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Plant Reproductive Biology

Plant animal interaction

What is pollination?
The transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma Why is pollination important?
Sexual reproduction
important for evolution produces variable offspring, creating diversity and variation among populations (shuffling of genes) for Natural Selection to occur advantageous to an organism only if it happens with someone other than itself!
Outbreeding good inbreeding >>>>> homozygous plants

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Path in pollination process

Inbreeding
1. autogamy (in the same flower) & 2. geitonogamy (between flowers in one individu) Selective advantage: ensures propagule production Disadvantage: reduced to absent genetic variability allautogamy: both outcrossing & inbreeding e.g., Viola, Clarkia: two flower types: chasmogamous flowers - normal, open cleistogamous flowers - remain closed

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Strategies to avoid self-pollination

Perfect flowers have both male and female organs, so plants have strategies to avoid selfpollination Outbreeding = outcrossing / allogamy / xenogamy
1. Timing male and female structures mature at different times 2. Morphological structure of male and female organs prevents self-pollination (imperfect flower, heterostily) 3. Biochemical chemical on surface of pollen and stigma/style that prevent pollen tube germination on the same flower (incompatible)

Difference in timing of floral parts = dichogamy 1. protandry - male first 2. protogyny - female first

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Morphology
Spatial separation of anthers and stigmas = hercogamy, heterostyly

Tristyly

Other mechanisms used by bisexual flowers to avoid self-fertilization: Genetic self-incompatibility S-genes

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self-incompatibility
SSI sporophytic self incompatibility
outcome of pollen tube and style interactions determined by the genotype of diploid sporophyte that produced the pollen pollen tube growth arrested on surface of stigma S-allele produced before completion of meiosis

GSI - Gametophytic SI
outcome of pollen tube and style interaction determined by the genotype of the pollen itself pollen tube growth arrested in the style S-allel produced after meiosis

How do plants get pollen from one plant to another?

Plants are rooted in the ground must use different strategies: WIND POLLINATION: Gymnosperms and some flowering plants (grasses, trees) use wind pollination. Flowers are small, grouped together not efficient (too chancy
and wasteful) flowers small, numerous, often unisexual perianth absent or non-showy

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Gymnosperms rely on wind to move pollen from male to female cones

The ovule exudes sap to trap pollen

Angiosperms have formed many partnerships with animals to move their pollen

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Co-evolution
Animal plant partnerships are the best known cases of co-evolution: mutual evolutionary influence Co-evolution interactions between two different species as selective forces on each other, resulting in adaptations that increase their interdependency. Animal-flowering plant interaction is a classic example of coevolution:
1. Plants evolve elaborate methods to attract animal pollinators 2. Animals evolved specialized body parts and behaviors that aid plant pollination

Some flowers provide nurseries for their pollinators offspring

Figs and fig wasps

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Why do animals pollinate plants?

Pollinator will get a REWARD: food! In exchange for moving their pollen to another flower Nectar a sugary solution produced in special flower glands called nectaries
Nectar concentration matches energy requirements of the pollinator: bird- and bee-pollinated flowers have different sugar conc.

Pollen is high in protein, some bees and beetles eat it.

Flowers can produce two kinds of pollen: a normal and a sterile, but tasty, kind, for the insect.

Nectary gland

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Definition
Nectaries are structure that usually located within the base of the flower (floral nectaries) or on other portions of the plant (extrafloral nectaries) A multicellular glandular structure secreting nectar. Found in flowers and on vegetative parts in some species of plants, often forming projections, lobes, or disk-like structures.

Floral Nectar
The sweet fluid used to attract insect pollinators. The composition of nectar varies among plant species. Floral glands produce nectar which is energy-rich food for animal pollinators. Pollinator visits flower due to attracted showy petals (visual attractant) or scent (olfactory attractant) The secretion of nectar is usually under developmental control beginning when the flowers open.
After pollination, the nectar is frequently resorbed Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators

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Floral nectar in Petunia and Nicotiana

Some flowers provide food (e.g., nectar or pollen) to their pollinators

Honey bee collecting pollen and nectar

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Some flowers provide food (e.g., nectar or pollen) to their pollinators

Kigelia africana sausage tree

Nectar is usually presented together with attractive structures, e.g., showy petals and fragrances

Night Blooming Cirrus

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Getting the pollinators attention

Plants advertise their pollen and nectar rewards with
Colors bees see blue, yellow, UV; while birds see red. Bats dont see well, so flowers are white. Nectar or honey guides a visual guide for pollinator to locate the reward (pansy flower) Aromas for insects, nectar. Can also be carrion or dung smell flys pollination

Petals sometimes exploit the sensory capabilities of pollinators nectary guide

Ultraviolet patterns

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Wax or resin reward

Collected and used by female bees for nest construction Found in Maxillaria and Cymbidium; poorly studied

Maxillaria notylioglossa

Waxy resin crystals

Oil reward flowers

Oils (triacyl glycerides) produced on surface of flowers, often in specialized glands-elaiophores. Oils are collected by female anthophorid bees; used to provision nest (food for larvae) Many orchids mimic Malpighiaceae

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Cyrtochilum
With oil gland (elaiophore)

Scents
Insects have great sense of smell may be pleasant or foul to humans but not to insect Carrion flower smells like rotten flesh and attract flies (ex. Rafflesia)
flies lay eggs, pick up pollen and move on to next flower looking to lay more eggs and spreading pollen eggs never survive as it isnt really poop

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carrion
maroon / brown in color, foul smelling (like rotting flesh)

Plant Mimicry
Some plants take advantage of the sex drive of certain insects floral fragrance mimicry of sexual pheromones of pollinators Usually visual, tactile mimicry, too Has evolved repeatedly in several different orchid groups
Certain orchids look like female wasps, and even smell like them! Males try to mate with them, and in the process they pollinate the plant The orchid gets pollinated, but the male wasp only gets frustrated!

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Some flowers trick their pollinators

Bucket Orchid

Some flowers trick their pollinators

Calochilus paludosa

Bee Orchid

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