GROUP 1 HUNGER, EATING, & HEALTH

I. Digestion, Energy Storage, & Energy Utilization Digestion- the gastrointestinal process of breaking down food & absorbing its constituents into the body. Energy Storage in the Body Energy is delivered in 3 forms: a. Lipids/fats b. Amino acids( breakdown products of proteins) c. Glucose (simple sugar) Energy is Stored in 3 forms: a. Fats b. Glucose c. proteins 3 Phases of Energy Metabolism a. Cephalic Phase is the preparatory phase; it often begins w/ the sight, smell, or even just the thought of food b. Absorptive phase is the period during w/c the energy absorbed into the bloodstream from the meal is meeting the bodys immediate energy needs c. Fasting phase is the period during w/c a;; of the unstored energy from the previous meal has been used & the body is withdrawing energy from its reserves to meet its immediate energy requirements Theories of Hunger & Eating: Set Points VS Positive Incentives Set-Point Assumptions Most people attribute hunger to the presence of an energy deficit, & they view eating as the means by w/c the energy resources of the body are returned to their optimal level -(Energy Set Point) When the level of the bodys energy resources falls far enough below the set point, a person becomes motivated by hunger to initiate another meal & until the energy level returns to its set point & the person feels Satiated( no longer hungry) Set point model (thermostatic regulated heating system in cool climate) 3 Components of Set-point systems: a. Set-point mechanism

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b. Detector mechanism c. Effector mechanism Negative feedback systems- systems in w/c feedback from changes in one direction elicit compensatory effects in the opposite direction Homeostasis- a stable internal environment w/c is critical for mammals survival Glucostatic & Lipostatic Set-Point Theories of Hunger & Eating Glucostatic theory a set-point theory states that eating is regulated by a system that is designed to maintain a Blood glucose set point---- the idea being that we become hungry when our blood glucose levels drop significantly below their set point & that we become Satiated when eating returns our blood glucose levels to their set point. (Meal initiation & termination, short term) Lipostatic theory a set-point theory states that every person has a set point for body fat, & deviations from this set point produce compensatory adjustments in the level of eating that return levels of body fat to their set point. (Long-term regulation) Problems w/ Set-point Theories of Hunger & Eating First, set-point theories of hunger & eating are inconsistent w/basic eating-related evolutionary pressures as we understand them. Second, set-point theories of hunger & eating have not been confirmed Third, set-point theories of hunger & eating are deficient because they fail to recognize the major influences on hunger & eating of such important factors as taste, learning, & social influences. Positive-Incentive Perspective Positive-Incentive Theory- humans & other animals are not normally driven to eat by internal energy deficits but the anticipated pleasure of eating--- the anticipated pleasure of a behaviour Factors that Determine What, When, & How Much We Eat Factors that Determine What We Eat: a. Species-typical pattern of human taste preferences b. Learning Taste Preferences & Aversion c. Learning to Eat Vitamins & Minerals Factors that Influence When We Eat: a. Premeal Hunger

b. Pavlovian Conditioning of Hunger Factors that Influence How Much We Eat: a. Satiety Signals b. Sham Eating c. Appetizer Effect Satiety d. Serving Size & Satiety e. Social Influences & Satiety f. Sensory- Specific Satiety

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Physiological Research on Hunger & Satiety Role of Blood Glucose Levels in Hunger & Satiety VHM Satiety Center Discovered that large bilateral electrolytic lesions to the ventromedial hypothalamus produce Hyperphagia -(excessive eating) LH Feeding Center Reported that bilateral electrolytic lesions to the lateral hypothalamus produce Aphagia (a complete cessation of eating) Reinterpretation of the Effects of VMJ & LH Lesions Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety Cannon & Washburn Stomach Contractions Theory that hunger is the feeling of contractions caused by an empty stomach, whereas satiety is the feeling of stomach distention. Hunger & Satity Peptides Peptides- short chains of amino acids that can function as hormones & neurotransmitters Peptides function as satiety signals Gut peptides (Cholecystokinin) induces a conditioned taste aversion & induces a conditioned taste aversion for substances Serotonin & Satiety Monoaminergic neurotransmitter serotonin is another chemical that plays a role in satiety Prader-Willi Syndrome: Patients w/ Insatiable Hunger Prader-Willi syndrome results from an accident of chromosomal replication, experience insatiable hunger BODY WEIGHT REGULATION: SET POINT VS SETTLING POINT THEORIES

SET POINTS assumptions about Body Weight and Eating: Variability of weight

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Set point theories of body weight suggest that the best method of maintaining a constant body weight is to eat each time there is a motivation to eat, because according to the theory, the main function of hunger is to defend the set point. Set points and Heath States that persons set point is optimal for that persons healthor at least not incompatible w/ good health. States those Ad Libitum (free-feeding) levels of consumption are unhealthy. - ( People in Japanese island Okinawa perhaps the consumption of fewer calories leads to health & longevity or in some culture who eat less tend to eat healthier diets) - (Beneficial Effects of Calorie restriction) - (Dietary- restrictions can have beneficial effects even if it is not initiated until later life) Caloric Restriction has been shown to reduce seizure susceptibility in human epileptics & to improve memory in elderly. Regulation of body Weight by Changes in the efficiency of Energy Utilization States that person starts to use energy resources more efficiently, w/c limits further weight loss; weight gain is limited by a progressive decrease in the efficiency of energy utilization. Diet- induced thermogenesis mechanism by which the body adjusts the efficiency of its energy utilization in response to its levels of body fat SETTLING POINTS in Weight Control Settling point- the level at which the various factors that influence body weight achieve an equilibrium States that body weight remains stable as long as there are no long term changes in the factors that influence it; and if there are such changes, their impact is limited by negative feedback. Leaky-barrel model The amount of water entering the hose is analogous to the amount of available food. The water pressure at the nozzle is analogous to the incentive value of the available food. The amount of water entering the barrel is analogous to the amount of consumed energy. The water level in the barrel is analogous to the level of body fat. The amount of water leaking from the barrel is analogous to the level of body fat.

6. The weight of the barrel on the hose is analogous to the strength of the satiety signal. Settling Point Four Key Facts of Weight Regulation base in Leaky-Barrel Model: 1. As water in the tap begins to fill the barrel, the weight of the water in the barrel increases. This increases the amount of water leaking out of the barrel & decreases the amount of water entering the barrel by increasing the pressure of the barrel on the hose. This System settles in equilibrium. 2. Predicts that when there is an enduring change in one of the parameters that affect body weightfor example, the major increase in the positive-incentive value of available food- body weight will drift to a new settling point. 3. If a subjects intake of food is reduced, metabolic changes that limit the loss of weight occur; the opposite happens when the subject overeats. 4. After an individual has lost a substantial amount of weight (by dieting, exercise, or the surgical removal of fat), there is a tendency for the original weight to be regained once the subject returns to the previous eating & energy-related lifestyle. VI. Human Obesity: Causes, Mechanisms, & Treatments Who Needs to Be Concerned about Obesity? Relation between obesity & poor health Obese woman are at increased risk of having infants w/ health problems Many people who are slim as youths develop serious weight problems as they age. Why is there an Epidemic of Obesity? Fittest individuals were those who preferred high-calorie foods, stored as many excess calories as possible in the form of body fat, those dont have these characteristics cant survive w/c is passed on to future generations (Effects of evolution) Why Do Some People Become Obese While Others Do Not? Those who are obese are those whose energy intake has exceeded their energy output; those who are slim are those whose energy intake has not exceeded their energy output Differences in Consumption Differences in energy Expenditure Genetic Differences Why are Weight-Loss Programs Typically Ineffective? Most of the lost weight is regained once the dieter stops following the program & the original conditions are reestablished Leptin & the Regulation of Fat

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Leptin is a negative feedback signal that is normally released from fat stores to decrease appetite & increase fat metabolism Leptin, Insulin, & the Arcuate Melanocortin System 2 Fat feedback signals: Leptin closely related to subcutaneous fat(fat stored under the skin) ; Insulin closely related to visceral fat(fat stored around internal organs) Arcuate Nucleus location: -Neuropeptide Y (the gut hunger peptide) -Melanocortins a class of peptides that includes the gut satiety peptide alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone Leptin as a Treatment for Human Obesity 2 major snags of Leptin Treatment: -Obese Human tend to have higher leptin level -Injections of Leptin did not reduce either the eating or the body fat of obese humans Treatment of Obesity Serotonergic Agonists have shown to reduce food consumption in both human & nonhuman subjects Gastric Surgery - Gastric bypass- a surgical treatment for extreme obesity that involves short-circuiting the normal path of food through the digestive tract so that its absorption is reduced - Adjustable gastric band procedure involves surgically positioning a hollow silicone band around the stomach to reduce the flow of food through it Anorexia & Bulimia Nervosa Anorexia Nervosa is a disorder of underconsumption Bulimia Nervosa is a disorder characterized by periods of not eating interrupted by bingeing (eating huge amounts immediately eliminate the consumed calories from the body by voluntary purging/vomiting; by excessive use of laxatives, enemas, or diuretics, or by extreme exercise)