Levels of Organization Emergent Property = living things grow more complex higher up in the levels of organization.

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts Subatomic Particle>>Atom>>Molecule>>Organelle>>Cell>>Tissue>>Organ>>Organ System>>Organism>>Population>>Community>>Ecosystem>>Biosphere Subatomic particles are particles composing atoms. The three subatomic particles are proton (positively charged), neutron (no charge) and electron (negatively charged). Atoms are the basic units of matter. Molecules are groups of atoms. An example of a molecule is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Organelles or little organs are small structures within a cell that perform specific functions. Cells are membrane bound structures known as the basic units of life. Tissues are groups of similar cells with a common function and interact. Organs are structures formed by groups of tissues with a common function and interact. Organ systems are groups of interacting organs with related tasks. Organisms are living things. Populations are organisms of the same species (species are organisms with the capacity to produce offspring) living at the same place and time. A community is all populations living and interacting within an area at the same time. Ecosystems are communities and their environments with biotic factors (living things) and abiotic factors (non living things) The biosphere is the layer of the earth containing all living organisms. Example: proton>>carbon>>DNA>>nucleus>>brain cell>>nerve tissue>>brain>>nervous system>>zebra>>zebra population>>dazzle of zebra in a savannah>> zebras and giraffes in a savanna>>biosphere

Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonds Electron Distribution >Electron configuration >Orbitals S P D >Electron Shell 1st 1s 2nd 2s, 2p rd 3 3s, 3p, 3d H 1 1 1s1

Max. No. of electrons 2 6 10

Atomic number No. of electrons e- configuration Electron shell

Ca 6 6 1s22s22p2

N 7 7 1s22s22p3

O 8 8 1s22s22p4

Outermost shell - outermost electrons = valence electrons Valence e- shown in Lewis Dot Structure H Chemical Bonds >Valence shell follows the octet rule Octet rule = stable atom has 8 valence electrons Covalent bonds Covalent bonds = bonds through sharing, bonds of nonmetal atoms Cl Cl e- pair single bond Polar =equal share Non Polar =unequal share

Ionic Bonds Ionic bonds = bonds through transferring, bonds of a nonmetal and metal atom =metals lose e-, nonmetals gain e-

Inorganic Molecules H2O Properties Due to Hydrogen Bonds Cohesion = same molecules stick together>>Surface Tension = coated with a thin membrane, a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid High heat capacity = strong resistance to temperature change High heat vaporization Denser than ice >> Ice acts as an insulator, ice floats and insulates the water below allowing marine animals to live Polarity Adhesion = clinging of one substance to another Universal solvent >> affects chemical reactions

Organic Molecules Organic compounds = carbon-based molecules Carbon is the backbone of life Polymers = molecule consisting of many similar/identical building blocks strung together >made by a dehydration reaction = removal of a water molecule >broken by hydrolysis = breaking down through water Monomers = building blocks of polymers Carbohydrates Monomers: Monosaccharide CH2O Disaccharide = formed from 2 monosaccharide Polysaccharide = polymers of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharide >Ex. Starch (storage polysaccharide in plants), Glycogen (storage polysaccharide in animals) Lipids >hydrophobic = water-fearing Monomers: Fatty Acids Unsaturated Fatty Acid = liquid state, double bonded (ex. Corn oil, olive oil) Saturated Fatty Acid = solid state (ex. Butter, beef fat) Ex. Phospholipids (components of cell membrane), Steroid (ex. Cholesterol, hormones) Proteins Monomer: Amino Acids Nucleic Acids Monomer: Nucleotides Ex. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Microscopy Magnification = zooming in/enlarging an image Resolution = clarity Eyepiece = magnifies the specimen; focuses the image from the specimen Coarse adjustment knob = moves the stage up or down; focuses the specimen with LPO (low powered objective) Low power objective (LPO) = magnifies about 10x; allows overview or quick scan Fine adjustment knob = moves the tube for focusing the specimen with HPO (high powered objective) High powered objective (HPO) = magnifies about 40x; allows detailed viewing Body tube = connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses Arm = supports the tube and connects it to the base Revolving nosepiece = holds the objectives; allows lenses to rotate while viewing Stage = supports the microscope slides Stage clips = holds the slide in place Diaphragm = regulates the amount of light and contrast Mirror = focuses the light unto the specimen Base = the bottom of the microscope used for support Light source = illuminates the specimen for viewing

Cell Theory All living things are composed of cells Cell Size Types of Cell Prokaryotic Cell = simple cells (ex. Bacteria, archaea) Eukaryotic Cell = have a nucleus (ex. Plants, animals, protists, fungi) Cell Parts and Functions Cell Organelles Nucleus (protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: brain, control center, houses the DNA Structure: double membrane, Nuclear Envelope (double-membrane enclosing the nucleus), Nucleolus (rRNA synthesis) Other Info: contains DNA Mitochondrion (protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: cellular respiration Structure: double membrane, mitochondrial matrix (where the enzymes, DNA and other materials needed for ATP are located), cristae (fold that encloses the matrix) Other Info: endosymbiont Golgi Complex (protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: molecular warehouse, post office Structure: cis (receiving) and trans (shipping) face Other Info: discovered by Camillo Golgi, Italian scientist. Ribosomes (bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: protein synthesis Structure: Free ribosomes (suspended in the cytoplasm), bound ribosomes (attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope) Other Info: proteins and rRNA Endoplasmic Reticulum (protists, fungi, plants, animals) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function: protein synthesis Structure: with ribosome Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function: lipid, phospolipid, steroid synthesis Structure: without ribosome Plasma Membrane (bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: boundary of the cell, gate Structure: phospholipid bilayer Other Info: proteins

Lysosome (protists, animals) Function: digestive compartments, suicide bag, recycling center Structure: sac of hydrolytic enzymes Cytoskeleton (bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals) Microfilaments or actin filaments Function: support the cells shape, cell movement Structure: Intermediate filaments Function: support the cells shape Structure Microtubules Function: Structure: Tubulin Centrioles (animals) Function: cell division Structure: cylinder of 9 triplets Peroxisome Function: Detoxification Other Info: H2O2 production Vacuole/tonoplast (plants, animals) Function: storage compartment Structure: tonoplast Other Info: food contractile, central Cell wall (animals) Function: Protection, support, shape Plasmo-desmata (plants) Function: bridge Structure: narrow channels Chloroplast (protists, plants) Function: Photosynthesis Structure: double membrane Other Info: endosymbiont Cilia and Flagella (bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals) Function: locomotion Structure: 9 + 2 pattern Cilia Structure: shorter, more numerous, oar-like movement Flagella Structure: longer, whip-like motion

Cell Junctions Tight Junctions Function: prevents leakage Structure: tight, knit together Anchoring junctions Function: rivets, fastens cells together Gap Junctions Function: channels for molecules

Tissues Animal Tissues Epithelial Tissue Connected, tightly knit For protection Named according to shape Squamous (ex. Lungs) Cuboidal (ex. Kidney tube) Columnar (ex. Lining the intestine) Pseudostratified (ex. Lining the respiratory tract) Stratified squamous (ex. Lining the esophagus) Connective Tissues Scattered Loose connective tissue Binds epithelia, holds organs in place Fibrous connective tissue Tendons Adipose connective tissue Stores fat Muscle Tissue Movement Most abundant Skeletal Muscle Attached to bones by tendons, voluntary movements Cardiac Muscle Tissues of the heart, involuntary Smooth Muscle Found in walls of internal organs, involuntary Nervous Tissue Neurons = structural and functional unit of the nervous tissue >has dendrites (receives nerve impulses), cell body (contains the nucleus and other organelles) and axon (transmits signals) Plant Cells Meristematic (embryonic) or Permanent (mature/differentiated) Parenchyma Most abundant, thinnest and flexible, metabolism Collenchyma Flexible support Sclerenchyma Thickest, support, protection

Plant Tissue Dermal Tissue (parenchyma) Outer Protective Covering >has a layer called epidermis >which has a waxy coating called cuticle Vascular Tissue Transport of food/nutrients (phloem) and water (xylem) Ground Tissue (parenchyma, collenchymas, sclerenchyma) Fills up between the dermal tissue and vascular tissue, photosynthesis

Cellular Transport Passive Transport Requires no energy High to Low concentration gradient Osmosis =diffusion of water across the membrane Diffusion =spreading of molecules =solution solvent Facilitated Diffusion =involves proteins Carrier (changes shape) and channel (gated or otherwise) Solutions Isotonic = equal solute concentration Animal: Normal Plant: Flaccid Hypotonic = solute concentration lower than the cells Animal: Lysed Plant: Turgid Hypertonic = higher solute concentration Animal: Shriveled Plant: Plasmolyzed

Active Transport Requires energy (ATP) Low to High concentration gradient Bulk Transport (vesicles) Exocytosis = exporting bulk material Endocytosis = taking in of molecules Phagocytosis = cellular eating Engulfs particles through pseudopodia Pinocytosis = cellular drinking Fluid endocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis Receptor proteins embedded in the membrane pick up specific molecules Transport Uniport Transports one kind of cell Coupled Port Transports two kinds of cells Symport (same direction; both enter and exit) Antiport (different directions; one exits, one enters and vice versa) Ion Pump Sodium Potassium Pump Pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in Proton Pump

Electron transport of cellular respiration, and in chloroplast membranes during photsynthesis