PSYCHOLOGY

(8thEdition) DavidMyers
PowerPointSlides AneeqAhmad HendersonStateUniversity

WorthPublishers,2006

SocialPsychology
Chapter18

SocialPsychology
SocialThinking
AttributionofBehaviorto PersonsorSituations AttitudesandAction

Socialinfluence
ConformityandObedience GroupInfluence
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SocialPsychology
SocialRelations
Prejudice Aggression Conflict Attraction Altruism PeaceMaking
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FocusesinSocialPsychology
Wecannotliveforourselvesalone.
HermanMelville

Socialpsychology scientificallystudieshowwe thinkabout,influence,andrelateto oneanother.

SocialThinking
1. Doeshisabsenteeismsignifyillness, laziness,orastressfulworkatmosphere? 2. Wasthehorrorof9/11theworkof crazedevilpeopleorordinarypeople corruptedbylifeevents? Socialthinkinginvolvesthinkingaboutothers, especiallywhentheyengageindoingthings thatareunexpected.
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AttributingBehaviortoPersonsorto Situations
AttributionTheory: Fritz Heider (1958)suggested thatwehaveatendency togivecausal explanationsfor someonesbehavior, oftenbycreditingeither thesituationorthe personsdisposition.
FritzHeider
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AttributingBehaviortoPersonsorto Situations
Ateachermaywonderwhetherachilds hostilityreflectsanaggressivepersonality (dispositionalattribution)orisareactiontostress orabuse(asituationalattribution).
Dispositionsareenduring personalitytraits.So,ifJoe isaquiet,shy,and introvertedchild,heis likelytobelikethatina numberofsituations.

http://www.stedwards.edu http://www.bootsnall.org

FundamentalAttributionError
Thetendencytooverestimatetheimpactof personaldispositionandunderestimatethe impactofthesituationsinanalyzingthe behaviorsofothersleadstothefundamental attributionerror.

WeseeJoeasquiet,shy,andintrovertedmost ofthetime,butwithfriendsheisverytalkative, loud,andextroverted.

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EffectsofAttribution
Howweexplainsomeonesbehavioraffects howwereacttoit.

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Attitude
Abeliefandfeelingthatpredisposesapersonto respondinaparticularwaytoobjects,other people,andevents. Ifwebelieve apersonismean,wemayfeel dislikeforthepersonandact inanunfriendly manner.

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AttitudesCanAffectAction
Ourattitudespredictourbehaviorsimperfectly becauseotherfactors,includingtheexternal situation,alsoinfluencebehavior. DemocraticleaderssupportedBushsattackon Iraqunderpublicpressure.However,theyhad theirprivatereservations.

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AttitudesCanAffectAction
Notonlydopeoplestandforwhattheybelievein (attitude),theystartbelievinginwhattheystand for.

Cooperativeactionscanleadtomutualliking(beliefs).

SmallRequest LargeRequest
IntheKoreanWar,Chinesecommunists solicitedcooperationfromUSarmyprisoners byaskingthemtocarryoutsmallerrands.By complyingtosmallerrandstheywerelikelyto complytolargerones.

FootintheDoorPhenomenon: Thetendency forpeoplewhohavefirstagreedtoasmall requesttocomplylaterwithalargerrequest.

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RolePlayingAffectsAttitudes
Zimbardo (1972)assignedtherolesofguards andprisonerstorandomstudentsandfound thatguardsandprisonersdevelopedrole appropriateattitudes.
OriginallypublishedintheNewYorker

D.MacDonald/PhotoEdit

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PhillipG.Zimbardo,Inc.

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ActionsCanAffectAttitudes
Whydoactionsaffectattitudes?One explanationisthatwhenourattitudesand actionsareopposed,weexperiencetension. Thisiscalledcognitivedissonance.

Torelieveourselvesofthistensionwebringour attitudesclosertoouractions(Festinger,1957).

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CognitiveDissonance

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SocialInfluence
Thegreatestcontributionofsocialpsychologyis itsstudyofattitudes,beliefs,decisions,and actionsandthewaytheyaremoldedbysocial influence.
NONSEQUITER2000Wiley.Dist.byUniversal PressSyndicateReprintedwithPermission

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Conformity&Obedience
Behavioriscontagious,modeledbyone followedbyanother.Wefollowbehaviorof otherstoconform. Otherbehaviorsmaybeanexpressionof compliance(obedience)towardauthority.

Conformity

Obedience
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TheChameleonEffect
Conformity: Adjustingonesbehavioror thinkingtocoincidewithagroupstandard (Chartrand &Bargh,1999).

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GroupPressure&Conformity
Suggestibilityisasubtletypeofconformity, adjustingourbehaviororthinkingtoward somegroupstandard.

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GroupPressure&Conformity
Aninfluenceresultingfromoneswillingnessto acceptothersopinionsaboutreality.

WilliamVandivert/ScientificAmerican

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ConditionsthatStrengthen Conformity
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Oneismadetofeelincompetentorinsecure. Thegrouphasatleastthreepeople. Thegroupisunanimous. Oneadmiresthegroupsstatusand attractiveness. Onehasnopriorcommitmentorresponse. Thegroupobservesonesbehavior. Onesculturestronglyencouragesrespectfora socialstandard.
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ReasonsforConformity
NormativeSocialInfluence: Influenceresulting fromapersonsdesiretogainapprovaloravoid rejection.Apersonmayrespectnormative behaviorbecausetheremaybeaseverepriceto payifnotrespected. InformativeSocialInfluence: Thegroupmay providevaluableinformation,butstubborn peoplewillneverlistentoothers.

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InformativeSocialInfluence
Baronandcolleagues(1996)madestudentsdo aneyewitnessidentificationtask.Ifthetaskwas easy(lineupexposure5sec.),conformitywas lowincomparisontoadifficult(1/2sec. exposure)task.

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InformativeSocialInfluence

Baronetal.,(1996)

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Obedience
Peoplecomplytosocial pressures.Howwould theyrespondtooutright command? StanleyMilgram designedastudythat investigatestheeffectsof authorityonobedience.
CourtesyofCUNYGraduateSchoolandUniversityCenter

StanleyMilgram (19331984)
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MilgramsStudy
BothPhotos:1965ByStanleyMiligram,fromthe filmObedience, dist.byPennState,MediaSales

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MilgramsStudy:Results

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IndividualResistance
AthirdoftheindividualsinMilgramsstudy resistedsocialcoercion.

Anunarmedindividualsinglehandedly challengedalineoftanksatTiananmenSquare.

AP/WideWorldPhotos

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LessonsfromtheConformityand ObedienceStudies
InbothAshsandMilgramsstudies, participantswerepressuredtofollowtheir standardsandberesponsivetoothers.

InMilgramsstudy,participantsweretorn betweenhearingthevictimspleasandthe experimentersorders.

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GroupInfluence
Howdogroupsaffectourbehavior?Social psychologistsstudyvariousgroups:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Onepersonaffectinganother Families Teams Committees

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IndividualBehaviorinthePresence ofOthers
Socialfacilitation: Refers toimproved performanceontasksin thepresenceofothers. Triplett(1898)noticed cyclistsracetimeswere fasterwhenthey competedagainstothers thanwhentheyjust racedagainsttheclock.
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MichelleAgnis/NYTPictures

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SocialLoafing
Thetendencyofanindividualinagroupto exertlessefforttowardattainingacommon goalthanwhentestedindividually(Latan, 1981).

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Deindividuation
Thelossofselfawarenessandselfrestraintin groupsituationsthatfosterarousaland anonymity.

Mobbehavior

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EffectsofGroupInteraction
GroupPolarization enhancesagroups prevailingattitudes throughadiscussion. Ifagroupislike minded,discussion strengthensits prevailingopinions andattitudes.
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Groupthink
Amodeofthinkingthatoccurswhenthedesire forharmonyinadecisionmakinggroup overridestherealisticappraisalofalternatives. AttackonPearlHarbor KennedyandtheCubanMissileCrisis WatergateCoverup ChernobylReactorAccident

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PowerofIndividuals
Thepowerofsocial influenceisenormous, butsoisthepowerof theindividual. Nonviolentfastsand appealsbyGandhiled totheindependenceof IndiafromtheBritish.
MargaretBourkeWhite/Life Magazine.1946TimeWarner,Inc.

Gandhi
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SocialRelations
Socialpsychologyteachesushowwerelateto oneanotherthroughprejudice,aggression,and conflicttoattraction,andaltruismand peacemaking.

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Prejudice
Simplycalledprejudgment,aprejudiceisan unjustifiable(usuallynegative)attitudetoward agroupanditsmembers.Prejudiceisoften directedtowardsdifferentcultural,ethnic,or gendergroups. ComponentsofPrejudice 1. Beliefs(stereotypes) 2. Emotions(hostility,envy,fear) 3. Predispositiontoact (todiscriminate)
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ReignofPrejudice
Prejudiceworksattheconsciousand[moreat] theunconsciouslevel.Therefore,prejudiceis morelikeakneejerkresponsethanaconscious decision.

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HowPrejudicedarePeople?
Overthedurationoftimemanyprejudices againstinterracialmarriage,gender, homosexuality,andminoritieshavedecreased.

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Racial&GenderPrejudice
Americanstodayexpressmuchlessracialand genderprejudice,butprejudicesstillexist.

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Race
Nineoutoftenwhiterespondentswereslow whenrespondingtowordslikepeaceor paradisewhentheysawablackindividuals photocomparedtoawhiteindividualsphoto (Hugenberg &Bodenhausen,2003).

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Gender
Mostwomenstillliveinmorepovertythan men.About100,000,000womenaremissingin theworld.Thereisapreferenceformale childreninChinaandIndia,evenwithsex selectedabortionoutlawed.

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Gender
Althoughprejudiceprevailsagainstwomen, morepeoplefeelpositivelytowardwomenthan men.Womenratedpictureb[feminized]higher (665)foramatrimonialad(Perrett,1998).
ProfessorDavePerrett,St.AndrewsUniversity

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SocialRootsofPrejudice
Whydoesprejudicearise? 1. SocialInequalities 2. SocialDivisions 3. EmotionalScapegoating

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SocialInequality
Prejudicedevelopswhenpeoplehavemoney, power,andprestige,andothersdonot.Social inequalityincreasesprejudice.

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InandOutGroups
Ingroup:Peoplewithwhomonesharesa commonidentity.Outgroup: Thoseperceivedas differentfromonesingroup.IngroupBias: The tendencytofavoronesowngroup.

MikeHewitt/GettyImages

ScotlandsfamedTartanArmyfans.

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EmotionalRootsofPrejudice
Prejudiceprovidesanoutletforanger[emotion] byprovidingsomeonetoblame.After9/11 manypeoplelashedoutagainstinnocent ArabAmericans.

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CognitiveRootsofPrejudice
Onewaywesimplifyourworldistocategorize. Wecategorizepeopleintogroupsby stereotypingthem.
MichaelS.Yamashita/Woodfin CampAssociates

ForeignsunbathersmaythinkBalineselookalike.

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CognitiveRootsofPrejudice
Invividcases suchasthe9/11attacks,terrorists canfeedstereotypesorprejudices(terrorism). MostterroristsarenonMuslims.

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CognitiveRootsofPrejudice
Thetendencyofpeopletobelievetheworldis just,andpeoplegetwhattheydeserveand deservewhattheyget(thejustworld phenomenon).
TheNewYorkerCollection,1981,RobertMankoff fromcartoonbank.com.AllRightsReserved.

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HindsightBias
Afterlearninganoutcome,thetendencyto believethatwecouldhavepredictedit beforehandmaycontributetoblamingthe victimandformingaprejudiceagainstthem.

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Aggression
Aggression canbeanyphysicalorverbal behaviorintendedtohurtordestroy. Itmaybedonereactivelyoutofhostilityor proactivelyasacalculatedmeanstoanend.

Researchshowsthataggressivebehavioremerges fromtheinteractionofbiologyandexperience.

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TheBiologyofAggression
Threebiologicalinfluencesonaggressive behaviorare: 1. GeneticInfluences 2. NeuralInfluences 3. BiochemicalInfluences

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Influences
GeneticInfluences: Animalshavebeenbredfor aggressivenessforsportandattimesforresearch. Twinstudiesshowaggressionmaybegenetic.In men,aggressionispossiblylinkedtotheY chromosome. NeuralInfluences: Somecentersinthebrain, especiallythelimbicsystem(amygdala)andthe frontallobe,areintimatelyinvolvedwith aggression.
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Influences
BiochemicalInfluences: Animalswithdiminished amountsoftestosterone(castration)becomedocile, andifinjectedwithtestosteroneaggression increases.Prenatalexposuretotestosteronealso increasesaggressioninfemalehyenas.

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ThePsychologyofAggression
Fourpsychologicalfactorsthatinfluence aggressivebehaviorare: 1. 2. 3. 4. Dealingwithaversiveevents Learningaggressionisrewarding Observingmodelsofaggression Acquiringsocialscripts

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AversiveEvents
Studiesinwhichanimalsandhumansexperience unpleasanteventsrevealthatthosemade miserableoftenmakeothersmiserable.

RonArtest (Pacers)attackonDetroitPistonsfans.

JeffKowalsky/EPA/Landov

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Environment
Evenenvironmentaltemperaturecanleadto aggressiveacts.Murdersandrapesincreased withthetemperatureinHouston.

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FrustrationAggressionPrinciple
Aprincipleinwhichfrustration(causedbythe blockingofanattempttoachieveadesiredgoal) createsanger,whichcangenerateaggression.

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LearningthatAggressionis Rewarding
Whenaggressionleadstodesiredoutcomes,one learnstobeaggressive.Thisisshowninboth animalsandhumans.

Culturesthatfavorviolencebreedviolence. ScotchIrishsettlersintheSouthhadmoreviolent tendenciesthantheirQuakerDutchcounterparts intheNortheastoftheUS.

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ObservingModelsofAggression
Sexuallycoercivemen arepromiscuousand hostileintheir relationshipswith women.This coercivenesshas increaseddueto televisionviewingofR andXratedmovies.
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AcquiringSocialScripts
Themediaportrayssocialscripts andgenerates mentaltapesinthemindsoftheviewers.When confrontedwithnewsituationsindividualsmay relyonsuchsocialscripts.Ifsocialscriptsare violentinnature,peoplemayactthemout.

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DoVideoGamesTeachorRelease Violence?
Thegeneralconsensusonviolentvideogames isthat,tosomeextent,theybreedviolence. Adolescentsviewtheworldashostilewhen theygetintoargumentsandreceivebadgrades afterplayingsuchgames.

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Summary

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Conflict
Conflict isperceivedasanincompatibilityof actions,goals,orideas. A SocialTrap isasituationinwhichthe conflictingparties,byeachrationallypursuing theirselfinterest,becomecaughtinmutually destructivebehavior.

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AGameofSocialTrap
Bypursuingourselfinterestandnottrusting others,wecanenduplosers.

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EnemyPerceptions
Peopleinconflictformdiabolicalimagesofone another.

http://www.aftonbladet.se

http://www.cnn.com

SaddamHussein WickedPharaoh

GeorgeBush Evil

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PsychologyofAttraction
1. Proximity:Geographicnearnessisapowerful predictoroffriendship.Repeatedexposureto novelstimuliincreasestheirattraction(mere exposureeffect).

Ararewhitepenguinborn inazoowasacceptedafter 3weeksbyotherpenguins justduetoproximity.

RexUSA

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PsychologyofAttraction
2. PhysicalAttractiveness:Onceproximity affordscontact,thenextmostimportantthing inattractionisphysicalappearance.

BrooksKraft/Corbis

BrooksKraft/Corbis

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PsychologyofAttraction
3. Similarity:Similarviewsamongindividuals causesthebondofattractiontostrengthen.

Similaritybreedscontent!

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RomanticLove
PassionateLove: Anarousedstateofintense positiveabsorptioninanother,usuallypresentat thebeginningofaloverelationship. Twofactortheoryofemotion 1. Physicalarousalpluscognitiveappraisal 2. Arousalfromanysourcecanenhanceone emotiondependinguponwhatweinterpretor labelthearousal
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RomanticLove
CompanionateLove: Adeep,affectionate attachmentwefeelforthosewithwhomourlives areintertwined.
CourtshipandMatrimony(fromthecollectionofWernerNekes)

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Altruism
Anunselfishregardforthewelfareofothers. Equity: Aconditioninwhichpeople receivefromarelationshipinproportion towhattheygive. SelfDisclosure: Revealingintimate aspectsofoneselftoothers.

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BystanderEffect
Tendencyofanygiven bystandertobeless likelytogiveaidifother bystandersarepresent.

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BystanderIntervention
Thedecisionmakingprocessforbystander intervention.

Akos Szilvasi/Stock,Boston

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TheNormsforHelping
SocialExchangeTheory: Oursocialbehavioris anexchangeprocess.Theaimistomaximize benefitsandminimizecosts.
ReciprocityNorm: Theexpectationthatwe shouldreturnhelpandnotharmthosewhohave helpedus. SocialResponsibilityNorm: Largelylearned,itis anormthattellsustohelpotherswhentheyneed useventhoughtheymaynotrepayus.
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Peacemaking
SuperordinateGoals aresharedgoalsthat overridedifferencesamongpeopleandrequire theircooperation.
SyracuseNewspapers/TheImageWorks

Communication andunderstandingdeveloped throughtalkingtooneanother.Sometimesitis mediatedbya thirdparty. 80

Peacemaking
Graduated&ReciprocatedInitiativesin TensionReduction(GRIT): Thisisastrategy designedtodecreaseinternationaltensions. Onesiderecognizesmutualinterestsand initiatesasmallconciliatoryactthatopensthe doorforreciprocationbytheotherparty.

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