Desertification - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Desertification
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Desertification is the degradation of land in any dryland.[2] It is caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human activities. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem.[3]

Contents
1 Definitions 2 History 3 Areas affected 4 Stages 5 Causes 6 Poverty 7 Countermeasures and prevention 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External links

Global Desertification Vulnerability Map

Definitions
Considerable controversy exists over the proper definition of the term "desertification" for which Helmut Geist (2005) has identified more than 100 formal definitions.[2] The most widely accepted[2] of these is that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defines it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture"[4] The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comit d'Etudes commissioned a study on desschement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.[5]
Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image, with the actual lake in blue. The lake has shrunk by 95% since the 1960s.[1]

History
The world's great deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.[6] Desertification has played a significant role in human history, contributing to the collapse of several large empires, such as Carthage, Greece, and the Roman Empire, as well as causing displacement of local populations.[3][7][8]

Areas affected
Drylands occupy approximately 40-41% of Earths land area[10][11] and are home to more than 2 billion people.[11] It has been estimated that some 10 20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by

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desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometres, that about 1 6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.[12][13] The Sahara is currently expanding south at a rate of up to 48 kilometers per year.[14]
Sun, Moon and Telescopes above the Desert.[9]

Stages
As the desertification takes place, the landscape progresses through different stages and continuously transforms in appearance. The desertification generally creates increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "tiger fur pattern". A mathematical model has been made of it by Sjors van der Stelt.[15] Besides explaining the process of desertification, the model is also useful for developing methods to combat it (see also: Alternative stable state).[16]

Causes
Dryland ecosystems are already very fragile, and can rarely sustain the increased pressures that result from intense population growth. Many of these areas are inappropriately opened to development, when they cannot sustain human settlements.[17] The most common cause of desertification is the over cultivation of desert lands.[18] Over-cultivation causes the nutrients in the soil to be depleted faster than they are restored. Improper irrigation practices result in salinated soils, and depletion of aquifers.[17] Vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil. Studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.[19] Overgrazing removes this vegetation causing erosion and loss of topsoil.[17]
A herd of goats in Norte Chico, Chile. Overgrazing of drylands is one of the primary causes of desertification.

Poverty
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing nations, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions.[12] This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.[20] A downward spiral is created in many underdeveloped countries by A shepherd guiding his sheep through the overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater in many of high desert outside of Marrakech, the marginally productive world regions due to overpopulation pressures Morocco. to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalisation of these zones.When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.[21] Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas, particularly in Africa. These migrations into the cities, often cause large numbers of unemployed people who end up living in slums.[22][23]

Countermeasures and prevention

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Techniques exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, however there are numerous barriers to their implementation. One of these is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial.[citation needed] Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs.[24] Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna.[25]
[26]

Anti-sand shields in north Sahara, Tunisia.

Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and isn't just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations[27] work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme poverty. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.[28] Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa.

Jojoba plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the Thar Desert, India.

Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as za or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops.[29] Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants. Of these, the Leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fixes it in the soil, and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.[30] As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt-flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi-Arabia. These salt-flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.[31] Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned tress can be used to provide mulching for fields thusincreasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Banks BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.[32]

See also
Aridification Deforestation Oasification Terraforming Water crisis

Mitigation:

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Desert greening Arid Lands Information Network - Kenya Ecological engineering Green Wall of China Biochar Fertilisation using carbon

References
1. ^ Mayell, Hillary (April 26, 2001). "Shrinking African Lake Offers Lesson on Finite Resources" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/04/0426_lakechadshrinks.html) . National Geographic News. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/04/0426_lakechadshrinks.html. Retrieved 20 June 2011. 2. ^ a b c Geist (2005), p. 2 (http://books.google.com/books?id=acbWdynlU3cC&pg=PA2) 3. ^ a b Geist (2005), p. 4 (http://books.google.com/books?id=acbWdynlU3cC&pg=PA4) 4. ^ Google Dictionary (2012) (https://www.google.com.sg/search?sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=define% 3Adesertification#hl=en&q=desertification&tbs=dfn:1&tbo=u&sa=X&ei=HWuXTGGL8_NrQeTvq26AQ&ved=0CCwQkQ4&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=83aa6ed19b0ba29e&biw=1440&bih=809) 5. ^ Mortimore, Michael (1989). Adapting to drought: farmers, famines, and desertification in west Africa (http://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12) . Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-52132312-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=Dx89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA12. 6. ^ United States Geological Survey, "Desertification" (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/) , 1997 7. ^ Whitford, Walter G. (2002). Ecology of desert systems (http://books.google.com/books? id=OZ4hZbXS8IcC&pg=PA277) . Academic Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-12-747261-4. http://books.google.com/books? id=OZ4hZbXS8IcC&pg=PA277. 8. ^ Bogumil Terminski (2011), Towards Recognition and Protection of Forced Environmental Migrants in the Public International Law: Refugee or IDPs Umbrella, Policy Studies Organization (PSO), Washington. 9. ^ "Sun, Moon and Telescopes above the Desert" (http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1218a/) . ESO Picture of the Week. http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1218a/. Retrieved 30 April 2012. 10. ^ Bauer (2007), p. 78 (http://books.google.com/books?id=mR3E4xJFNw0C&pg=PA78) 11. ^ a b Johnson et al (2006), p. 1 (http://books.google.com/books?id=da6vhzHEpf0C&pg=PA1) 12. ^ a b Holtz (2007) (http://www.unccd.int/cop/cop8/docs/parl-disc.pdf) 13. ^ World Bank (2009). Gender in agriculture sourcebook (http://books.google.com/books? id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454) . World Bank Publications. p. 454. ISBN 978-0-8213-7587-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=XxBrq6hTs_UC&pg=PA454. 14. ^ Hunger is spreading in Africa (http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0801/p01s02-woaf.html) 15. ^ Sjors van der Stelt (http://www.cwi.nl/news/2012/mathematics-helps-predict-desertification) 16. ^ Straw squares method: planting with empty spaces in between plants to combat desertification (http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,15182754,00.html) 17. ^ a b c Ci, Longjun & Yang, Xiaohui (2010). Desertification and Its Control in China (http://books.google.com/books? id=agd8MFDYLXEC&pg=PA10) . Springer. p. 10. ISBN 978-7-04-025797-7. http://books.google.com/books? id=agd8MFDYLXEC&pg=PA10. 18. ^ Mares, Michael S., ed. (1999). "Middle East, deserts of" (http://books.google.com/books? id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&pg=PA362) . Encyclopedia of deserts. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 362. ISBN 978-0-8061-3146 -7. http://books.google.com/books?id=g3CbqZtaF4oC&pg=PA362. 19. ^ Geeson, Nichola et al (2002). Mediterranean desertification: a mosaic of processes and responses (http://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58) . John Wiley & Sons. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-470-84448-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=G_0qg0f49GQC&pg=PA58. 20. ^ Dobie, Ph. 2001.Poverty and the drylands, in Global Drylands Imperative, Challenge paper, Undp, Nairobi (Kenya) 16 p. 21. ^ Cornet A., 2002. Desertification and its relationship to the environment and development: a problem that affects us all. In: Ministre des Affaires trangres/adpf, Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate: 91-125.. (http://www.csfdesertification.org/index.php/bibliotheque/doc_details/119-cornet-antoine-2002-desertification-and-its-relationship-to-theenvironment-and-development) 22. ^ Pasternak, Dov & Schlissel, Arnold (2001). Combating desertification with plants (http://books.google.com/books?id=Bi8-DPf6xgC&pg=PA20) . Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-306-46632-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=B-i8DPf6xgC&pg=PA20. 23. ^ Briassoulis, Helen (2005). Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification (http://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161) . Ashgate Publishing. p. 161. ISBN 9780-7546-4243-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA161. 24. ^ Briassoulis, Helen (2005). Policy integration for complex environmental problems: the example of Mediterranean desertification (http://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA237) . Ashgate Publishing. p. 237. ISBN 9780-7546-4243-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=CpYnV45hVRsC&pg=PA237. 25. ^ Techniques for Desert Reclamation by Andrew S. Goudie 26. ^ Desert reclamation projects (http://www.gsafweb.org/TrusteeNews/desertdevelopmen.html) 27. ^ For example, Eden Reforestation Projects (http://edenprojects.org/) .

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28. ^ This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/". 29. ^ Arid sandy soils becoming consolidated; zai-system (http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/09/soil/mann-text.html) 30. ^ List of plants to halt desertification; some of which may be soil-fixating (http://desertification.wordpress.com/3interesting-plant-species/) 31. ^ Rethinking landscapes, Nicol-Andr Berdell July 2011 (http://www.h2ome.net/en/2011/09/rethinking-landscapes105400/) H2O magazine 32. ^ http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/18/sprouting-trees-from-the-underground-forest-a-simple-way-to-fightdesertification-and-climate-change/

Bibliography
Arnalds, lafur & Archer, Steve (2000). Rangeland Desertification (http://books.google.com/books? id=E7kaBkPlJfAC) . Springer. ISBN 978-0-7923-6071-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=E7kaBkPlJfAC. Barbault R., Cornet A., Jouzel J., Mgie G., Sachs I., Weber J. (2002). Johannesburg. World Summit on Sustainable Development. 2002. What is at stake? The contribution of scientists to the debate. Ministre des Affaires trangres/adpf. Bauer, Steffan (2007). "Desertification" (http://books.google.com/books?id=mR3E4xJFNw0C&pg=PA77) . In Thai, Khi V. et al. Handbook of globalization and the environment. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-57444-553-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=mR3E4xJFNw0C&pg=PA77. Batterbury, S.P.J. & A.Warren (2001) Desertification (http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/desertificationarticle.htm) . in N. Smelser & P. Baltes (eds.) International Encyclopdia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier Press. pp. 35263529 Geist, Helmut (2005). The causes and progression of desertification (http://books.google.com/books? id=acbWdynlU3cC) . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-4323-4. http://books.google.com/books? id=acbWdynlU3cC. Hartman, Ingrid (2008). "Desertification" (http://books.google.com/books?id=mNoW858izZcC&pg=PA312) . In Philander, S. George. Encyclopedia of global warming and climate change, Volume 1. SAGE. ISBN 978-14129-5878-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=mNoW858izZcC&pg=PA312. Hinman, C. Wiley & Hinman, Jack W. (1992). The plight and promise of arid land agriculture (http://books.google.com/books?id=dMmEjsySvrUC) . Colombia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-06612-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=dMmEjsySvrUC. Holtz, Uwe (2007) Implementing the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification from a parliamentary point of view - Critical assessment and challenges ahead (http://www.unccd.int/cop/cop8/docs/parl-disc.pdf) Johnson, Pierre Marc et al., ed. (2006). Governing global desertification: linking environmental degradation, poverty and participation (http://books.google.com/books?id=da6vhzHEpf0C) . Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978 -0-7546-4359-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=da6vhzHEpf0C. Lucke, Bernhard (2007): Demise of the Decapolis. Past and Present Desertification in the Context of Soil Development, Land Use, and Climate. Online at [1] (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:co1-opus-3431) Mensah, Joseph (2006). "Desertification" (http://books.google.com/books? id=3mE04D9PMpAC&pg=PA452) . In Leonard, Thomas M.. Encyclopedia of the developing world, Volume 1. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-97662-6. http://books.google.com/books? id=3mE04D9PMpAC&pg=PA452. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Desertification Synthesis Report (http://millenniumassessment.org//proxy/document.355.aspx) Moseley, W.G. and E. Jerme 2010. Desertification. In: Warf, B. (ed). Encyclopedia of Geography. Sage Publications. Volume 2, pp. 715719. Oliver, John E., ed. (2005). "Desertification" (http://books.google.com/books?id=mwbAsxpRr0C&pg=PA319) . Encyclopedia of world climatology. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-3264-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=-mwbAsxpRr0C&pg=PA319. Parrillo, Vincent N., ed. (2008). "Desertification" (http://books.google.com/books? id=mRGr_B4Y1CEC&pg=PT271) . Encyclopedia of social problems, Volume 2. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-41294165-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=mRGr_B4Y1CEC&pg=PT271. Reynolds, James F., and D. Mark Stafford Smith (ed.) (2002) Global Desertification Do Humans Cause Deserts? Dahlem Workshop Report 88, Berlin: Dahlem University Press Stelt, Sjors van der (2012) Rise and Fall of Periodic Patterns for a Generalized Klausmeier-Gray-Scott Model, PhD Thesis University of Amsterdam UNCCD (1994) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (http://www.unccd.int/convention/text/convention.php) Attribution

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This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document "http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/deserts/desertification/".

External links
Beyerlin, Ulrich. Desertification (http://www.mpepil.com/sample_article?id=/epil/entries/law-9780199231690e1571&recno=5&) , Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law Taming The Yellow Dragon (http://www.koreaherald.co.kr/NEWKHSITE/data/html_dir/2009/08/26/200908260035.asp) Bell, Trudy; Phillips, Tony, Dr. (December 6, 2002). "City-swallowing Sand Dunes" (http://exploration.nasa.gov/articles/06dec_dunes.html) . NASA. http://exploration.nasa.gov/articles/06dec_dunes.html. Retrieved 2006-04-28. Desert Research Institute (http://www.dri.edu/) in Nevada, United States Environmental Issues (http://www.theenvironmentalblog.org/environmental-issues/) - Desertification in Africa, The Environmental Blog Desertification.Info - IOSD/CED^R Center on Ecological Desertification and Reforestation (http://www.desertification.info/) Eden Foundation article on desertification (http://www.eden-foundation.org/project/desertif.html) FAO Information Portal - Properties and Management of Drylands (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/drylands/index.htm) UNEP (2006): Global Deserts Outlook (http://www.unep.org/geo/gdoutlook/) UNEP Programme on Success Stories in Land Degradation/ Desertification Control (http://www.unep.org/desertification/successstories/) United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification - Secretariat (http://www.unccd.int/) A guide for desert and dryland restoration (http://www.desertrestore.org/) by David A. Bainbridge French Scientific Committee on Desertification (CSFD) (http://www.csf-desertification.org/english) News Fighting Desertification Through Conservation (http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=36750) Report on a project to stop the advance of the Sahara in Algeria - IPS, 27 February 2007 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Desertification&oldid=505267353" Categories: Environmental issues Geological history of Earth Environmental soil science This page was last modified on 1 August 2012 at 14:38. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

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