2009 Gravitation Lecture Notes

2009 Tampines Junior College
TAMPINES JUNIOR COLLEGE

2009 JC1 H2 PHYSICS

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

OBJ ECTI VES
Candidates should be able to:
(a) show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of
field of force and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass.
(b) recall and use Newtons law of gravitation in the form
2
2 1
r
m Gm
F = .
(c) derive, from Newtons law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field
strength, the equation
2
r
GM
g = for the gravitational field strength of a point
mass.
(d) recall and apply the equation
2
r
GM
g = for the gravitational field strength of a
point mass to new situations or to solve related problems.
(e) show an appreciation that on the surface of the Earth g is approximately constant
and is equal to the acceleration of free fall.
(f) define potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to
the point.
(g) solve problem using the equation
r
GM
= | for the potential in the field of a
point mass.
(h) recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of
gravitational and electric fields.
(i) analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational
force to the centripetal acceleration it causes.
(j) show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.

REFERENCES
1. Physics, Robert Hutchings
2. Advanced Level Physics, Nelkon & Parker
3. Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday and Resnick

Tampines Junior College Gravitational Field

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 2
1 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

1.1 What is gravitational force?

Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle. This attractive
force is called the gravitational force. The more massive and closer the particles
are, the greater is the gravitational force between them. Gravitational force is one
of the fundamental forces that exist in nature.

1.2 Newtons law of gravitation

The Newtons law of gravitation states that every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force which is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
their distance apart.

Consider two particles of masses m
1
and m
2
, and distance r apart.

The gravitational force between the two particles of mass m
1
and m
2
is given by
2
2 1
r
m Gm
F =

where G is the gravitational constant which has a value of 6.67 10
11
N m
2
kg
2

and r is the distance between the two particles.

Note:
1. The two particles exert equal and opposite attractive force on each other.
The force is directed along the line joining the two particles.

2. For a sphere of uniform density, the force that it exerts on other objects can
be obtained by treating the sphere as a point mass at the centre of the
sphere.

Question: Can Newtons law of gravitation be applied to non-point masses or
non-spherical masses?

Answer: If the objects involved are neither point masses nor spherical masses,
the formula is still applicable if the objects are placed sufficiently far
apart such that their sizes become negligible compared to the distance
separating them.

m
1
m
2
F F
r
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 3
Quick Check 1
Earth and the Moon are gravitationally attracted to each other. Does the more massive Earth attract the moon with,
(a) a greater force
(b) the same force
(c) or less force, than the moon attracts Earth?

Quick Check 2
Compared to the weight of that object at sea level, the weight of an object on peak of Himalayas (about 8848 m
above sea level) will be
(a) the same.
(b) slightly smaller.
(c) much smaller.

Quick Check 3
On the ground the gravitational force on an object is W. What is the gravitational force at a height R, where R is the
radius of the earth?
A) 0.25W
B) 0.5W
C) W
D) 2 W

* See worked example 1 in tutorial.

2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

Gravitational field is a region in which a mass experiences a gravitational force.

2.1 Field of a mass
The region around a mass is a gravitational field. The following diagrams show the
field lines around a point mass and around a uniform sphere (such as the Earth).
The lines are always radial and directed towards the centre of mass. Note that the
field lines are imaginary lines.

The field around the mass is not uniform. The field is stronger at points near the
mass (lines are closer) and becomes weaker further away (lines are further apart).
This can be deduced from the density of the field lines. The quantity that indicates
the strength of the field at a point is known as the gravitational field strength.

Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 4
2.2 Gravitational field strength
The strength of the gravitational field at several positions can be compared by
measuring the gravitational force acting on a standardised mass placed at these
positions.

The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational
force per unit mass acting at that point.

The usual symbol for field strength is g and its units are N kg
1
.

2.3 Deriving the field strength equation
2
r
M G
g =
Consider a point mass M. The point mass sets up a gravitational field around it.
Let us derive an expression for the field strength at point P at a distance r from the
point mass.

If we place a small mass m
s
at P, the force experienced by it is
2
s
r
m M G
F =
Force per unit mass acting at P is then
s
m
F
=
s
2
s
m
r
m M G
=
2
r
M G

Field strength at P (which is force per unit mass) is therefore given by

2
r
M G
g =

2.4 Representation of the Field Strength

The diagram shows the arrow representing the field strength g at point P due to a
point mass M. Field strength is a vector, its direction is towards the point mass
producing the field.

Note:
- Field strength g is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(g 1/r
2
). Such a field is known as an inverse square law field.
- A minus sign actually appears on the right hand side of the formulae for the
gravitational force and gravitational field strength, so that they look like
P
M
r
P
M
g
r
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 5
2
2 1
r
m Gm
F =

and

2
r
M G
g =

The minus sign is used to indicate the attractive nature of the force (rather than
repulsive). It NEED NOT be included when we are calculating a value for the force
or the field strength, except during graph sketching.

Quick Check 4
The gravitational field generated by (or due to) the more massive Earth will be
(a) greater
(b) the same
(c) or less
than the gravitational field generated by the moon?

Quick Check 5
The gravitational field (due to the Earth) experienced by an object on the peak of Himalayas (about 8848 m above
sea level) is
(a) the same as
(b) slightly smaller than
(c) much smaller
than the gravitational field (due to the Earth) experienced by that object at sea level.

Quick Check 6
Karens mass is 50 kg and Kennys mass is 75 kg. They are both sitting in the TPJC Auditorium (considering only
their interaction with Earth only) They will experience the same
a) Gravitational force
b) Gravitational field strength

* See worked example 2 in tutorial.
Quick Check 7
If a third object sits between two massive objects like (say when the moon orbits round the earth, it will experience
the Suns gravitational field as well). What will be the total gravitational field? How should they be added?
(A) as a scalar
(B) as a vector

*Ssee worked example 3 in tutorial
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 6
2.5 Graphical representation of Earths field strength
The graph shows how the field strength g varies with distance r from the centre of
the Earth. The field strength follows the inverse square law outside the Earth. The
negative sign for field strength indicates that the direction is towards the Earths
centre.

2
r
M G
g =

2
E
R
M G

** (see appendix 6)

2.6 Acceleration of free fall
Consider a mass m at the surface of the Earth. Let F be the gravitational force
exerted on the mass. By definition, field strength at the Earth surface would be

g = F / m

If the mass is allowed to fall freely, its acceleration would be

a = F / m = g

We thus see that the field strength g at the Earth surface is numerically equal to
the acceleration of free fall.

The field strength g at the Earth surface is 9.81N kg
1
(or 9.81 m s
-2
) and is
approximately constant near the Earth surface because of the large size of the
Earth.

3 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The potential energy of a body is the energy it possesses due to its position in a
field of force. Gravitational potential energy is therefore the energy a mass
possesses when it is placed in a gravitational field.

R
field strength g
distance r
Earth
M
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 7
3.1 Gravitational Potential Energy Near the Surface of the Earth

Consider the diagram on the right. We have already learnt that
when lifting a mass m through a vertical height h (where h << R
E
),
the potential energy gained by the mass is

Increase in gravitational p.e. = mgh

or

Strictly speaking, the quantity mgh represents the change in potential energy when
the mass is lifted through a vertical height h rather than the absolute amount it
possesses at a height h. We conveniently choose the lower level (usually the
ground level) as the zero potential energy level so that mgh is the extra energy a
mass has when it is at height h compared to when it is at the zero potential energy
level.
At this point we would also like to recall from the earlier topic on Work, Energy and
Power that increase in potential energy is actually work done against gravity. It is
based on this understanding that the formula AU = mgh is derived.

3.2 Formal Definition of Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy of a mass at a point is defined as the work
done by an external force in bringing the mass from infinity to that point.

Here, the work is done by an external force acting in opposite direction to the
gravitational attraction.

Alternatively, the gravitational potential energy of a mass at a point can also be
understood as the work done against gravity in bringing the mass from infinity to
that point.

To illustrate the meaning of the gravitational potential energy, consider the
following diagram of a point mass M. The region around the point mass M is the
gravitational field set up by the mass. The small mass m will be accelerated to P
automatically by the gravitational attraction acting on it. The function of the
external force is therefore to prevent it from gaining speed (or kinetic energy) as it
moves from infinity to P.

The symbol used is U and the unit is the Joule (J).

m
h
m
AU = mgh
external
force
gravitation
al force
P
M
m
at infinity
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 8
Mathematically, the definition can be written as

Hence

So will the two equations give the same answer if we do some calculations?
Lets find out .

A 3-kg mass is projected to a height h above the Earths surface. Taking the radius of the
Earth is 6400 km and mass of Earth = 6 x 10
24
kg. Use AU = mgh and
r
GMm
U = to
find the change in gravitational potential energy if
(i) h = 1000 m
(ii) h = 1000 km

(i) Using AU = mgh,
AU = 3 x 9.8 x 1000 = 2.94 x 10
4
J
Using
r
GMm
U = ,

(ii) Using AU = mgh
AU = 3 x 9.8 x 1000 000 = 2.94 x 10
7
J

Using
r
GMm
U = ,

r
GMm
U =
r
GMm
r
GMm
dr
r
GMm
dr F U
r
r
r
G
=
=
=
=
}
}
2
J 10 2.93
4
=
(
=
(
+
= A
3 3
24 11
10 6400
1
10 6401
1
3 10 6 10 672 . 6
1
1000
1
E E
R R
GMm U
J 10 2.54
6
=
(
=
(
+
= A
3 3
24 11
3
10 6400
1
10 7400
1
3 10 6 10 672 . 6
1
10 1000
1
E E
R R
GMm U

M and m are point or
spherical masses
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 9
Conclusion:
Both equations gave close answers in (i) but gave quite different answers in (ii). Why?

Note:
- Strictly speaking, the term
r
GMm
U = gives the total potential energy of the whole
system of two masses M and m. When two masses M and m are placed at a
distance r apart, it is not right to say that each mass possesses this amount of
potential energy. Rather, we should regard this as the energy shared by the two
masses.

Consistency between PE = mgh and PE =
r
GMm

Now, using
r
GMm
PE =

PE
i-
=
E
R
GMm

PE
f
=
h +
E
R
GMm

( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
= A
h R R
h
GMm
h R R
R h R
GMm
h R
1
R
1
GMm
R
GMm
h R
GMm
U
E E
E E
E E
E E
E E

Now if h is small compared to than R
E
, then
( )
2
1
h
1
E
E E R
R R
~
+

Therefore

mgh
h
R
GM
m
R
h
GMm U
2
E
2
E
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
~

Hence AU = mgh is a special case of the more general
r
GMm
PE =
.
It is valid only if the change in height h is small compared to the radius of
the Earth, when g remains constant.
h
R
E
mass m raised from surface
of Earth through height h
PE
f

PE
i

Important
Concepts/
insights.

Mrs Lim YH (2009) 10
3.3 Projection of a Body from the Surface of a Planet

When a body of mass m is projected from the surface of the Earth with an amount
of kinetic energy E
K
, the furthest distance away from the centre of the Earth, r, that
it will reach is obtained by using conservation of energy, i.e. assuming no energy
loss.

The total energy of the body is conserved, i.e. sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy remains constant throughout. In such a case, the kinetic energy of the
body is converted to potential energy as it moves away from the Earth:

M = mass of Earth, R
E
= radius of Earth

KE + PE at surface of Earth = KE + PE at furthest distance away

E
K
+ (
E
R
GMm
) = 0 + (
r
GMm
)

Note: Cannot use E
K
= mgh as the value of h may not be small compared to
radius of Earth.

This problem may also be represented graphically by the energy-distance graph:

The total energy E
T
is obtained by adding E
K
to
E
R
GMm
. The furthest distance r is
obtained from the intersection of the line representing E
T
and the potential energy
curve because at this point, all the energy is in the form of potential energy.

E
T
= E
p
+ E
k

Potential
Energy
R
E
E
K

E
p
R
GMm
E =
E
K

r

dist. from
centre of
Earth
0
Important
Concepts/
insights.

3.3.1 Condition For Escape to Infinity (Escape Speed)

By law of conservation of energy, since total energy (KE + PE) at infinity is greater
or equal to zero, therefore the condition for escape is

KE + PE > 0

i.e. mv
2
+ (-GMm/R
E
) > 0
v >
E
R
M G 2

So the escape speed is

v =
E
R
M G 2

4 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

The quantity gravitational potential energy depends on both the size of the mass
as well as the position of the mass. We would like to define a energy quantity that
is only dependent on the position (just like gravitational field strength). This
quantity is the gravitational potential.

The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work done by an external
agent in bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.

The usual symbol for gravitational potential is | and its SI unit is J kg
-1
.

Suppose we want to find the gravitational potential at a particular point P.
Theoretically, to determine the potential at P, we would bring in a unit mass (1 kg)
all the way from infinity to P. The work done in bringing the unit mass from infinity
to P is the gravitational potential at P.

For example, if -2 J of work is done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to P, the
gravitational potential at P would be -2 J kg
1
. Here, the work is done by an
external force and not the gravitational attraction. The value can be negative if the
external force is opposite to the displacement vector.
v
to infinity
rocket
Earth
KE > 0
PE = 0
Important
Concepts/
insights.

4.1 Formula for Gravitational Potential
From the definition of gravitational potential, we see that its relation with
gravitational potential energy is given by

and hence

We see that the gravitational potential at a point only depends on its distance r
from the source of gravitation (the mass M).

If a mass m is placed at a point with a gravitational potential |, its gravitational
potential energy is given by U = m|.

Note:
- Both the gravitational potential and the gravitational potential energy are scalar
quantities. The negative sign present in their formulae is part of their numerical
values and cannot be left out.

* see worked example 4 and 5 in tutorial.

5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD STRENGTH AND
POTENTIAL

The relationship between gravitational field strength and gravitational potential is

dr
d
g
|
=

You can easily verify that this relation for the point mass case. The gravitational
field strength at a point is equal to the negative of the potential gradient at that
point. The minus sign indicates that the potential falls when moving in the direction
of the field. The field strength is numerically equal to the potential gradient.

m
U
= |
r
GM
= |
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Consider the following graph that shows how the gravitational potential | varies
with the distance r from the centre of a planet.

The gradient at any point on the curve represents the field strength at that point.

Similarly, by multiplying mass on both sides of the above equation, we obtain the
relation between the gravitational force F and the gravitational potential energy U:

dr
dU
F =

* See appendix 7 for more details and work example 6 in tutorial for
calculations.

6 ORBITS

What keeps a satellite orbiting around the Earth? It is the Earths gravitational
attraction that holds a satellite in its orbit. Without gravitational attraction, the
satellite would move in a straight line rather than in a circular path. Once the
satellite is in orbit, it does not need any rocket motor to keep it in orbit.

There are many examples of naturally occurring orbital motion in space. For
instance, the Moon orbits around the Earth; all the nine planets including the Earth
orbit around the Sun.

6.1 Kinematics of circular orbits
Satellites and planets may move in orbits that are circular or elliptical. In this
syllabus, we shall only deal with problems that involve circular orbits. In circular
orbits, the satellites and planets move with constant speed.

gradient
gives field
strength
gravitational
potential |
distance r
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Consider a satellite of mass m moving around the Earth of mass M in a circular
orbit of radius r as shown:

There is only one force acting on the satellite, the gravitational force exerted by the
Earth. The gravitational force on the satellite is used as the centripetal force that
keeps the satellite in a circular orbit. As a result, the satellite does not fall towards
the Earth.

gravitational force = centripetal force

2
r
m M G
=
r
v m
2
=
2
e r m

How is T

related to r

?


2
r
m M G
=
2
e r m =
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
T
r m
t

r
3
=
2
2
4
T
GM
t

6.2 Energies Associated with Satellites
Imagine a satellite of mass m moves in a circular orbit about the Earth of mass M.
The radius of the orbit is r. Derive an expression for

(a) the kinetic energy T of the satellite,
Gravitational force = centripetal force

2
r
m M G
=
r
v m
2

kinetic energy, T =
2
2
1
v m =
r
m M G
2

F
r
Important
Concepts/
insights.

(b) the gravitational potential energy V of the satellite,
Gravitational potential energy, V =
r
m M G

(c) the total energy E of the satellite.

Total energy, E = T + V
=
r
m M G
2
+ |
.
|
\
|
r
m M G

=
r
m M G
2

Note: A negative total energy indicates that the satellite does not have sufficient energy
to escape from Earths gravitational field to infinity.

6.3 Geostationary (or Geosynchronous) orbit

If the period of the satellites orbit is 24 hours, and if the satellite orbits over the
equator and in the same direction as the Earths rotation, then the satellite will
always appear above the same point on the Earth. Such a satellite is called a
geosynchronous or geostationary satellite, and its orbit a geosynchronous or
geostationary orbit. To an observer on the ground, the geostationary satellite
seems to be stationary relative to the observer.

Note that a geostationary orbit can
(i) only occur above the equator and
(ii) travels from west to east.

Since the period of orbit of a satellite depends on the radius of the orbit (T
2
r
3
), a
geostationary satellite is placed at a particular orbital radius. The following
calculations show how this orbital radius is found.

To find the geostationary orbit:


2
r
m M G
=
2
e r m =
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
T
r m
t

r =
3 1
2
2
4
|
.
|
\
|
T
M G
t

For geostationary orbit, we substitute T = 24 hours = 86400 s, M = 6.0 10
24
kg, and
obtain

r =
3 1
2
2
24 11
) 86400 (
4
) 10 0 . 6 ( ) 10 67 . 6 (
|
|
.
|
\
|

t
= 4.23 10
7
m

The radius of a geostationary orbit is 4.23 10
7
m.
Important
Concepts/
insights.

Summary:
(i) General Equations:

Note:
The formulas inside the boxes are applicable only to point masses and uniform spheres while the
other formulas (inside ellipses) are valid in all situations.

(ii) Orbital Motion


2
r
m M G
=
r
v m
2
=
2
e r m


Appendices
Appendix 1 - SIR ISSAC NEWTON AND GRAVITATION
There is a popular story that Newton was sitting under an apple tree, an
apple fell on his head, and he suddenly thought of the Universal Law of
Gravitation. As in all such legends, this is almost certainly not true in its
details, but the story contains elements of what actually happened.

What Really Happened with the Apple?
Probably the more correct version of the story is that Newton, upon
observing an apple fall from a tree, began to think along the following
lines: The apple accelerated since it started with zero velocity. Thus
there must be a force that acts on the apple to cause this acceleration.
Let's call this force "gravity", and the associated acceleration the
"acceleration due to gravity". Then imagine the apple tree is twice as
high. Again, we expect the apple to be accelerated toward the ground,
so this suggests that gravity reaches to the top of the tallest apple tree.

Sir Isaac's Most Excellent Idea
Now came Newton's truly brilliant insight: if the force of
gravity reaches to the top of the highest tree, might it
not reach all the way to the orbit of the Moon! Then,
the orbit of the Moon about the Earth could be a
consequence of the gravitational force, because the
acceleration due to gravity could change the velocity of
the Moon in just such a way that it followed an orbit
around the earth.
This can be illustrated with the thought experiment
shown in Fig. 2. Suppose we fire a cannon horizontally
from a high mountain; the projectile will eventually fall to
earth, as indicated by the shortest trajectory in the
figure, because of the gravitational force directed
toward the center of the Earth and the associated
acceleration. (Remember that an acceleration is a
change in velocity and that velocity is a vector, so it has
both a magnitude and a direction. Thus, an acceleration
occurs if either or both the magnitude and the direction
of the velocity change.)
But as we increase the muzzle velocity for our
imaginary cannon, the projectile will travel further and
further before returning to earth. Finally, Newton
reasoned that if the cannon projected the cannon ball
with exactly the right velocity, the projectile would travel
completely around the Earth, always falling in the
gravitational field but never reaching the Earth, which is
curving away at the same rate that the projectile falls.
That is, the cannon ball would have been put into orbit
around the Earth. Newton concluded that the orbit of
the Moon was of exactly the same nature: the Moon continuously "fell" in its path around the Earth because of
the acceleration due to gravity, thus producing its orbit.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

By such reasoning, Newton came to the conclusion that any two objects in the Universe exert gravitational
attraction on each other, with the force having a universal form:

The constant of proportionality G is known as the universal gravitational constant. It is termed a "universal
constant" because it is thought to be the same at all places and all times, and thus universally characterizes
the intrinsic strength of the gravitational force.

Appendix 2 - Experiment to measure g using falling body

The diagram shows the experimental setup used to measure the acceleration of free fall using a falling body.

A steel ball is released from P and an electronic timer is triggered to start by the release. After falling a
distance s, it passes a light gate, which causes the timer to stop. By measuring the distance s and the time t
of fall as recorded by the timer, the free-fall acceleration g can be determined from the equation

s = g t
2

g =
2
2
t
s

Appendix 3 - True weight and apparent weight

The true weight of a body is equal to the gravitational force on the body and is determined only by the
position of the body.

The apparent weight is the force that the body exerts on its support. It will not be equal to the true weight if
the body is undergoing acceleration.

The apparent weight is zero i.e. the body is weightless for the following cases:

Law of Uni ver sal Gr avi t at i on
Every obj ect in t he universe at t ract s every ot her obj ect
wit h a force dir ect ed along t he line of cent res for t he t wo
obj ect s t hat is proport ional t o t he pr oduct of t heir masses
and inversely proport ional t o t he square of t he separat ion
bet ween t he t wo obj ect s.

2
2 1
G
r
m m
G F =
s
P
light beam
light gate
to
electronic
timer
ball

(i) a body falling freely under gravity
(ii) a space vehicle orbiting the Earth

In the second case, the gravitational force on the man is used entirely to provide the centripetal force required
to keep him in circular motion in his orbit. The astronaut does not exert any force on the vehicle. He
experiences weightlessness.

Note: A body's true weight is zero only at the point where there is no gravitational field. This can happen in
outer space (or deep space) where the gravity effects of the Earth and other planets are zero.
Another example of such a point is to be found between the Earth and the Moon where the two
gravitational fields cancel.

Appendix 4 - Factors affecting g on Earth

The factors affecting g are: (a) altitude and latitude
(b) density
(c) rotation of the earth

It is assumed in calculations that the Earth is spherical, has uniform density (homogeneous) and that it does
not rotate. Thus in finding g, we only consider the distance from the centre of the Earth.

However, the earth is actually ellipsoidal i.e. it is flattened at the poles and bulges at the Equator (points at the
poles are closer than points on the equator).

It has non-uniform density due to unequal deposits of mineral in different parts of the Earth (variations in
density enable oil prospecting).

The Earth rotates about a polar axis with an angular speed
= 2t/T = 2t/(24 x 60 x 60) = 7.27 x 10
-5
rad s
-1
.

All objects on the surface of the Earth are undergoing circular motion with same value of except at the poles
where radius of circle is zero. Part of the gravitational force (and thus go) is used to provide the centripetal
force for the objects. The amount of force depends on the latitude since the radius of path is different.

Appendix 5 - Effect of the rotation of the Earth on g

The Earth rotates from the West to the East about the North South axis with a period of 24 hours. Any object
on the surface at the equator is rotating with the Earth with an angular
velocity . It thus experiences a centripetal acceleration.

F = gravitational force of attraction acting on object.
N = normal force acting on object.

By Newton's second law,

net force = F - N
= mR
2
where R is radius of Earth

But = mg (true weight)

where g = acceleration of free fall at Earth's surface = 9.81 m s
-2
.

Thus, N = mg - mR
2

= m(g - R
2
)

R
GmM
F
2
=
N
F

By Newton's third law, N = force exerted by object on Earth's surface.

apparent weight, mg' = N
= m(g - R
2
)

i.e. apparent acceleration g' = g - R
2

Appendix 6 Variation of g

The Earth may be taken to be uniform sphere of radius r and density . For r less than the radius of the earth,
the Mass is NOT CONSTANT but depends on the radius.
Hence
2
r
GM
g = =
2
3
3
4
r
G r t
=
3
4 G r t
a linear relationship with r

Appendix 7 Derivation of relations

By definition,
}
=
r
dr F U | |

Hence,
dr
dU
F =

Since | = U/m, we have

dr
r
g
r
dr
m
F
m
U
}
=
}
= = | | | | |

Thus,
dr
d
g
|
=

2009 Gravitation Lecture Notes

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2009 Tampines Junior College

TAMPINES JUNIOR COLLEGE

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