and glycerine in salt water. Step 3 - Soap purification Any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralised with a weak acid such as citric acid and two thirds of the remaining water removed. Step 4 - Finishing Additives such as preservatives, colour and perfume are added and mixed in with the soap and it is shaped into bars for sale.

Detergents are similar in structure and function to soap, and for most uses they are more efficient than soap and so are more commonly used. In addition to the actual 'detergent' molecule, detergents usually incorporate a variety of other ingredients that act as water softeners, free-flowing agents etc.

Figure 2.2.-1 Continuous process for fatty acids and soap

Figure Manufacture of spray-dried detergent

The Colgate-Palmolive Process This is a continuous process (Figure 1) which uses a plant built by Binacchi & Co. The process is best understood in terms of two streams: soap flowing in the order given below against a counter-current of lye. Step 1 - Saponification The raw materials are continually fed into a reactor in fixed proportions. Assuming a production rate of 1000 kg wet soap per hour and a 80:20 tallow:coconut oil mix, the raw materials would be fed in at the following rates: coconut oil tallow 525.9 kg hr-1 131.5 kg hr-1

50% NaOH solution 101 kg hr-1 The basic chemical reaction by which soap is pro- duced is still the same today as that used thousands of years ago. Soap are salts of long chain fatty acids. A common soap is sodium stearate. The most abundant source of fatty acids is fats and oils. These like all esters can be hydrolysed to produce their alcohol and carboxylic acid. ESTER+WATER<=>ALCOHOL+ CARBOXYLIC ACID glyceryl tristearate + water <=> glycerol + stearic acid This reaction is catalysed by either H+(aq) ions or OH-(aq) ions. If an alkali such as sodium hydroxide is used in the hydrolysis the sodium salt of the acid is formed instead of the carboxylic acid. This prevents the reaction reversing. The hydrolysis of fats by boil- ing with alkali is known as saponification. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of an ester. The soap and the glycerol are separated by adding a concentrated salt solution (brine) to the mixture. The glycerol dissolves in the brine but the soap is in- soluble and forms a solid on top of the brine. This process is known as salting out. 2.Soapless Detergents Soaps have been used for washing for thousands of years but they always had one disadvantage. If used in hard water, i.e. water containing dissolved minerals such as Ca2+ or Mg2+, they produced an insoluble scum. Soapless detergents have similar structures to soaps but are manufactured from aromatic hydrocarbons obtained from crude oil. They wash just as efficiently as soap but they do not produce scum with hard water.

The aromatic hydrocarbons are first reacted with very concentrated sulphuric acid and the product is then neutralised with sodium hydroxide

3. Cleansing Action Both soap and soapless detergents are examples of detergents, substances which have a cleansing ac- tion when added to water. These compounds are able to do this because of their structures.

These ingredients alone would give a low water, high glycerine soap. Soap needs to be about 30% water to be easily pumpable, and even then needs to be held at around 70oC, so excess lye is added to hydrate the soap and dissolve out some of the glycerine. The lye added is known as "half spent lye" and is the lye discharged from the washing column (see below). This lye already contains some glycerine, but it is further enriched by that formed in the saponification reaction. Step 2 - Lye separation The wet soap is pumped to a "static separator" - a settling vessel which does not use any mechanical action. The soap / lye mix is pumped into the tank where it separates out on the basis of weight. The spent lye settles to the bottom from where it is piped off to the glycerine recovery unit, while the soap rises to the top and is piped away for further processing. Step 3 - Soap washing The soap still contains most of its glycerine at this stage, and this is removed with fresh lye in a washing column. The column has rings fixed on its inside surface. The soap solution is added near the bottom of the column and the lye near the top. As the lye flows down the column through the centre, a series of rotating disks keeps the soap / lye mixture agitated between the rings. This creates enough turbulence to ensure good mixing between the two solutions. The rate of glycerine production is calculated and the rate at which fresh lye is added to the washing column then set such that the spent lye is 25 - 35 % glycerine. Glycerine is almost infinitely soluble in brine, but at greater than 35% glycerine the lye no longer efficiently removes glycerine from the soap. The soap is allowed to overflow from the top of the column and the lye ("half spent lye") is pumped away from the bottom at a controlled rate and added to the reactor. Step 4 - Lye separation The lye is added at the top of the washing column, and the soap removed from the column as overflow. As the lye is added near the overflow pipe the washed soap is about 20% fresh lye, giving the soap unacceptably high water and caustic levels. Separating off the lye lowers the electrolyte levels to acceptable limits. The soap and lye are separated in a centrifuge, leaving a soap which is 0.5% NaCl and 0.3% NaOH, and about 31% water. The lye removed is used as fresh lye. Step 5 - Neutralisation Although the caustic levels are quite low, they are still unacceptably high for toilet and laundry soap. The NaOH is removed by reaction with a weak acid such as coconut oil (which contains significant levels of free fatty acids), coconut oil fatty acids, citric acid or phosphoric acid, with the choice of acid being made largely on economic grounds. Some preservative is also added at this stage. Step 6 - Drying Finally, the water levels must be reduced down to about 12%. This is done by heating the soap to about 125oC under pressure (to prevent the water from boiling off while the soap is still in the pipes) and then spraying it into an evacuated chamber at 40 mm Hg (5.3 kPa). The

latent heat of evaporation lost as the water boils off reduces the soap temperature down to 45oC, at which temperature it solidifes onto the chamber walls. The soap chips are scraped off the walls and "plodded" (i.e. squeezed together) by screws known as "plodder worms" to form soap noodles. The soap is now known as base or neat soap chip, and can be converted into a variety of different soaps in the finishing stages. The moisture evaporated off the wet soap is transported to a barometric condensor, which recondenses the vapour without the system losing vacuum. The moisture can contain soap dust (Fines) which is removed by cyclones and returned by augers to the spray chamber, while the water is recycled. Base soap can also be made by a batch process such as that used by Lever Rexona. The Lever Rexona Process This process is summarised in Figure 2. Step 1 - Oil preparation The oils used most commonly are, as in the Colgate-Palmolive process, tallow and coconut oil. These are blended together and dried in a vacuum chamber. Once the oils are dry, bleaching earth is sucked by the vacuum into the chamber to remove any coloured impurities. The spent earth is landfilled and the oils stored ready for saponification. Step 2 - Saponification The mixture of bleached oils is mixed with spent lye from the washing stage (see below) and a caustic soda solution. The mix is heated and then left to settle into two layers. The neutral lye (which is now rich in glycerine) is pumped off and the mixture of soap and unreacted oils which has risen to the top is left in the pan. More caustic liquor is added to this and the mix reheated to saponify the remaining free oils. Step 3 - Washing The crude soap is then pumped to a divided pan unit (DPU) where it is washed by a countercurrent of lye. This lye is a mixture of fresh brine solution and nigre lye (see below). The washed soap comes out the far end of the DPU and is sent to the fitting pans, while the lye comes out the near end and is pumped back into one of the saponification pans. Step 4 - Fitting Here the remaining unwanted glycerine is removed from the soap by reboiling with water, NaCl and a small amount of NaOH solution. The electrolyte concentration in the water is such that the soap and water to separate out into two layers. The top layer is 'neat' wet soap, which is pumped off to be dried. The bottom layer is known as the 'nigre' layer, and consists of a solution of soap, glycerine and NaCl. This is left in the pan, reboiled with further salt and left to stand, forming a soap crust over a lower layer of nigre lye (salt and glycerine). This soap is left in the pan and is mixed with the next intake of washed soap, while the nigre lye is pumped back to the DPUs to wash the next batch of crude soap. Step 5 - Drying Moisture is flashed off under vacuum in the same manner as was described above for the Colgate-Palmolive process.

oil mix

Vacuum dryer bleaching earth Glycerine Oil bleaching spent lye Saponification pan wet soap and unreacted oils NaOH boiling crude soap NaOH neutral lye Glycerine recovery

fresh lye

fresh lye

Divided pan unit

lye

fresh lye NaOH Fitting pan wet soap nigre nigre lye

Soap drying soap chips

Plodder worms

Soap noodles

Figure 2 - The Lever Rexona soap manufacturing batch process

Laundry or 'hard' soap manufacture The base soap is mixed with colour and preservatives and milled. Perfume is then added and the mixture plodded then extruded into a continuous bar. This, in turn, is cut into billets and stamped out into tablets ready for packaging. Toilet soap manufacture Toilet soap has less water and more fatty material (fatty acids and soap) than laundry soap. For this reason base soap intended for toilet soap manufacture usually has extra fatty acids added with the preservatives before it is vacuum dried. These ensure that there is no unreacted caustic left in the soap by the time it reaches the consumer, and also make the soap softer. Perfume, dye and opacifier are then added to the dried soap and the mixture milled to ensure even mixing. It is then plodded and extruded out as a continuous bar, cut into billets and stamped ready for packaging and sale. THE DETERGENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS Detergents use a synthetic surfactant in place of the metal fatty acid salts used in soaps. They are made both in powder and liquid form, and sold as laundry powders, hard surface cleansers, dish washing liquids, fabric conditioners etc. Most detergents have soap in their mixture of ingredients, but it usually functions more as a foam depressant than as a surfactant. Detergent powder manufacture Step 1 - Slurry making The solid and liquid raw ingredients (Table 2) are dropped into a large tank known as a slurry mixer. As the ingredients are added the mixture heats up as a result of two exothermic reactions: the hydration of sodium tripolyphosphate and the reaction between caustic soda and linear alkylbenzenesulphonic acid. The mixture is then further heated to 85oC and stirred until it forms a homogeneous slurry. Step 2 - Spray drying The slurry is deaerated in a vacuum chamber and then separated by an atomiser into finely divided droplets. These are sprayed into a column of air at 425oC, where they dry instantaneously. The resultant powder is known as 'base powder', and its exact treatment from this point on depends on the product being made. Step 3 - Post dosing Other ingredients are now added, and the air blown through the mixture in a fluidiser to mix them into a homogeneous powder. Typical ingredients are listed in Table 3.

Solids Ingredient Sodium tripolyphsophate (STP) Sodium sulphate Soap noodles Function Water softener, pH buffer (to reduce alkalinity). Bulking and free-flowing agent. Causes rapid foam collapse during rinsing. Water softener (absorbs Ca2+ and Mg2+) in contries where STP is not used; granulating agent for concentrated detergents. Increases the negative charge on cellulosic fibres such as cotton and rayon, causing them to repel dirt particles (which are positively charged). Liquids Function Ingredient Linear alkylbenzene sulphonic acid (LAS) Caustic soda solution Coconut diethanolamide or a fatty alcohol ethoxylate Fluorescer Surfactant - the main active ingredient

Zeolite

Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose

Neutralises the LAS. Nonionic detergent and foam former. Absorbs UV light and emits blue light, causing ageing cotton to appear white rather than yellow. Dissolves the various ingredients, causing them to mix better.

Water

Liquid detergent manufacture Step 1 - Soap premix manufacture Liquid detergent contains soap as well as synthetic surfactants. This is usually made first as a premix, then other ingredients are blended into it. This step simply consists of neutralising fatty acids (rather than fats themselves) with either caustic soda (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide. Step 2 - Ingredient mixing All ingredients except enzymes are added and mixed at high temperature. The ingredients used in liquid detergent manufacture are typically sodium tripolyphosphate, caustic soda, sulphonic acid, perfume and water. The functions of these ingredients has been covered above. Step 3 - Enzyme addition The mixture is cooled and milled, and the enzymes added in powder form. Ingredient Soda ash (anhydrous Na2CO3) Function Keeps the pH at 9.0-9.5. This ensures optimum detergent function. Also forms insoluble carbonates with Ca and Mg, so acts as a water softener. Bleaches stains without damaging colour-fast dyes. Sodium perborate breaks down at high temperatures to release H2O2, which functions this way. Catalyses sodium perborate breakdown at low temperatures. Alkaline protease breaks down proteins in the alkaline conditions created by soda ash, helping to remove stains. Create a more asthetically pleasing product.

Bleach (usually sodium perborate NaBO3) Bleach activator (e.g. tetraacetylethylenediamine) Enzymes (e.g. alkaline protease) Colour and perfume

ANCILLIARY PROCESSES Glycerine recovery As has already been stated, glycerine is more valuable than the soap itself, and so as much of it as possible is extracted from the soap. This is done in a three step process. Step 1 - Soap removal The spent lye contains a small quantity of dissolved soap which must be removed before the evaporation process. This is done by treating the spent lye with ferrous chloride. However, if any hydroxide ions remain the ferrous ions react with them instead, so these are first removed with hydrochloric acid: HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O The ferrous chloride is then added. This reacts with the soap to form an insoluble ferrous soap: FeCl2 + 2RCOONa 2NaCl + (RCOO)2Fe This precipitate is filtered out and then any excess ferrous chloride removed with caustic: 2NaOH + FeCl2 Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl This is filtered out, leaving a soap-free lye solution. Step 2 - Salt removal Water is removed from the lye in a vacuum evaporator, causing the salt to crystallise out as the solution becomes supersaturated. This is removed in a centrifuge, dissolved in hot water and stored for use as fresh lye. When the glycerine content of the solution reaches 80 - 85% it is pumped to the crude settling tank where more salt separates out.

Step 3 - Glycerine purification A small amount of caustic soda is added to the crude glycerine and the solution then distilled under vacuum in a heated still. Two fractions are taken off - one of pure glycerine and one of glycerine and water. The glycerine thus extracted is bleached with carbon black then transferred to drums for sale, while the water/glycerine fraction is mixed with the incoming spent lye and repeats the treatment cycle. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS Soap is designed as a product to be used once then flushed down the drain, so as expected the environmental implications of its manufacture are not nearly so great as many other chemical processes. There are two main areas of concern: the safe transport and containment of the raw materials, and the minimisation of losses during manufacture. The three main components of soap by both cost and volume are oils, caustic and perfumes. Oils and perfume are immiscible in water and if spilled create havoc, although the oils do solidify at room temperature. Transport of these products is by trained carriers, and the systems for pumping from the truck to storage tanks is carefully designed. Perfumes are bought in lined steel drums which are quite robust, and flammable perfumes are not used in soaps. All storage tanks are surrounded by bunds to catch the contents of a tank should it rupture or a valve fail. When the storage system is designed, all the safety features (such as access to tank and valves) are designed in, as well as procedures to deal with the product should it end up in the bunded area. Within the plant, all the process areas are also bunded, and the trade waste from there piped to an interception tank before draining to the council's trade waste system. The contents of the interception tank are continuously monitored for acidity or alkalinity, and is designed to settle out excess solids or light phase chemicals. If a spill is detected in the plant itself, a portion of the interception tank can be isolated off and the effects of the spill neutralised before the waste is dumped. In most cases, however, potential problems are identified and stopped before they happen. Often an off-spec product can be reprocessed and blended rather than dumped, and even washout water can be reprocessed to minimised the discharges from the plant. Finally, the manufacturing process itself is closely monitored to ensure any losses are kept to a minimum. Continuous measurements of key properties such as electrolyte levels and moisture both ensure that the final product is being made to spec, and ensures the manufacturing process is working as it was designed to. Hence the losses in the plant will indirectly be minimised because the process itself is being monitored. Synthetic detergent biodegradability There has recently been a strong move away from the environmentally hazardous biologically stable detergents used in the past to biodegradable ones. The sulphonic acid and nonionic detergents used in New Zealand to produce both liquid and powder detergents are fully biodegradable and comply with the relevant Australian standard. The sulphonic acid is made from a highly linear alkylbenzene, mainly dodecylbenzene, and the nonionics are ethoxylated long chain alcohols. The sodium lauryl ether sulphates also used in liquid

detergents and shampoos are highly biodegradable, being made from either natural or synthetic linear C12 - C15 alcohols. Phosphates from detergent products used in New Zealand are independently monitored and have been found to not be an environmental hazard. Detergent powder Detergent powder manufacture has some specific environmental issues associated with it that are not present in other areas of the industry. These are dust control and volatile organic emissions. Dust present during delivery and transfer of bulk powdered detergent (and powdered raw materials) is a potential problem. Dry and wet cyclones are used to filter out most of the dust, and all emissions are monitored. If the dust level in these does exceed acceptable limits, appropriate remedial action is taken. Dust levels in emissions must be kept below 50 mg m-3. The spray drying tower also releases volatile organics. These emissions are minimised by having tight specifications on what can be added as primary detergent active material. Any potentially hazardous material is added with the secondary actives after the tower so that it is not heated. Spot checks are done on the total hydrocarbon content of the exhaust gases using a flame ionisation detector. ROLE OF THE LABORATORY The laboratory monitors the formulation and specification of products from raw material to finished goods. Many soaps are formulated locally, and the laboratory tests a range of formulations for stability and manufacturing practicality. The trial formulations are aged in a warm oven to simulate a couple of years of shelf life, then checked for perfume loss or alteration, base odour, colour stability and any general rancidity. Formulations are also constantly checked for cost effectiveness, and soaps are frequently reformulated for cost and supplier considerations. When a new formula has been agreed the laboratory will lay down the specifications that the finished soap and its intermediary stages must meet. These could be colour, odour, moisture or electrolyte concentrations, or the concentrations of impurities or additives. These specifications are also constantly being revised as the production equipment is improved, or consumer demands change. The laboratory lays down all the specifications for raw materials to be purchased against. These specifications become the basis for the supplier to quote against. The materials are constantly tested against these specifications, either on a shipment basis or supplier's batch size. In some cases the manufacturing plant is inspected and approved, and if the supplier can validate their process then the need for many routine or expensive tests can be reduced or eliminated. In most cases quality testing is performed at the process, by the process operators. The laboratory hold samples of every batch of finished goods for twelve months, so that if there are any consumer complaints, an original sample can be tested against the defect sample to determine the cause of the complaint. Tests carried out on some particular products are listed below.

Batch process soap The incoming tallow and coconut oil are tested for colour (after bleaching) and free fatty acid content. The neat liquid soap is tested for free alkali, salt content and glycerol content, while the soap chips are tested to moisture and fatty acid content. Detergent powder On-line tests are continuously carried out on density and moisture. The laboratory also tests for the concentrations of active detergent, sodium tripolyphosphate, moisture, soda ash, enzymes and bleach, and monitors physical properties such as dynamic flow rate, compressibility, particle size, colour and perfume. Liquid detergent The product is typically tested for viscosity, pH, cationic detergent (fabric conditioner) content, enzyme content, conductivity (a measure of detergent stability), colour and perfume.

EMISSIONS AND CONTROLS Soap Manufacturing Emissions and Controls The main atmospheric pollution problem in soap manufacturing is odor. The storage and handling of liquid ingredients (including sulfonic acids and salts) and sulfates are some of the sources of this odor. Vent lines, vacuum exhausts, raw material and product storage, and waste streams are all potential odor sources. Control of these odors may be achieved by scrubbing exhaust fumes and, if necessary, incinerating the remaining volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Odors emanating from the spray dryer may be controlled by scrubbing with an acid solution. Blending, mixing, drying, packaging and other physical operations may all involve particulate emissions. The production of soap powder by spray drying is the single largest source of dust in the manufacture of synthetic detergents. Dust emissions from other finishing operations can be controlled by dry filters such as baghouses. The large sizes of the particulate from soap powder operations means that high efficiency cyclones installed in series can achieve satisfactory control.

Detergent Manufacturing Emissions and Controls The exhaust air from detergent spray drying towers contains two types of air contaminants: 1) fine detergent particles and 2) organics vaporized in the higher temperature zones of the tower. Dust emissions are generated at scale hoppers, mixers, and crutchers during the batching and mixing of fine dry ingredients to form slurry. Conveying, mixing, and packaging of detergent

granules can also cause dust emissions. Pneumatic conveying of fine materials causes dust emissions when conveying air is separated from bulk solids. For this process, fabric filters are generally used, not only to reduce or to eliminate dust emissions, but also to recover raw materials. The dust emissions principally consist of detergent compounds, although some of the particles are uncombined phosphates, sulfates, and other mineral compounds. Dry cyclones and cyclonic impingement scrubbers are the primary collection equipment employed to capture the detergent dust in the spray dryer exhaust for return to processing. Dry cyclones are used in parallel or in series to collect this particulate and recycle it back to the crutcher. The dry cyclone separators can remove 90 percent or more by weight of the detergent product fines from the exhaust air. Cyclonic impingement scrubbers are used in parallel to collect the particulate from a scrubbing slurry and to recycle it to the crutcher. Secondary collection equipment is used to collect fine particulates that escape from primary devices. For example, cyclonic impingement scrubbers are often followed by mist eliminators, and dry cyclones are followed by fabric filters or scrubber/electrostatic precipitator units. Several types of scrubbers can be used following the cyclone collectors. Venturi scrubbers have been used but are being replaced with packed bed scrubbers. Packed bed scrubbers are usually followed by wet-pipe- type electrostatic precipitators built immediately above the packed bed in the same vessel. Fabric filters have been used after cyclones but have limited applicability especially on efficient spray dryers due to condensing water vapor and organic aerosols binding the fabric filter. In addition to particulate emissions, volatile organics may be emitted when the slurry contains organic materials with low vapor pressures. The VOCs originate primarily from the surfactants included in the slurry. The amount vaporized depends on many variables, such as tower temperature and the volatility of organics used in the slurry. These vaporized organic materials condense in the tower exhaust airstream into droplets or particles. Paraffin alcohols and amides in the exhaust stream can result in a highly visible plume that persists after the condensed water vapor plume has dissipated. Opacity and organics emissions are influenced by granule temperature and moisture at the end of drying, temperature profiles in the dryer, and formulation of the slurry. A method for controlling visible emissions would be to remove offending organic compounds (i.e., by substitution) from the slurry. Otherwise, tower production rate may be reduced thereby reducing air inlet temperatures and exhaust temperatures. Lowering production rate will also reduce organic emissions.

Table

(Metric And English Units). DETERGENT SPRAY DRYINGa

PARTICULATE EMISSION FACTORS FOR

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: Eb

Particulate Control Device Uncontrolled (SCC 3-01-009-01) Cyclone Cyclone with: Spray chamber Packed scrubber Venturi scrubber Wet scrubber Wet scrubber/ESP Packed bed/ESP Fabric filter 92 95 97 99 99.9 99
c

Efficiency (%) NA

kg/Mg of Product 45

lb/ton of Product 90 14 7 5 3 1.09 0.046 0.94 1.1

85

7 3.5 2.5 1.5 0.544 0.023 0.47 0.54

99

THE SOAP AND DETERGENT ASSOCIATION PRINCIPLES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The members of The Soap and Detergent Association are committed to the enhancement of human health and quality of life through the responsible formulation, production and sale of cleaning products and ingredients. The members of The Soap and Detergent Association will strive to meet the following commitments to advance human health and environmental quality, social well-being, and economic growth. The Association will support its members in meeting these commitments. Human Health / Environmental Sustainability To only market products that have been shown to be safe for humans and the environment, through careful consideration of the potential health and environmental effects, exposures and releases that will be associated with their production, transportation, use and disposal. To promote transparent communication of safety and handling information across the chain of commerce To support basic research to resolve uncertainties around human and environmental safety when they arise. To obey the spirit and intent of all national laws and regulations. Social Sustainability

To contribute to a better quality of life for our consumers, business partners, employees and the communities in which we operate. To develop products and ingredients that effectively deliver claimed benefits. To promote the safe use of our products with the public. To support societys efforts to enhance public health and well-being through improved hygiene and sanitation.

To maintain a high level of product stewardship throughout the chain of commerce. To operate our manufacturing facilities with due regard to the health and safety of our employees, the communities in which we operate and the wider environment. Economic Sustainability To contribute to economic growth, including the economic success of the industrys shareholders, employees and communities. To innovate to improve products both in terms of performance and environmental impact.

MARKET The market for washing soap is encouraging even in tribal areas. People can now willing to use washing soap as they are recognising importance of cleaning.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS The mixed oils are taken in a pan and heated to approximately 70 degrees centigrade. Caustic soda solution is added for sapomofication reaction. Soap is formed, builders like sodium silicate soap stone, talc, etc are added when the sapomofication is over. Though mixing of the material is made colour all perfumes are added. Finally, the soap is transferred to rames at all levels to settle down. The wet soap is taken out of the frames, cut into bars, stamped and packed.

PRODUCTION CAPACITY PER ANNUM Capacity Selling Price PROJECT COST/CAPITAL INVESTMENT S.No Description 1 Fixed Capital 2 Working Capital for 3 Preliminary & Preoperative Expns Total Project Cost MEANS OF FINANCE S.No Description 1 Promoter Contribution 2 Subsidy /Soft Loan 3 Term Loan Total

Rs.

330 MT 2500 per MT

month(s)

Amount Rs. 73000 61800 10000 144800

%age 15% 20% 65%

Amount Rs. 21720 28960 94120 144800

FINANCIAL ASPECTS A. FIXED CAPITAL i. Land and Buildings ii. Machinery and Equipment

Rented

Rs. 1200

per month

S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Description Boiling kettle hemispherical - 200 kg cap. Stirrer/ladder Soap cooling frame Soap cutting machine Soap stagging machine Chemical laboratory Electrification and installation Furniture and fixtures Miscellaneous expenses Total

Qty. 1 2 12 1 1 LS LS LS LS

Rate Amount Rs. 20000 20000 2500 5000 1000 12000 2000 3000 3000 3000 20000 3000 5000 2000 73000

B. WORKING CAPITAL

i. Salaries & Wages (per month) S.No Description 1 Supervisor cum chemist/Entrepreneur 2 Skilled worker 3 unskilled worker Total ii. Raw Material (per month) S.No Description 1 Oils, fats, fatty acids, rice bran, oil, rosin, tobacco seed oil, etc 2 Caustic soda 3 Sodium silicate and miscellaneous chemicals Total iii. Utilities (per month) S.No Description 1 Power 2 Water Total

Nos. 1 1 1

Sal/mon. Amount Rs. 2500 2500 2000 2000 1500 1500 6000

Unit kgs kgs kgs

Qty. 1100 170 1100 2370

Rate 25 20 15

Amount Rs. 27500 3400 16500 47400

Unit LS LS

Amount Rs. 1500 700 2200

iv. Other Expenses (per month) S.No Description 1 Postage & Stationery Expenses 2 Transportation Expenses 3 Advertisement Expenses 4 Consumeble Stores 5 Repairs and mainteannce 6 Miscellaneous Expenses Total v. Total Working Capital (per month) S.No Description 1 Rent 2 Salaries and Wages 3 Raw Material 4 Utilities 5 Other Expenses Total COST OF PRODUCTION (PER ANNUM) S.No Description 1 Total Working Capital 2 Depreciation @ 3 Interest @ Total TURNOVER (PER YEAR) S.No Description 1 Washing Soap Total FIXED COST (PER YEAR) S.No Description 1 Depreciation 2 Interest 3 Rent 4 Salaries & Wages @ 5 Other Expenses incl. Utilities @ Total

Amount Rs. 500 1000 1000 500 1000 1000 5000

Amount Rs. 1200 6000 47400 2200 5000 61800

15% 12%

Amount Rs. 741600 10950 11294 763844

Unit MT

Qty. 330

Rate Rs. Amount Rs. 2500 825000 825000

40% 40%

Amount Rs. 10950 11294 14400 28800 34560 100004

PROFIT ANALYSIS & RATIOS 1 2 3 4

References Soaps and Detergents

Net Profit Percentage of Profit on Sales Percentage of Return on Investment Break Even Point

Rs.

61156 7% 42% 62%