The Phylum Platyhelminthes Etymology:- From the Greek platy for flat and helminthes for worms, Hence

Flat Worms. Characteristics of Platyhelminthes:1)Bilaterally symmetrical. 2)Body having 3 layers of tissues with organs and organelles. 3)Body contains no internal cavity. 4)Possesses a blind gut (i.e. it has a mouth but no anus) 5)Has Protonephridial excretory organs instead of an anus. 6)Has normally a nervous system of longitudinal fibres rather than a net. 7)Generally dorsoventrally flattened. 8)Reproduction mostly sexual as hermaphrodites. 9)Mostly they feed on animals and other smaller life forms. 10)Some species occur in all major habitats, including many as parasites of other animals.

Platyhelminthes = Flatworms Platyhelminthes are an ancient phylum, but practically nothing is known of their evolutionary history because they have very soft bodies which do not preserve well as fossils. Scientists believe that the first turbellarians evolved around 550 MYA (million years ago). Platyhelminthes are mostly worm like creatures that are dorsoventrally flattened, meaning they look like a ribbon, this is why they are called names such as Tapeworm, Flatworm, Fluke and Planarian. The Platyhelminthes are a successful phylum with around 25,000 known species divided into four classes. Most Platyhelminthes are parasites on other animals, only the Turbellarians are mostly non-parasitic. A few species are commensalists living in harmony, or mutual benefit with another, normally larger organism. Most species feed on animal material either as parasites or as scavengers, a very few species feed on algae. Although a few of the free living marine and terrestrial species are very beautiful, most species are not particularly attractive to the human mind. Platyhelminthes live nearly everywhere, on land, in both fresh and marine waters as well as inside other animals. Most of the free living species are marine with only a small number inhabiting fresh water and very few being terrestrial. Parasitic species normally move between different habitats as they change life cycle stages and hosts. A number of parasitic species are of importance to mankind because they infect either our bodies or the bodies of our livestock. A few species can be fatal to humans if not treated, but nearly all species can be treated with modern medicines. Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) is the most important platyhelminth disease of humans, causing much suffering and some death, over 200 million people are infected with the causative agent in tropical countries. While they remain fairly morphologically simple the Platyhelminthes show several advance in body structure over the simple radial phyla that came before them. They have a definite congregation of of sensory organs(a few have light sensing organs) and nervous tissues at one end of their body giving them a distinct head and tail. They also have distinct upper and lower (dorsal and ventral) body surfaces. They have a number of organs and even the beginnings of organ systems and a more distinct 3rd layer of cells in their body plan. The evolution of this connective tissue, called parenchyma, the cells of which serve as storage reservoirs as well as protecting the internal organs, is a major step forward toward the more complex body plans of higher animals, such as humans. However they still no anus, instead they have only a blind ending gut, or no gut at all. Those species with a gut must therefore excrete there digestive waste products through their mouths. Classification The higher classification of the Platyhelminthes, is as with so many other groups, in a state of confusion, and there is little consensus of opinion among the experts. The scheme I have used here will suffice to break the phylum into smaller, more manageable groups and will be satisfactory for teaching at secondary levels providing some mention is made of the inherent disharmony in expert opinion. However if you are considering research work, or writing as an undergraduate you should seek out and read the latest scientific papers. There is a general consensus concerning the classes Turbellaria and Cestoda, however the Monogenea, Digenea

and the Aspidobothrians are somewhat confusing, you will find them all included in the Class Trematoda, and all given class status in their own right, and in schemes, like that which I have used here, that are a mixture of these two extremes.

The Turbellarians The Turbellaria are free living or commensal with larger animals, (it is possible a few species now thought to be commensals may actually be parasitic). There are about 3,000 known species of Turbellaria, most of which are marine. They are the most primitive of the Platyhelminthes, and as far as we know the other three classes of Platyhelminthes all evolved from the Turbellarians. Most species are marine and very small, some being less than 1 mm long, some even smaller than the larger protozoa. Most species are less than 5 mm long, though both the Tricladida and the Polycladida are often larger than this. The terrestrial forms include the largest species and the Greenhouse Planarian (Bipalium kewense) can reach a length of 60cm (2 feet). The Turbellarians contain all the visually attractive Platyhelminths, including the Gren house Planarian mentioned above which has 7 grey or green stripes along its otherwise yellow body. Among the more attractive species are a number of species of Prosthoceraeus such as P. vittatus from the English Channel, P. roseus from the Mediterranean. Other attractive species include Thysarozoon brocchii and the smaller, at 1.3 cm (0.5 in) Oligocladus sanguinolentus. Still very attractive but small enough that you really need to look at it down a low power microscope is the 2 mm Monocelis lineata There are 12 orders within the class Turbellaria and between them they show considerable variability however they all have certain features in common. These include a simple brain with a nerve net extending from it out to the body, have no blood system, no organs of gaseous exchange and can reproduce asexually as well as sexually. Sexually they hermaphrodites, meaning each animal is both male and female and that during copulation they exchange sperm. Here I will take a brief look at the more well know orders. The Acoela The Acoela are the simplest of the Turbellarians in that they lack intestines and oviducts. Thus they shed their eggs either through their skin, or out of their mouth. As adults they live in a sort of symbiosis with flagellated algae of the genus Chlamydomonas. The algae are eaten but not digested, so that they live in the body of the worm. The algae have a safe home and the Acoelan absorbs nutrients produced by them and thus they lose the need to eat at all and can survive without a digestive system. Before they reproduce the adults do digest their algal partners, and then after reproducing they die. Naturally enough the presence of the algae tends to make them appear green, and as they are dependant on sunlight for their energy and nutrients they can only live in shallow waters. A common European species isConvoluta convoluta. The Macrostomida The Macrostomids are noteworthy for a few reasons. Firstly they occur in both fresh and marine waters, in fact one species, Macrostomum appendiculatum can live in either habitat, which is very unusual.Another interesting species is Macrostomum lineare which will feed on the polyps of freshwater Cnidarians. When it does so it absorbs the Cnidarians nematocysts (stinging organs) and secretes them in its own skin so that they can protect it. M. linare is also one of the species in this group that can reproduce asexually by budding off new individuals from its tail end, sometimes several buds can form one after the other and you get chains of developing animals still attached to the the adult. The Polycladida The Polyclads are often attractive and colourful worms mostly limited to benthic (sea floor) marine environments, though a few planktonic (near the sea surface) species are less brightly coloured. Polyclads are distinguished by their having an extremely branched gut, a complicated set of sexual organs and an eversible pharynx(can be extended out from the body, though normally held within the body). Many species go through a free living larval stage. Some Polyclads, such as Stylochus zebra lives with Hermit Crabs inside their adopted snail shell are therefore commensals. Two other species that are well known to mankind are Stylochus pilidium from the Mediterranean and Stylochus frontalis from Florida USA. both these species are sometimes found as pests in commercial oyster beds.

The Tricladida Triclads are among the best known and most fully studied of the non-parasitic Platyhelminthes. They can be found in both marine and freshwater habitats and there are also a few terrestrial species which can be found in damp or very humid soils. Like the Polyclads, some species of Triclads live with other animals. In the waters around the USA Triclads of the genus Bdelloura can be found cling to the gills of Horse Shoe Crabs. Scientists are still unsure whether the relationship is a commensal one or a parasitic one. By far the best known and studied Triclads are the freshwater Planarians. They are common in many freshwater habitats and can occasionally be found in fish tanks where they are not much appreciated by fish breeders because they will feed on fish eggs. Personally I have always found them to be very attractive little animals and have kept in ceramic basins in my kitchen quite happily, as well as in my fish tanks. They are in fact easy to find, easy to keep and fun to watch. Like the closely related Polyclads they they have an eversible pharynx, but unlike the Polyclads they have only three branches to their gut, hence the 'Tri' rather than 'Poly' in their name. They tend to occupy a variety of habitats ranging from alpine streams to stagnant ponds, though you will find different species, and or different forms in the different habitats. The genus Dugesia is common in both Europe and North America. It can often be caught by searching the undersides of the leaves of aquatic plants, or by tying a small piece of steak to a length of string and lowering it into a pond or slow moving stream until it reaches the bottom. If Dugesia species are present they will soon be attracted to it and may remain attached to it by their pharynx if you pull the meat in slowly and then dunk it into a jar of clear water. Freshwater triclads are best known for their ability to regenerate after being damaged and to survive being mutilated. Some species will survive being cut into 3 parts, with each part growing into a new organism. Others have survived numerous mutilations such that they grow multiple heads and tails. Though it is amazing that they can do this, it is without doubt unpleasant for the animal to be chopped up, or mutilated and there is no real reason to let curiosity cause you to degrade your humanity by deliberately causing suffering to another living thing just so that you can see the results. You can find pictures in text books if you really want to see the evidence with your own eyes. More amazing yet is the fact that Dugesia deratocephala, a species which has sufficient eyesight to distinguish between black and white can be trained to navigate a simple t-maze. Further more if the trained animal is cut in half, the new animals that develop from both halves remember how to negotiate the maze. Even more amazingly it was found that if the trained animal was killed and fed to an untrained animal, the untrained animal acquired the ability to escape the maze. By further research scientists were able to learn that it was RNA and not DNA that the animal was using to remember the correct response, it was remembering with its whole body. The Temnocephalida The Temnocephalids are perhaps the most advanced group of the Turbellaria in terms of evolution. All the species in this group are either commensals or parasites. The European species Scutariella didactyla is a parasite on shrimps of the genus Trogocaris. It lives in their gills and sucks the shrimps body fluids out from the gill filaments. Class Monogenea The class monogenea is distinguished by most of its members being ectoparasite (meaning they live on the outside of their host's bodies), whereas Digeneans and Cestodes are all endoparasites (meaning they live inside the bodies of their hosts). In order to facilitate their parasitic life style the Monogeneans have complicated attachment organs at the posterior or tail end of their bodies, often including a mixture of suckers, clamps, hooks and spines. Those few species which are endoparasites do not normally venture deeply into their hosts tissues, but live instead in the cloaca or bladder. Monogeneans have an indirect life-cycle, meaning the always have more than one host species and th animal lives in separate hosts during different stages of its life. The host that the adult animal lives in is called the 'Primary' host, other hosts which are used by the juvenile stages are called 'Secondary' or 'Intermediate' hosts. Monogeneans normally have cephalopods (octopus and squid), fish,

amphibians, reptiles and cetaceans (whales) as their primary hosts and some smaller animal that the primary host eats as their intermediate host. An interesting Monogenean is the small Gyrodactylus elegans. This 1 mm long animal lives in the gills of European Carp, it is interesting to biologists because 4 succeeding generations of the animal appear to be born out of the one ova (egg). Each adult G. elegans eventually gives birth a single live young. This young animal contains with in it, in embryonic form, another young animal, which in turn contains another even smaller embryo which in turn contains yet another embryo. As they grow each one of these animals gives birth to the embryo within it. However they are not in fact four generations, but four sisters who all develop from a single egg. In this way the original mother can produce four young for the cost of only one as each sister down the line takes responsibility for nuturing the next young to be born. Another unique Monogenean is Diplozoon paradoxum which, though larger than G. elegans, is at 1 cm (0.4 in), still a smallish animal. Also a parasite of fish young members of this species do not become sexually mature until they meet another member of their species. They then achieve sexual maturity and mate, however unlike most animals they stay mated for life. The two animals form a permanent union, joined near their midsections they form a most unusual animal that looks like a cross with moveable arms. A third unusual example of a Mongenean is the Frog bladder Fluke Polystoma intergerrimum. This 13 mm (0.5 in) long animal is a parasite of frogs. It times its reproductive cycle to be in harmony with the frogs reproductive cycle. Thus the larval parasites live on the gills of the frogs tadpoles. When the frog goes through its metamorphosis and leaves the water the parasite also changes. It leaves the tadpole's gills and migrates through its digestive tract to the frog's cloaca, from there it moves to the frog's bladder. Here in a safe and still enjoyably moist environment it reaches maturity. Then it waits patiently for the frog to mature, this takes about three years. When the frog returns to the water to breed the parasite breeds as well, starting the cycle off all over again. Class Trematoda The class Trematoda contains two subclasses, one of which, the Digenea is a large and successful group with much economic importance to mankind. The second subclass is the Aspidogastrea which are a small group of absolutely no economic importance to mankind at all.

The Aspidogastrea The Aspidogastrea are an interesting group of about 80 species of parasitic Platyhelminths. They are are all aquatic and as far as we know they all have indirect life cycles, meaning they have more than one host species. Most species use some sort of mollusc or arthropod as the intermediate host and a vertebrate such as a fish or a turtle as the primary host. Some species however reach maturity in the invertebrate host, and it must be remembered that there are a number of species in this group that we know very little about. Aspidogastreans have more simple life cycles than their Digenean relatives as they lack the intermediate forms that make Digeneans so prodigious in terms of numbers of young resulting from one egg, for the Aspidogastreans one egg means one larvae and then one adult. They are mostly small animals ranging in size from 1 mm to several cm. They also tend lack much in the way of 'host specificity' meaning they can be infective to a wide range of hosts. They have a large posterior sucker which is used to attach to the host. Eggs are laid and pass out of the host animal with its faeces. In some species, such as Amphilina foliacea, the eggs do not hatch until they are eaten by the intermediate host. In others such as Austramphilina elongata they hatch in the water and the larvae swim around until they are able to infect a suitable, or sometimes unsuitable host. In some species such as Aspidogaster conchicola and Lobatostoma manteri the eggs are not laid until the larvae are nearly ready to hatch. The larvae can be either ciliated, in which case it normally has two rings of cilia (i.e. Multicotyle purvisi and Cotylogaster occidentalis) or it can be unciliated as inRugogaster hydrolagi and Multicalyx elegans .In the intermediate host the larvae grow a certain amount and then wait until the intermediate host is eaten by the primary host.

There is no real metamorphosis as far as is know, and preadult juveniles look much like the adults except that they are sexually immature. Sexually mature individuals are normally hermaphroditic, having two testes and a single ovary. Both the larva and the adult possess a very complex nervous system involving a brain and two sets of longitudinal nerve cords one below the surface and one surrounding the mouth cavity. These nerves are connected by a network of lateral nerves. The body contains a digestive system starting with a pharynx and including a short caecum, there are also two excretory bladders to allow the animal to get rid of metabolic wastes. All species examined possess a large number of sensory receptors with the species that have freeswimmingg larvae having the greatest number. For instanceMulticotyle purvisi possesses simple eyes while Lobatostoma manteri does not possess any eyes at all. Flukes = The Digenea The Digeneans are a large and successful group of parasites. There are about 6,000 species known to science. They all have complicated life cycles involving at least one intermediate host, which is normally an aquatic snail as well as the primary host which is normally a vertebrate. Digeneans as adults are flat worm shaped animals, the have two sucker. The first is the oral sucker, around the mouth, this has two functions, a) to hold the animal to its host and b) to assist in feeding. The second sucker is found a little way further down the animals body and it has only a single function, that of attachment. Tapeworms = Cestoda Cestodes or tapeworms are the most specialised of the Platyhelminthe parasites. All cestodes have at least one, and sometimes more than one, secondary or intermediate host as well as their primary host. While the intermediate hosts are often invertebrates of some sort, the primary host is normally a vertebrate. Having said this, in some cases both hosts are vertebrates, as in the common Beef Tapeworm Taenia saginatus, and in a few species their may be only a single host. A number of tapeworms include mankind in their life cycles but infection is not normally a serious health problem and can be cured. There are more than 1,000 species of tapeworms known to science, and nearly every species of vertebrate is liable to infection from at least one species of tapeworm.

The mature Cestode always lives in the hosts intestines where it can obtain all its food for free. Cestodes have evolved to have no digestive system of their own, they simple absorb nutrients from their hosts guts. To aid this process the entire surface of their body is covered with microscopic wrinkles or projections which greatly increase the surface area available for the absorption of nutrients. They have no need to travel and therefore have no locomotor organs, i.e no external cilia. Their excretory and nervous systems are similar to other Platyhelminthes. The traditional adult tapeworm is little more than a head with a complicated set of hooks to hang on with and a continuously produced series of reproductive segments behind this. The Class Cestoda is divided into two subclasses, the Cestodaria and the Eucestoda. The Eucestoda contains all the animals we usually think of as tapeworms. The Cestodaria contains only a few species of unusual worms, their bodies are unsegmented and roughly oval in shape, they have only one set of reproductive organs and the larvae have 10 hooks for attachment. The class Eucestoda contains very few species that do not conform to the standard tapeworm body plan. The larvae have 6 attachment hooks. The adult body consists of a head, called a 'Scolex' which is distinguished by the presence of suckers and hooks, though the hooks may be absent as in Taenia saginatus. Because they live in darkness there are no eyes, and because they do not feed in the usual manner there is no mouth. Behind the scolex is a band of rapidly growing material that produces an endless series of reproductive segments called 'Proglottids'. The proglottids contain both male and female reproductive organs, making the tapeworms hermaphrodites. The male organs mature before the female ones. In some species such as the Fish Tapeworm (Diphyllobothrium latum)can reach 20 metres in length, contain 3,000 proglottids and produce millions of eggs every day.

Within the Subclass Eucestoda those species which infect mankind can be found in two orders, Pseudophyllidea and Cyclophyllidea which can be recognised by their different life cycles, see diagrams below.

The disease that results from a human being infested or infected with Cestodes or Tapeworms is called 'Cestodiasis'. There are two forms of Cestodiasis called 'Larval Cestodiasis' and 'Adult Cestodiasis' depending on whether or not it is the adult or larval stage of the tapeworm that is living in the humans body. Adult Cestodiases of Mankind Scientific Name Diphylllobothrium latum Taenia saginata Taenia solium Hymenolepis nana Site of Infection Small Intestine Small Intestine Small Intestine Small Intestine Distribution Argentina, Europe, Japan, Siberia, Great Lakes area USA Everywhere Everywhere Everywhere

Larval Cestodiasis occurs in mankind in three forms: 1) Sparganosis which is caused by Plerocercoid larvae of Cestodes from the genus Spirometra; 2) Cysticercosis which is caused by Cysticercus larvae of the Pork Tapeworm Taenia solium; 3) Echinococcosis or Hydatid Disease which is caused by Hydatid Cyst larvae of Echinococcus granulosus. In all three cases mankind is not the normal host and is only occasionally infected. Never-the-less, despite the uncommon occurrence of infection they are all fairly important diseases

because the affects on the human host can be quite serious. Hydatid disease in particular, is a problem because in many cases the infestation can not be treated either by Chemotherapy (Medicines) or Surgery. Adult Cestodiasis in humans is both far more common and far less pathogenic (makes people less ill). Only heavy infestations are able to cause physical damage (of the gut wall), and possible blockage of the intestines. The most serious possibility is for people infected with Taenia solium, because under poor sanitary conditions it is possible for them to become infected by the Cestode eggs from their own faeces, this then results in them having Larval Cestodiasis as well i.e. Cysticercosis. The Phylum Mollusca

Etymology:- From the Latin Molluscus meaning soft of body. Characteristics of Mollusca:1)Bilaterally symmetrical. 2)Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs. 3)Body without cavity. 4)Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus. 5)Body monomeric and highly variable in form, may possess a dorsal or lateral shells of protein and calcareous spicules. 6)Has a nervous system with a circum-oesophagal ring, ganglia and paired nerve chords. 7)Has an open circulatory system with a heart and an aorta. 8)Has gaseous exchange organs called ctenidial gills. 9)Has a pair of kidneys. 10)Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic. 11)Feed a wide range of material. 12)Live in most environments.

Introduction After the Arthropods the Molluscs are the most successful of the animal phyla in terms of numbers of species. There are about 110,000 species known to science most of which are marine. They occupy a vast range of habitats however both aquatic and terrestrial, from the arctic seas to small tropical streams and from valleys to mountainsides 7,000 metres high, there are a few adapted to live in deserts and some are parasitic. They also exhibit an enormous range in size, from species which are almost microscopic to the largest of all invertebrates the giant squid which can weighs 270 kg and measures up to 12 metres long in the body, with tentacles as much as another 50 metres in length. Many species are common and many more a beautiful. Most species secrete a shell of some sort, these shells are long lasting and have been collected by human beings for thousands of years, some of these shells, and the pearls which come from oysters, which are also molluscs may be among the earliest forms of money. Most molluscs are marine. Molluscs are very ancient organisms believed to have evolved from a flatworm like ancestor during the Precambrium about 650 million years ago. Because many species secrete a shell of some sort the fossil record is good. Different classes of molluscs have been predominant in the past and the Ammonites represent a group of Cephalopods which were extremely abundant for millions of years before they became extinct. There close relatives the Nautiloid cephalopods were also once very successful but are now only represented in the world by one species, Nautilus. Molluscs, because of their ease of capture, edibility and beauty have long been important to mankind. Molluscs of many sorts are eaten by humans Abilone, Clams, Cockles, Muscles, Octopus, Oysters, Periwinkles, Scallops, Snails, Squid, Whelks, Winkles and many more are all molluscs and all make there contribution to the human diet. Mankind has been deliberately culturing molluscs as food for a long time and the earliest known records of someone farming molluscs for food come from Rome where one Sergius Orata bred oysters.

Mollusc shells have also had a long history of usage by mankind, many have been used as decorations, or as a substance to carve into cameos and buttons. In North America Tusk shells on the west coast and Cockles on the East supplied the basis of a system of money, in many tropical countries the shells of coweries were until recent times used extensively in trade. Pearls, which arise in oysters as a result of the oysters attempts to cover up a grain of sand within its mantle, have been and still are much sort after. The 'mother of pearl' used to make pearl buttons comes from bivalve shells and so great was the market for it that the Mississippi and Missouri river basins have been seriously over collected and the bivalves are now quite scarce. In ancient times the city of Tyre was famous for its purple dye, this dye was made from a marine mollusc called Murex sp. while Sepia, a brown pigment used by artists was, perhaps still is, made from the ink of Cuttlefish. Not all the interactions between man and molluscs are to man's benefit however, slugs and snails are, in some places, serious pests of of crops, and are often a nuisance in peoples gardens. Wooden ships and wharves can be destroyed by burrowing bivalves such as Teredo navalis, known as ship worms, which weaken the timbers until they collapse or fall apart. General Anatomy Although the original ancestor of the molluscs is lost in the dawn of time scientists have theorised that the original mollusc arose from a flatworm (Platyhelminth) like organism, the similarities are listed in table 1. Table 1. Comparison of similarities of Molluscs and Turbellarian Platyhelminthes Characteristic Externally ciliated. Movement by cillial gliding or ventral muscular wave. Possession of mucous glands. Intracellular digestion. Cuticle absent. Setae absent. Molluscs Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Turbellarian Platyhelminth Yes Yes No, but Rhabdites very similar Yes Yes Yes

Though the modern molluscs show quite a wide degree of adaptable variability in form, there are several basic anatomical characteristics that can be found in all or most of them. The body is divided into two functional regions, the head-foot and the visceral lump. The head-foot is the part you see most easily in slugs and snails. It is mostly a muscular organ covered in cilia and rich in mucous cells, which the mollusc uses to move around, it normally tapers to a tail at one end and has a head incorporated in the front. The head includes a mouth, eyes and tentacles, the last two may be much reduced or even absent. In those species with shells the head-foot can be drawn into the shell. The rest of the body is the visceral mass, this is entirely nonmuscular and contains the organs of digestion and reproduction, it includes the gonads, the kidney, the heart and the digestive diverticulum.

Attached to the dorsal surface of the visceral mass is and hanging freely down the sides of it is the mantle, often called the skirt or pallium. There is a space between the mantle and the viseral mass, this space is greatest towards the rear of the animal where it is called the mantle cavity or the pallial cavity. The mantle cavity generally contains the gills or ctenidia, a water current, generated by beating cillia, enters the mantle cavity at the sides, passes over the gills and departs centrally, i.e. the outward bound current runs out between the two inward bound currents. Near the head, just behind the mouth is a pair or more of ganglia and a nerve ring from which two nerve chords arise that reach out through the body. Molluscs are true coelomic animals, though the coelom they have is small, enclosing only the gonads and the heart where it is called the gonodial cavity and the pericardial cavity respectively. This then is the plan of a basic unevolved mollusc. This basic plan is changed and adapted, for the requirements of different lifestyles, almost beyond recognition in some of the 6 classes of Mollusca. Hopefully I will get something written about each class in the not too distant future. The Classes of Phylum Mollusca Amphineura Neopilina galatheae Monoplacopho Chitons ra Cowries, Limpets, Slugs Gastropoda and Snails Scaphopoda Tusk Shells Bivalves = Muscles, Clams Bivalvia etc. Nautilus, Octopus and Cephalopoda Squid 4 Phylum Porifera Sponges

Sponges belong to Phylum Porifera. They have no organs or true tissues, and even their cells show a certain degree of independence. As sessile animals with only negligible body movement, they have not evolved a nervous system or sense organs and have only the simplest of contractile elements. So, although they are multicellular, sponges share few of the characteristics of other metazoan phyla. They seem to be outside the line of evolution leading from the protozoans to the other metazoans a deadend branch. It is for this reason that they are often called the Parozoa.

4.1 characteristics

a. Multicellular; body a loose aggregation of cells of mesenchymalorigin b. Body with pores (ostia), canals, and chambers that serve for passage of water c. Mostly marine, all aquatic d. Radial symmetry or none e. Epidermis of flat pinacocytes; most interior surfaces lined with flagellated collar cells (choanocytes) that create water currents; a gelatinous proteinmatrix called mesohyl (mesoglea ) contains amebocytescollencytes and skeletal elements f. Skeleton of calcareous or silicious crystalline spicules, protein spongin, or a combination g. No organs or true tissues; digestion intracellular, excretion and respiration by diffusion h. Reactions to stimuli apparently local and independent; nervous system probably absent i. All adults sessile and attached to substratum j. Asexual reproduction by buds or gemmules and sexual reproduction by eggs and sperm; free-swimming ciliated larvae

4.2 Form and function

4.2.1 Body wall structure

The body wall has an outer layer of epithelial cells or pinacocytes and an inner layer of choanocytes. Sponge body wall: pinacocyte mesoglea myocyte spincule

spongin fiber amoebocyte scleroblast spincule

archeocyte () collencyte () spongioblast choanocyte () spongin fiber

4.2.2 Types of canal system

The bodies of sponges bear myriads of tiny pores and canals that comprise a filter-feeding system adequate for their inactive lifestyle, for they are sessile animals. They depend on the water currents carried through their unique canal systems to bring them food and oxygen and to carry away their body wastes. Types of canal system:

a.

Asconoids: Flagellated spongocoels

Asconoid sponges have the simplest organization. They are small and tube shaped. Water enters through microscopic dermal pores into a large cavity called a spongocoel, which is lined with choanocytes. Choanocyte flagella pull water through the pores and expel it through a single large osculum.

Ostium ----- central cavity ----- osculum

b. Syconoids flagellated canals Syconoid sponges look somewhat like larger editions of asconoids, from which they were derived. They have a tubular body and single osculum, but the body wall, which is thicker and more complex than that of asconoids, contains choanocyte-lined radial canals that empty into the spongocoel. Thespongocoel in syconoids is lined with epithelial-type cells rather than flagellated cells as in asconoids. Water enters through a large number of dermal ostiainto incurrent canals and then filters through tiny openings called prosopyles into the radial canals. There food is ingested by the choanocytes, whose flagella force the water through internal pores (apopyles) into the spongocoel. From there it emerges through an osculum. Syconoids do not usually form highly branched colonies as asconoids do. During development, syconoid sponges pass through an asconoid stage; then flagellated canals form byevagination of the body wall. Their development provides evidence that syconoid sponges were derived from asconoid ancestral stock. Syconoids are found in classes Calcarea and Hexactinellida. Sycon is a commonly studied example of the syconoid type of sponge. Ostium ----- incurrent canal ----- prosopyle ----- radial canal ----- apopyle ----- central cavity ----- osculum

C. Leuconoids flagellated chambers Leuconoid organization is the most complex of the sponge types and permits an increase in sponge size. Most leuconoids form large masses with numerousoscula. Clusters of flagellated chambers are filled from incurrent canals and discharge water

into excurrent canals that eventually lead to the osculum. Most sponges are of the leuconoid type, which occurs in most Calcarea and in all other classes. Ostium ----- incurrent canal ----- prosopyle ----- flagellated chamber ----- apopyle--------- osculum excurrent canal ----- central cavity

4.2.3 Type of skeletons

The skeleton gives support to the sponge, preventing collapse of the canals and chambers. Calcareous sponges: crystalline calcium carbonate (1, 3, or 4 rays ) Demospongiae () ----- siliceous spicules (1, 2, or 4 rays ) spongin fibers Glass sponges: siliceous spicules (6 rays)

4.3 Sponge physiology

a. intracellular digestion. b. there are no respiratory or excretory organs; both functions are apparently carried out by diffusion in individual cells. c. All the life activities of the sponge depend on the current of water flowing through the body.

4.4 Reproduction

Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by means of bud formation and by regeneration following fragmentation. External buds, after reaching a certain size, may become detached from the parent and float away to form new sponges, or they may remain to form colonies. Internal buds, or gemmules, are formed in freshwater sponges and some marine sponges. a. sexual reproduction b. asexual reproduction external buds internal buds ( gemmules ) In sexual reproduction most sponges are monoecious (have both male and female sex cells in one individual ). The gemmules are another means of surviving adverse conditions, and germinate when conditions improves. They are composed of a mass ofarchaeocytes rich in food reserves, and in fresh-water species possess a hard coat. Marine gemmules develop external flagella at one pole and after swimming for a time attach by the opposite pole and develop into young sponges.

Development of the sponge: Ovum ----- 8-cell stage ----- 48-cell stage ----- Blastula before inversion ----Amphiblastulaafter inversion ----- Gastrula invagination ----- Attached gastrula

4.5 Classification

Sponge classification is based largely on skeletal structure, which are separate crystalline spicules and / or organic fibers secreted by a type ofamoebocyte called a scleroblast (). Sponges are classified according to the chemical composition of the skeletal elements, the size of thespicules (megascleres or microscleres ), the number of axes or rays of the spicules and their shape and distribution.

4.5.1 Class Calcarea ()

a. The calcareous sponges possess 1, 3, or 4-rayed crystalline spicules of calcium carbonate; b. Class includes sponges of simple asconoid form and of syconoid or leuconoid form. e.g, Leucosolenia ( )

4.5.2 Class Hexactinellida ()

a. The glass sponges possess siliceous spicules, 6-rayed ( or some modification ), separate or united in networks; b. From deep seas. e.g Euplectella ( ) Hyalonema

4.5.3 Class Demospongiae ()

a. Possess 1 to 4-rayed siliceous spicules (typically tetrahedral ) and / or collagenous ( spongin ) fibres ( no skeleton in some primitive forms ); b. form of constraction leuconoid; c. Class includes some fresh-water-forms. e.g , Spongilla ( )

Adaptive Radiation Porifera are a highly successful group that includes several thousand species and a variety of marine and freshwater habitats. Their diversification centers largely on their unique water-current system and its various degrees of complexity. Proliferation of flagellated chambers in leuconoid sponges was more favorable to an increase in body size than that of asconoid and syconoid sponges because facilities for feeding and gaseous exchange were greatly enlarged.

Summary

Sponges (phylum Porifera) are an abundant marine group with some fresh-water representatives. They have various specialized cells, but these are not organized into tissues or organs. They depend on the flagellar beat of their choanocytes to circulate water through their bodies for food gathering and respiratory gas exchange. They are supported by secreted skeletons of fibrillar collagen, collagen in the form of large fibers or filaments (sponging),calcareons or siliceous spicules, or a combination of spicules and spongin in most species. Sponges reproduce asexually by budding, fragmentation, and gemmules (internal buds). Most sponges are monoecious but produce sperm and oocytesat different times. Embryogenesis is unusual, with a migration of flagellated cells at the surface to the interior or the production of an amphiblastula with inversion and growth of macromeres over micromeres. Sponges have great regenerative abilities.

hylum Cnidaria Characteristics Members of this phylum live in both fresh and salt water, have tissues and a simple nervous system, and have stinging cells called nematocysts. They display radial symmetry and have two embryonic cell layers (the epidermis and thegastrodermis) separated by jellylike mesoglea. Classification The three classes are grouped according to body plan. Members of the classHydrozoa have both the polyp and medusa stage in their life cycle. Examples include the Portuguese man-o-war. Members of the class Anthozoa have only the polyp stage in their life cycle. They are slightly more complex than hydrozoans. Examples include sea anemones. Members of the class Scyphozoa have only the medusa stage in their life cycle. They are the most large and complex members of this phylum. Examples include the common jellyfish. Protection Members of this phylum use nematocysts for protection. Movement Most adult cnidarians are free floating. In the larval stage, members are free swimming. Feeding & Digestion Cnidarians employ stinging cells called cnidocytes to catch food. There is both extracellular and intracellular digestion.

Circulation Circulation is mainly accomplished through diffusion. Excretion Excretion is accomplished through diffusion. Respiration Respiration is accomplished through diffusion. Nervous System Cnidarians posses simple muscles and nerves. The statocyst is a gravitational sensory organ. The ocellus is a simple photoreceptor organ. Reproduction Asexual reproduction occurs through budding. Sexual reproduction occurs in the medusa stage.

Classes of Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Arthropoda Phylum Arthropoda jointed legs Class Arachnida Class Chilopoda Class Diplopoda Class Crustacea Epiclass Hexapoda Class Entognatha Class Insecta (Ectognatha)

Common name/ examples of common species spiders, mites, insects

Characteristics 1. Segmented body. 2. Paired segmented appendages. 3. Bilateral symmetry. 4. Chitnous exoskeleton. 5. Tubular alimentary canal with mouth and anus. 6. Open circulatory system, a tubular dorsal blood vessel. 7. Body cavity or coelom. 8. Nervous system of anterior ganglia and paired nerve cords. 9. Striated muscles in skeletal system. 10. Respiration by gills, tracheae, or spiracle. Book lungs; two body regions (cephalothorax, abdomen) and chelicerae or fangs with venom glands. Most make webs. Poor eyesight, so hairs compensate for it. Wolf spiders and jumping spiders have excellent eyesight.

Class Arachnida Order Araneae spiders

Common families: wolf spiders, jumping spiders, crab spiders, trap door spiders, orb weaver spiders (pictured), funnel web spiders, cobweb weavers, ground spiders All spiders are beneficial and most are harmless to humans. Potentially dangerous spiders include brown recluse spider and black widow spider, but bites are uncommon.

Order? Acari ticks and mites

Common species: spruce spider mite, two spotted spider mite, honeylocust spider mite, European red mite, clover mite, cyclamen mite, broad mite, rust mite, eriophyid mite, etc.

Book lungs; mites have only one noticeable body region. Newly hatched larvae 3 pairs of legs; after first molt four pairs of legs. Instars are called nymphs. Many are microscopic or close to it.

Order Opiliones daddy longlegs

Common species: daddy longlegs Book lungs; very long legs; one apparent body region; abdomen and cephalothorax short; active at night; detritus feeders; some predators. Harmless; commonly encountered. Feed in leaf litter; feed on fruit such as blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries.

Order Scorpiones scorpions

Common species: bark scorpions (pictured), desert hairy scorpions, vaejovid scorpions; most are harmless.

Book lungs; long tail ending in stinger; venomous; pedipalps modified as pinchers. Nocturnal predators of other small animals.

Class Chilopoda centipedes Common species: centipedes Many body segments; 1 pair of legs per body segment; 1 pair of antennae; 1st pair of legs modified into venomous fangs; predators.

University of Sydney Class Diplopoda millipedes Common species: millipedes Many body segments; 2 pair of legs per body segment; 1 pair of antennae; detritivores.

University of Sydney Class Crustacea Crabs, lobsters Common species: crayfish, crabs, Several body regions - head, thorax and shrimp, isopods abdomen; segments may be fused; varied number of legs; 2 pairs of antennae.

University of Sydney

? ? Table 2: Classes of Epiclass Hexapoda ? Epiclass Hexapoda

Common name

Characteristics

1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

Three distinct head regions: head, thorax, abdomen One pair antenna, One pair of mandibles, One pair of maxillae.

mouthparts Class Entognatha Apterygota/wingless Entognatha: mouthparts withdrawn in head Apterygota/wingless mouthparts withdrawn in head

metamorphosis ametabolous/ no metamorphosis

order/meaning common order name name Order Protura proturans

Three pairs of legs on thorax; tracheal respiratory system- composed of tubes, with holes (spiracles) through the body that admit air. morphological ecology/ characteristic food no eyes; no antennae; detritivores very small; wingless adults; difference between nymphs and adults is size furcula or fork-like detritivores springing structures; simple eyes; antennae; wingless adults; difference between nymphs and adults is size two caudal filaments; detritivores compound eyes; antennae; wingless adults; difference between nymphs and adults is size three tail like detritivores appendages body flattened and covered with scales; wingless adults; difference between nymphs and adults is size wings at rest held over herbivores body; 2-3 caudal filaments; winged adults; nymphs and adults in different habitat; nymphs and adults different in appearance winged adults; predators nymphs and adults in different habitat; nymphs and adults different in appearance winged adults; herbivores nymphs and adults in detritivores same habitat; nymphs predators and adults different in appearance

ametabolous/ no metamorphosis

Order Collembola springtails

Apterygota/wingless mouthparts withdrawn in head

ametabolous/ no metamorphosis

Order Diplura

diplurans

Class Insecta (Ectognatha) Apterygota/wingless ametabolous/ no Ectognatha: protruding mouthp metamorphosis arts Ametabolous/ no metamorphosis Pterygota means winged Paleoptera: Members of paleopterous insects cannot fold their wings back over their abdomens. protruding mouthparts hemimetabolous/ incomplete metamorphosis Pterygota Paleoptera protruding mouthparts

Order Thysanura silverfish s. str. (Zygentoma)

hemimetabolous/incompl Order ete metamorphosis Ephemeroptera live for a day

mayflies

hemimetabolous/incompl Order Odonata ete metamorphosis toothed mandibles

dragonflies and damselflies

Pterygota means winged Neoptera: Neopterous insects can fold wings with structures at the base of wings protruding mouthparts

hemimetabolous/incompl Order Plecoptera stoneflies ete metamorphosis folded wings

Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Incomplete metamorphosis: Egg, nymph, adult Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order plete metamorphosis Phasmatodea phantom

walking sticks

winged adults; nymphs herbivores and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; nymphs and adults similar in appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat and similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat and similar appearance herbivores

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Orthoptera grasshoppers, plete metamorphosis straight wings crickets, katydids paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Mantodea plete metamorphosis soothsayer mantids

predators

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Blattaria plete metamorphosis

cockroaches

detritivores

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Isoptera plete metamorphosis equal wings

termites

wood feeders

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Dermaptera earwigs plete metamorphosis skin-like front wings paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Zoaptera plete metamorphosis pure wingless zoapterans

detritivores

detritivores

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Psocoptera psocids plete metamorphosis rubbing or gnawing

detritivores

Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Complete metamorphosis: Egg, larva, pupa protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts

paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Phthiraptera lice nymphs and parasites plete metamorphosis without wings adults in same Mallophaga, chewing lice; habitat and similar Anoplura, sucking lice appearance paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Hemiptera/ suborder bugs winged adults; herbivores plete metamorphosis Heteroptera nymphs and predators half wings; basal portion usually adults in same parasites thickened and distal habitat and similar membranous appearance paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Hemiptera/ suborders cicadas, tree winged adults; herbivores plete metamorphosis AuchenorhynchaSternorrhyncha hoppers, plant nymphs and (old Homoptera) hoppers, adults in same front wings uniform in texture psyllids, habitat and similar whiteflies, appearance aphids, scales paurometabolous/gradual/incom Order Thysanoptera thrips winged adults; herbivores plete metamorphosis fringed wings nymphs and adults in same habitat and similar appearance holometabolous/complete Order Neuroptera lacewings, winged adults; predators metamorphosis nerve winged antlions nymphs and owlflies adults in same habitat; not in similar appearance

holometabolous/complete metamorphosis

Order Coleoptera sheath or covered wing; elytra

beetles

holometabolous/complete metamorphosis

Order Mecoptera long wings

scorpionflies

winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance

herbivores predators detritivores

predators

Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts Pterygota Neoptera protruding mouthparts

holometabolous/comple Order Siphonoptera fleas te metamorphosis tube and wingless holometabolous/comple Order Diptera flies te metamorphosis two wings, 2nd pair of wings halteres holometabolous/comple Order Trichoptera te metamorphosis hair wings holometabolous/comple Order Lepidoptera te metamorphosis scale wings caddisflies moth and butterflies

winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance winged adults; nymphs and adults in same habitat; not similar appearance

parasites herbivores predators detritivores parasites parasitoids predators hervivores herbivores predators parasitoids

holometabolous/comple Order Hymenoptera sawflies, te metamorphosis union front back parasitic, wings by hamuli (on wasps, ants, hind wings) bees

The Phylum Annelida Etymology:- From the Latin Annellus a little ring. Characteristics of Annelida:1)Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform. 2)Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs. 3)Body cavity is a true coelom, often divided by internal septa. 4)Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus. 5)Body possesses 3 separate sections, a prosomium, a trunk and a pygidium. 6)Has a nervous system with an anterior nerve ring, ganglia and a ventral nerve chord. 7)Has a true closed circulatory system. 8)Has no true respiratory organs. 9)Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic or hermaphoditic. 10)Feed a wide range of material. 11)Live in most environments. Welcome to the Amazing World of Annelids. The Annelida are a medium sized phylum of more than 9,000 species of worms. Most species prefer aquatic environments, but there are also a number of well know terrestrial species. Only a few species of annelids are commonly known to human beings, these include the delightful Rain, Dew or Earthworms that work so hard to make our soils healthy, the Ragworms and Lugworms used by marine fishermen and the much smaller Tubifex or Red worms used by aquarists to feed their fish. In many countries people are still familiar with Medicinal leeches, and people who live closer to nature are naturally more familiar with a much wider range of Annelids than those who live in cities. Despite the amazing and delicate beauty of polychaetes such as the Fan Worms, and the huge (really beyond estimation) economic debt owed by mankind to the Oligochaete Earthworms for their work in soil creation and maintenance many people still fail to appreciate their true wonder and beauty. The earthworms, of which there are many species, are exceedingly important in soil creation, particularly in temperate areas. Without them, agriculture and perhaps the whole of human society as we know it would never have evolved. Like so much of the unnoticed invertebrate world earthworms are essential to our very existence. In marine environments the numerous species of Polychaetes play a fundamentally important role in the maintenance of food chains and the whole ecological balance of the seas, thus supporting the seemingly endless stocks of fish we like to eat. One of the strangest ways that humans relate to Annelids is in the hobby of 'Worm Charming'. This involves enticing earthworms from their holes (catching them), originally it was a means of acquiring worms for bait, but now-a-days it is a sport. The world record as far as I know is held by Tom Shufflebotham who charmed 511 worms from their underground hideouts from an area of 3 square metres in only 30 minutes during the 1980 Annual Worm Charming Championships held in Cheshire UK. The rules specify that the

worms must be brought to the surface without using refreshment, stimulation, drugs or digging. Tom used a method called twanging which involves sticking a 4-pronged pitchfork into the ground and twanging it. Annelids range in size from the Giant Earthworms, of which Michrochaetus rappi (Michrochaetus michrochaetus) is the largest, this magnificent animal has an average length of 1.36 m (54 ins) and a record breaking specimen has been recorded that measured 6.7 metres (22 ft) in length, it was 2cm (0.8 ins) in diametre. Larger worms have been reported but not scientifically proven. The smallest Annelid known to science is Chaetogaster annandalai which is full grown at 0.5 mm (0.02 ins). Annelids have two main modes of existence, they either live rather quietly in holes or they live more active lives. The basic Annelid body plan is one of a head followed by a long thin body of numerous similar segments ending in a small tail. The head consists of a mouth (prostomium) and sometimes a peristomium, and the tail is more correctly called a pygidium, as it is not really a tail. Annelids are coelomate animals meaning they have a true coelom within their body. They have sets chaetae attached to each body segment, and these can be simple and small as in the Earthworms or complex and varied as in many Polychaetes. The head is often reduced and difficult to distinguish in the hole living species, but may be easily recognised, with eyes and other sensory devices in those species living a more active life. Annelids are coelomate animals (meaning they have a true coelom, even if this is reduced secondarily). They normally have long thin bodies composed of a series of identical segments. These segments lie between the head, comprised of a prostomium, a mouth and sometimes a peristomium, and a tail called a pygidium. Growth occurs both laterally, by enlargement of the segments during the juvenile stages, and through the addition of new segments. New segments are produced by the foremost section of the pygidium. In some species they are produced throughout the animals life but in many species production stops once a certain set number of segments has been achieved. The Phylum Annelida is divided into 3 classes, one of which the Clitellata could really be called a Superclass, it contains three subclasses, the Oligochaeta, the Branchiobdella and the Hirundinea. The other two classes are the Polychaeta which contains the largest number of species and the Aelosomatida which contains very few. The class Polychaeta (Poly = many, Chaeta = bristle) are the most diverse and most speciose group of the Annelida containing over 5,500 species. They are predominantly marine animals and are divided ecologically into the Errantia and the Sedentaria depending on whether or not they live sedentary lives in holes or live more active lives. We now know that this is not a taxonomically valid classification but it is useful as it divides the class in two in terms of the number of families each group contains. The Errantia have well developed heads and complex parapodia (paddles)that they can use for swimming. They are often dorsoventrally flattened. Most polychaetes are gonochoristic (meaning they are either male or female), however some are sequential hermaphrodites (meaning they are one sex first and then change to being the other sex). Reproduction is often accompanied by the production of special modified reproductive segments which may, or may not, become independent of the parent worm before mating. These segments are destroyed or die during or immediately after they have released their gametes (sperm and ova). The class Aelosomata contains about 25 species of small to minute worms with many chaetae. They live in the interstitial zone of both fresh and brackish water environments. They are hermaphrodites with each animal possessing one ovary and two testis. They are little known to science and their classification is disputed with some authors considering them to be part of the Oligochaeta. The class Clitellata contains three distinct groups. The subclass Oligochaeta (Oligo = few, Chaeta = bristle) are the second most numerous group of annelids with around 3,100 species. Oligochaeta live in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. Generally they have a more rounded cross-section, a less distinct head and are less diverse in form than the Polychaetes. They are normally hermaphrodites, and possess a clitellum as adults, an organ which looks like a bandage of skin wrapped around the animal. This clitellum, from which the whole group takes its name has an important function in sexual reproduction, otherwise reproduction may asexual by fission. A few species are parasitic but most species are free living.

Cirrodrilus Pierantoni, 1905 Without setae; with posterior sucker; pharynx with dorsal and ventral chitinous jaws; commensal on crayfish. With two pairs of testes in segments 5 and 6. Body with appendages. Appendages in the form of pointed bands encircling the dorsal surface of the body The subclass Branchiobdella contains 147 species of small (about 1 cm long) aquatic whitish animals that are either commensals or parasites on Crayfish. They are mostly found in the northern hemisphere. Different species attach to their hosts at different places on the body, thus Branchiobdella parastica attaches to the under side of the abdomen while Branchiobdella astaci attaches to its hosts gills. Branchiobdella hexodonta and B. astaci are known to be parasitic feeding off host tissue but B. parasitica is thought by some authorities to be a commensal. The subclass Hirundinea contains the 500 or so species of animals commonly known as leeches. Leaches are well known for their blood sucking habits and their head to tail looping mode of locomotion. Except for the primitive Acanthobdella peledina leeches have no chaetae and 33 body segments. they have two suckers which in most cases are located one at the anterior (head) end of the body composed of segments 1-4 and the other at the posterior (tail) end composed of segments 25-33. Like the Oligochaeta from which they are believed to have evolved the Hirundinea occur in Fresh water, marine and terrestrial environments. The Phylum Echinodermata Etymology:- From the Greek Echinos for half and Derma for skin. Characteristics of Echinodermata:1)Possess 5-rayed symmetry, mostly radial, sometimes bilateral. 2)Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs. 3)Body cavity a true coelom. 4)Most possesses a through gut with an anus. 5)Body shape highly variable, but with no head. 6)Nervous system includes a circum-oesophageal ring. 7)Has a poorly defined open circulatory system. 8)Possesses a water vascular system, which hydraulically operates the tube feet or feeding tentacles. 9)Without excretory organs. 10)Normally possesses a subepidermal system of calcareous plates 11)Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic. 12)Feeds on fine particles in the water, detritus or other animals. 13)All live marine environments. The Echinodermata are Feather Stars, Starfish, Sea Urchins, Brittle Stars, Sea Cucumbers, Sand Dollars and Sea Lilies. As you can see from this list they are a morphologically very diverse group, at first it may not be obvious how they are all related, but despite their various forms they do all possess the characteristics outlined above. They are an ancient and very successful phylum of invertebrates with around 6,000 living members. They are one of the best known and most loved groups of invertebrates. They are popular as symbols because of their unique shapes and beautiful colours. They are also one of the most evolutionarily advanced phyla, yet they are totally unique in many ways. They have evolved many morphological and physiological characteristics that set them apart from all the other phyla, and although much research has been done on them, we are still a long way from really understanding them well. The echinoderms are, to express it simply, wonderfully attractive both aesthetically and intellectually. Because of their calcareous skeleton many echinoderms fossilize well and we have a good record of their evolutionary history derived from more than 20,000 fossil species. They first evolved about 600 million years ago in the Precambrian along with many of the other major phyla. The first echinoderms (called carpoids) did not have any radial symmetry which shows that this characteristic was acquired later in the group's evolutionary history. Echinoderms are often difficult animals to kill and many have well developed powers of regeneration. Early attempts to control the Crown-of-Thorns starfish by chopping it up into several pieces merely resulted in helping it disperse as each piece grew into a new animal. Echinoderms are protected from most predators by their spines, nevertheless some are eaten by other echinoderms and some by human beings. The gonads of Sea Urchins are eaten in several places around the world, both raw and cooked and are considered to be very tasty. Also in Asia the body wall of certain Sea Cucumbers is eaten, this contains over 50% digestible protein so it is valuable nutrition wise as well as tasty, it is called Trepang.

Starfish, or Sea Stars are often a pest of commercial clam and oyster beds, a single Starfish my eat over a dozen oysters or young clams every day. The now infamous Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci) has caused serious damage to many coral reefs around the world, most notably the Great Barrier Reef off Eastern Australia, though there is the possibility that it was human mediated interference in the marine ecosystem that allowed it to become a pest. The Crown-of-Thorns Starfish is the only seriously venomous Starfish. Each of its spines is encased in a sheath which contains the venom. In coastal tourist zones Starfish, and Sea Urchins populations suffer because they are collected and dried to be sold as trinkets to the tourists. It is better not to buy such things, because as long as people keep buying them ruthless people will continue to exterminate local populations for the sake of money, in this modern world you would consider it uncivilised to buy a dead bird or an elephants foot as a holiday keepsake so why buy a dead Echinoderm, or any other animal for that matter. Echinoderms are all marine and nearly all are benthic, meaning they live on the sea floor. No parasitic species of echinoderms are known, though a number of species live commensally with other organisms such as fish, other echinoderms, polychaetes, molluscs, Platyhelminths, ctenophores and protozoa. They are distinguished from the other phyla by several main characteristics. Firstly they have a spiny calcareous exoskeleton comprised of numerous plates. Secondly they have what is called a water vascular system, this is basically a hydraulic system and is unique to echinoderms. Thirdly they have pedicellaria, tiny pincers that keep other marine animals from settling on their skeleton. Fourthly they have either radial or occasionally bilateral symmetry, the only other phylum to possess radial symmetry is the Cnidaria. In the case of Echinoderms the symmetry is pentaradial, meaning there are five planes of symmetry, unlike the Cnidaria which have an uncountable number of planes of symmetry. Some Record Holders Relevant Information Can have an arm reach of 1.38 m (4 ft 6 in ). Maximum weight of 6 kg 13 lb 4 oz).

Record Largest Starfish Heaviest Starfish Largest Sea Urchin

Species Midgardia xandros Thromidia catalai Sperosoma giganteum

Waters Gulf of Mexico New Caledonia

The shell has an average diametre of 32 cm (12.6 ins). Japan 1 m long by 24 cm diametre (39 ins by 9.5 ins). Maximum Radius of 4.7 mm (0.18 ins). Diametre of shell = 5.5 mm (0.22 ins). Length = less than 4mm (0.16 ins). Found at a depths up to 10,710 m or (35,130 ft). Philippines South Australia astern Australia India Marianas Trench

Largest Sea Cucumber Stichopus variagatus Smallest Starfish Smallest Sea Urchin Smallest Cucumber Deepest Living Patiriella Parvivipara Echinocyamus scaber Psammothuria ganapatii Myriotrochus bruuni

Did you know there are Starfish in the Genus Pteraster that lives off the Pacific coast of North America that secretes copious amounts of thick poisonous mucous whenever they are attacked by a predator. They are called Slimestars and the poison in their mucous is a saponin. An individual Slimestar can secrete so much mucous its predator gets bogged down it.

Biology The body wall of echinoderms consists of three layers. The outer layer, called the epidermis, is only a single layer of cells which covers the entire animal including its various spines. The third layer is also a single layer of cells the main difference being that these cells are ciliated. This layer encloses the the animal's coelom separating the animals guts from its skin. It is called the 'coelomic lining'. The middle layer is much thicker and is called the dermis. It is composed of connective tissue and contains the exoskeleton. This exoskeleton takes three different forms. 1) A set of closely joined plates with little individual movement that exist as a test or shell (Feather Stars and Sea Urchins). 2) A set of separately articulating (more freely moving) small plates called ossicles (Starfish, Brittle Stars and the arms of Crinoids). 3) A collection of widely separated microscopic ossicles lying in the dermis, which in this case is quite leathery (Sea Cucumbers). Whatever form they take these plates or ossicles are always made from calcite, the ingredients for which are found in sea water. The exoskeleton of echinoderms grows continuously throughout the animals life, thus older animals are

always larger than younger ones. The exoskeleton supports the spines, warts and tubercles that are often found on the echinoderm surface. These various protuberances are also generally made from calcite. Apart from its skin, and or its spines, an echinoderm also has contact with the external world through its water vascular system and the tube-feet that are a part of this system. The water vascular system of the echinoderms is unique in the living world and easily distinguishes them from all other phyla. The system takes slightly different forms in the different classes. In the Crinoidea, which are believed to be the most ancient of the echinoderms, the tube feet are branched and secrete mucous. In the Ophiuroidea the tube feet are simple and slender. In Asteroidea, Echinoidea and Holothuroidea they are thicker and end in suckers. The water vascular system starts with an opening to the external environment called a madreporite. From this a short straight canal called the 'stone canal' leads to the 'ring canal'. The ring canal is a ring as might be expected and it has five longitudinal canals branching off from it into each of the arms, or their morphological equivalents in Echinoidea and Holothuroidea. In species with more than 5 arms these canals branch out into each arm. on each side of each canal there arises a series of short lateral canals that lead, via a valve, into the descending tube feet and the ampulla that operate them. The tube feet pass through small holes in the animals exoskeleton and muscles around the ampulla (which remains inside the exoskeleton) squeeze water into them causing them to extend or relax. Echinoderms are either filter feeders, substrate eaters or carnivores. The gut is U-shaped in the Crinoidea with the mouth and anus being on the same surface. In the other groups it is straight-through gut with the mouth and anus on approximately opposite sides of the body. Echinoderms have a sub-epidermal nerve net running all over their body. As well as this they have a circum-oral nerve ring with 5 radial nerve cords extending from it into the arms. These nerves are in connection with those of the sub-epidermal nerve net. Many Echinoderms use their tube feet as organs for gaseous exchange, but others such as the Ophiuroidea and the Holothuroidea have additional special sites or organs of respiration. Fertilisation is always external and the larvae are planktonic and biradial, they develop the pentaradial symmetry of the adult forms later on. Classification The Echinoderms are a very diverse group, and I shall look at the ecology and biology of the 4 extant classes separately. The phylum is divided into 4 subphyla and 16 classes of which 12 are now extinct. Phylum Echinodermata Subphylum Homalozoa Class Homostelea Class Homoiostelea Class Stylophora Class Ctenocystoidea Extinct

Extinct

Extinct

Extinct

Subphylum Crinozoa Class Eocrinoidea Class Paracrinoidea Class Cystoidea Class Blastoidea Class Extinct

Extinct

Extinct

Extinct Sea Lilies and Feather Stars

Crinoidea Subphylum Asterozoa Class Ophiuroidea Class Asteroidea Brittle Stars Sea Stars, Starfish and Sand Dollars

Subphylum Echinozoa Class Helicoplacoidea Class Edriosteroidea Class Ophiocistioidea Class Echinoidea Class Holothuroidea Extinct

Extinct

Extinct Sea Urchins, Sea Biscuits and Sand Dollars Sea Cucumbers