Important Stu From Physics 442

Vector Identities:
Vector derivatives (gradient, divergence, and curl):
f ; F ; F : know what they mean.
Laplacian Operator:

2
f = f
Vector Identities:
(1)
A (BC) = B (CA) = C (AB)
(2)
A(BC) = B(A C) C(A B)
(3)
(fg) = f(g) +g(f)
(4)
(A B) = A(B) +B(A) + (A )B+ (B )A
(5)
(fA) = f A+A (f)
(6)
(AB) = B (A) A (B)
(7)
(fA) = f(A) A(f)
(8)
(AB) = (B )A(A )B+A( B) B( A)
Second derivatives:
(9)
(A) = 0
(10)
f = 0
(11)
(A) = ( A)
2
A
1
Chapter 7
Ohms Law:
J = (E+v B) ; V = IR ; P = V I = I
2
R
where is the conductivity, related to the resistivity by = 1/. Somtimes the symbol is used in place of for the
resistivity. The resistivity has units of m.
Electromotive Force:
=
_
F
q
ds
Faradays Law:
=
dN
B
dt
; E =
B
t
;
_
E dl =
d
dt
_
B nda
Motional Emf:
= v B L
Lenzs Law:
When a magnetic change is made, emfs are induced that oppose the change.
Self Inductance:
L =
N
I
; = L
dI
dt
Mutual Inductance
M
12
=

12
I
2
; M
12
= M
21
;
1
= M
dI
2
dt
Energy Stored in Inductive Circuits:
U =
1
2
LI
2
Magnetic Energy Density:
u =
1
2
B H =
B
2
2
Magnetic Diusion Coecient:
D =
1

[units of length
2
per time]
Displacement Current:
J
D
=
E
t
; I
D
=

t

_
E da
Maxwells Equations:
E =

; B = 0
E =
B
t
; B = J +
E
t

o
= 4 10
7
T m/A ;
o
= 8.854 10
12
C/V m
2
D and H:
D =
0
E+P = E ; H =
B

0
M =
B

Boundary Conditions:
[E

] =
f
; [B

] = 0
[E

] = 0 ; [
_
B

_
] = K
f
where
f
is the free surface charge per area and where K
f
is the free surface current per length.
Charge and Energy Conservation:
J +

t
= 0 ; S +
u
t
= J E
where
u =
1
2
(E
2
+
B
2

) [J/m
3
] ; S =
EB

[W/m
2
]
A and V :
B = A ; E = V
A
t
Lorentz Gauge and Wave Equations:
A =
V
t
;
2
A

2
A
t
2
= J ;
2
V

2
V
t
2
=

Momentum Density:
p
V olume
= S
Maxwell Stress Tensor (pressure and tension):
T
ij
= (E
i
E
j

1
2

ij
E
2
) +
1

(B
i
B
j

1
2

ij
B
2
)
Time-Dependent Circuits
Loop Rules:
1. The voltage dierence V along a connecting wire is taken to be zero.
2. When you traverse a battery, or some other source of emf, in the direction that it tries to pump current, write down
V = . (1)
If you traverse it opposite to its pumping direction write
V = . (2)
3. If you traverse a capacitor from its negative side to its positive side write
V = Q/C ; (3)
3
if you traverse it from plus to minus write
V = Q/C ; (4)
4. If you traverse a resistor in the direction of the current ow through it write
V = IR ; (5)
if you traverse it opposite to the current write
V = IR . (6)
5. If you traverse an inductor in the direction of the current ow through it write
V = L
dI
dt
; (7)
if you traverse it opposite to the current write
V = L
dI
dt
. (8)
6. At a current junction, incoming current must equal outgoing current.
Circuit Energy Formulas:
U
E
=
1
2
CV
2
; U
B
=
1
2
LI
2
; P

= I ; P
R
= I
2
R
Undriven LRC Circuit:
I(t) = Ae
Rt/2L
cos (

t +) ;

=
_
1
LC

R
2
4L
2
Steady State AC Circuits (ELI the ICEman):
V (t) = V
o
cos t ; X
L
= iL (V leads I) ; X
C
=
1
iC
(I leads V)
The complex impedance Z of a circuit is obtained by treating inductors and capacitors as if they were resistors in
the network. To interpret the meaning of Z it must be put in magnitude-phase form and used as follows:
Z = |Z|e
i
; I =
V
o
Z
=
V
o
|Z|
e
i
|I| =
V
o
|Z|
, I(t) =
V
o
|Z|
cos (t )
Useful Identities:
e
i
= cos +i sin ; cos =
e
i
+e
i
2
; sin =
e
i
e
i
2i
RMS Quantities and Average Power:
A
rms
=
A
peak

2
; < P >=< V (t)I(t) >= R < I
2
>=
1
2
RI
2
peak
4
Chapter 8
Wave Equation in a Linear Medium:

2
E

2
E
t
2
= 0 ;
2
B

2
B
t
2
= 0
Solutions of the 1-d Wave Equation:

2
f
x
2

1
v
2

2
f
t
2
= 0 ; f(x, t) = g(x vt) +h(x +vt)
Standard Sinusoidal Wave Functions:
f(x, t) = Ae
i(kxt)
; E(r, t) = E
0
e
i(krt)
; B(r, t) =
k

E(r, t)
Energy Density, Poynting Flux, Intensity, Momentum Density:
U =
1
2
_

0
E
2
+
1

0
B
2
_
; S =
EB

0
; I =< S > ; P =
S
c
2
Disperson Relation and Index of Refraction n:
=
kc
n()
=
k
_
()
n =

()

0
Reection and Transmission at Normal Incidence:
E
R
=
_
n
1
n
2
n
1
+n
2
_
E
I
; E
T
=
_
2n
1
n
1
+n
2
_
E
I
; R =
I
R
I
I
=
_
n
1
n
2
n
1
+n
2
_
2
; T =
I
T
I
I
= 1 R
Electromagnetic Waves in a Conductor:
J = E ; k
2
=
2
+i ; k = k
+
+ik

; skin depth : d =
1
k

poor conductor ( ) : k
+

, k

2
_

; good conductor ( ) : k
+
k

2
Reection and Transmission from a Conductor (normal incidence):
E
R
=
_
1
1 +
_
E
I
; E
T
=
_
2
1 +
_
E
I
;
where
=
ck
conductor

; k
2
conductor
=
2
+i
Phase and Group Velocities:
v
p
=

k
; v
g
=
d
dk
Deriving a Dispersion Relation:
5
Start with Maxwells curl equations in plane wave form:
k E = B ; k B = i
0
J
0

0
E
Then from somewhere else (Newtons second law, quantum mechanics, Ohms law, etc.) nd a relation between J and
E. (It is sometimes helpful in this regard to recall that current density and particle velocity are related by
J = qnv
where n is the number of particles of charge q per unit volume.) Use this relation to eliminate J from the plane-wave
Maxwells equations and re-express the right-hand-side of the curl-B equation in terms of a frequency-dependent dielectric
constant (). The electromagnetic dispersion relation is then just our old friend
=
k

Waveguide Guide: A and V

Wave Equations:

2
A
1
c
2

2
A
t
2
= 0 ;
2
V
1
c
2

2
V
t
2
= 0
Lorentz Condition:
A =
1
c
2
V
t
E and B:
E = V
A
t
; B = A
Boundary Conditions:
E

= 0 ; B

= 0
Dispersion Relation in Rectangular Coordinates:
It is the same for traveling, standing, or combined standing/traveling (waveguide) waves:

2
= (k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
)c
2
Rectangular Waveguide:
The wave guide is innitely long in the x-direction and goes from 0 to a in the y-direction and from 0 to b in the
z-direction.
Waveguide Waveform:
A(x, y, z, t) = A(y, z)e
i(k
x
xt)
; V (x, y, z, t) = V (y, z)e
i(k
x
xt)

x
= ik
x
and

t
= i
6
Two Mode Types
The rather complicated vector eigenvalue problem involved in waveguides turns out to be simpler than might have
been thought. There are two distinct types of solutions. One type has E
x
= 0, i.e., the mode electric eld only has
components perpendicular (or transverse) to the long axis of the wave guide. These are the TE modes. The second type
has B
x
= 0, i.e., the mode magnetic eld only has components perpendicular (or transverse) to the long axis of the wave
guide. These are the TM modes. If you work with E and B, this reduces the number of vector components you need to
nd from 6 to 5, but if you work with A and V , as we are doing here, it reduces the number from 4 to 2.
TE
mn
Modes (A
x
= 0 and V = 0):
The condition that E
x
= 0 turns out to require that A
x
= 0 and V = 0. Hence, we only have to nd A
y
(y, z) and
A
z
(y, z). Applying both the boundary conditions and the Lorentz gauge condition leads to
k
y
=
m
a
; k
z
=
n
b
and
A
y
= A
y0
cos
_
my
a
_
sin
_
nz
b
_
; A
z
= A
z0
sin
_
my
a
_
cos
_
nz
b
_
with
A
y0
m
a
+A
z0
n
b
= 0
This condition relates the two amplitudes, but does not determine the overall magnitude. This is determined by the
person who shoots the energy into the waveguide.
TE
0n
and TE
m0
Special Cases:
If you set either m = 0 or n = 0 in the amplitude relation above you will see that only one of the vector eld
components survives.
m = 0 : k
y
= 0 ; k
z
=
n
b
; A
y
= A
0
sin
_
nz
b
_
; A
z
= 0
n = 0 : k
y
=
m
a
; k
z
= 0 ; A
y
= 0 ; A
z
= A
0
sin
_
my
a
_
TM
mn
Modes (A
y
= 0 and A
z
= 0):
The condition that B
x
= 0 turns out to require that A
y
= 0 and A
z
= 0. Hence, we only have to nd A
x
(y, z) and
V (y, z). Applying both the boundary conditions and the Lorentz gauge condition leads to
k
y
=
m
a
; k
z
=
n
b
A
x
= A
0
sin
_
my
a
_
sin
_
nz
b
_
; V =
k
x
c
2

A
x
TM
0n
and TM
m0
Special Cases:
Setting m = 0 or n = 0 in the formula for A
x
makes the elds vanish, so m 1 and n 1 for TM modes.
TEM Mode:
In a completely hollow guide waves with both E = 0 and B = 0 parallel to the axis of the guide are impossible. But
with a conductor along the axis these waves are possible. Their dispersion relation is simply
= kc
with k parallel to the axis of the guide. The electric eld points outward from the central conductor and terminates
on the outer surface of the guide while the magnetic eld circulates around the central conductor and runs parallel to
7
the outer conductor. Hence, they are just about like free space waves with E, B, and k mutually perpendicular. In a
cylindrical guide (a coaxial cable) of radius a these waves are described in cylindrical coordinates by
k = k z ; E
r
= E
0
ae
i(kzt)
r
; B

=
E
0
c
ae
i(kzt)
r
where E
0
is the electric eld amplitude at r = a.
Chapter 9
Retarded Potentials and Retarded Time:
V (r, t) =
1
4
o
_
(r

, t
r
)
|r r

|
d

; A(r, t) =

o
4
_
J(r

, t
r
)
|r r

|
d

; t
r
= t
|r r

(t
r
)|
c
Electric Dipole Radiation, Spherical Coordinates:
If there is an oscillating dipole at the origin of spherical coordinates p(t) = p
0
kcos (t), then the radiation elds and
power it produces (far away from the dipole) are
E

=
p(t
r
)
4
0
c
2
_
sin
r
_
; B

=
E

c
; P =
1
4
0
_
2
3
_
p
2
(t
r
)
c
3
where t
r
is the retarded time, t
r
= t r/c and where the double-dot means
2
/t
2
. The average radiated power is
< P >=
1
4
0
_
1
3
_

4
p
2
0
c
3
.
Note that P is the instantaneous power through a distant sphere while < P > is the average power through the same
distant sphere.
If the radiation source is a non-relativistic particle, in the power formulas above use p = q| w(t)| = qa, where w(t) is
the vector position of the particle and a is the magnitude of the acceleration vector of the particle, e.g.,
< P >=
1
4
0
_
1
3
_
q
2
a
2
c
3
.
Griths Chapter 10 (Relativity):
The Basics:
There are two frames: the unprimed frame is stationary while the primed frame moves with speed v along the x-axis.
If a variable is primed, it indicates that it was measured in the moving frame. Unprimed variables indicate quantities
measured in the stationary frame.
=
v
c
; = 1/
_
1
2
velocity addition : V
AC
=
V
AB
+V
BC
1 +V
AB
V
BC
/c
2
; time dilation : t = t

; length contraction : x = x

/
Lorentz Transformation:
x

= (x vt) (9)
y

= y (10)
z

= z (11)
t

= (t vx/c
2
) (12)
(13)
The inverse transformation is easy: just un-prime the left side, prime the right side, and change v to v.
Four-Vector Formulation:
8
Relativity is elegantly described by combining space and time (and other physical quantities) into 4-vectors. The
space-time 4-vector is
contravariant : (x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (ct, x, y, z) ; covariant : (x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) = (ct, x, y, z)
In this formulation the Lorentz transformation involves the following rank-2 tensor (matrix):

=
_

_
0 0
0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_

_
Using this tensor and the space-time 4-vector the Lorentz transformation is
x

=0

(matrix multiplication)
Other useful 4-vectors, which all transform exactly the same as x

are:
proper velocity :

dx

d
= (
c
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
u
x
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
u
y
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
u
z
_
1 u
2
/c
2
)
energy momentum : p

= (
mc
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
mu
x
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
mu
y
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,
mu
z
_
1 u
2
/c
2
)
charge density current : J

= (

o
c
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,

o
u
x
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,

o
u
y
_
1 u
2
/c
2
,

o
u
z
_
1 u
2
/c
2
)
where proper time is time as measured in the frame of a moving particle and where
o
is the charge density the frame
where locally the current density J is zero. In the cases of momentum and current, these are not just formal denitions.
It is the 4-energy and the 4-momentum that are conserved in collisions and are governed by Newtons second law; and it
is the 4-charge density and the 4-current that go into Maxwells equations to give E and B in the inertial frame where
the equations are being used. Hence we usually forget about the proper velocity and just write
p

= (E/c, p
x
, p
y
, p
z
) ; J

= (c, J
x
, J
y
, J
z
)
Again: these quantities transform between moving inertial frames just like the x

4-vector.
Lorentz Invariants:
As transformations between dierent inertial frames are made using the 4-vector formulation there is a scalar quantity
whose value never changes. For any 4-vector a

this invariant quantity is

(a
0
)
2
+ (a
1
)
2
+ (a
2
)
2
+ (a
3
)
2
, e.g., for 4 momentum : E
2
p
2
c
2
= const = m
2
c
4
Relativistic Kinematics (Collisions):
In collisions and disintegrations the relativistic momentum and energy are conserved. The conservation of momentum
and energy coupled with the invariant relation E
2
p
2
c
2
= m
2
c
4
makes it possible to nd conditions after a collision in
terms of conditions before.
Relativistic Dynamics:
Newtons second law retains its validity in mechanics, provided that it is the relativistic momentum that is used for
p:
F =
dp
dt
Note that F in this equation is just the force we are used to. For instance, in the case of a particle in an electromagnetic
eld
F = qE+qu B
9
To solve problems with this equation, solve for the momentum p, then use the denition of the components of p in
terms of u to nd the particle velocity. Except in simple cases this last step is a nightmare.
The transformation law for forces is a little complicated in general, but in one special case it is simple. If the particle
is momentarily at rest in the unprimed frame and the force on it is observed from a moving primed frame then
F

=
1

; F

= F

Relativistic Electrodynamics:
As pointed out above, charge density and current get mixed together as we transform between frames, with
(c, J
x
, J
y
, J
z
) transforming as a 4-vector. The 4-vector formulation also makes the continuity equation take a par-
ticularly simple form:

t
+ J = 0
J

Just like and J, the elds E and B also get mixed together, but they dont transform like 4-vectors. Instead E and
B form a rank-2 tensor (matrix). This formulation is hard to use in practical problems, so the Lorentz transformations
for the usual case of a frame moving in the x-direction at speed v will be given separately for each component.
E

x
= E
x
E

y
= (E
y
vB
z
) E

z
= (E
z
+vB
y
)
B

x
= B
x
B

y
= (B
y
+vE
z
/c
2
) B

z
= (B
z
vE
y
/c
2
)
The Electromagnetic Field Tensor:
The electric and magnetic elds t into the 4-formulation of relativity as components of two rank-2 4-tensors, F

and G

:
F

=
_

_
0 E
x
/c E
y
/c E
z
/c
E
x
/c 0 B
z
B
y
E
y
/c B
z
0 B
x
E
z
/c B
y
B
x
0
_

_
G

=
_

_
0 B
x
B
y
B
z
B
x
0 E
z
/c E
y
/c
B
y
E
z
/c 0 E
x
/c
B
z
E
y
/c E
x
/c 0
_

_
Maxwells Equations:
The 4-form of Maxwells equations is particularly elegant.
F

=
o
J

;
G

= 0
In spite of their elegance, the equations are so cryptically packaged that except for fundamental theoretical work they
are not used much.
The Potentials V and A in Relativity:
The scalar potential and the vector potential also (surprise) form a 4-vector:
A

= (V/c, A
x
, A
y
, A
z
)
In terms of A

Maxwells equations are even more compact than they are in terms of F

and G

. Using the Lorentz

guage the connections between the elds and the potentials becomes symbolically very simple
B = A ; E = V
A
t
F

=
A

The Lorentz gauge becomes symbolically simple:

A =
o
V
t

A

= 0
10
And nally, if we dene a special symbol (the dAlembertian) for the wave-equation operator, which looks particularly
elegant in the 4-formulation,

1
c
2

t
2
=

x

2
2
then Maxwells equations in terms of V and A can be written in the most compact form of all:
2
2
A

=
o
J

11