GROUP NO.

:_________________

PROJECT REPORT ON

Regenerative Braking

Submitted by

GUIDED BY ________________________

AIM: To design & develop the Regenerative Braking System. ABSTRACT The project here is all about With Regenerative Braking System. What is regenerative braking? In the effort to produce greener cars numerous processes have been examined that effect fuel consumption. One process is braking traditional braking wastes energy because it kills the momentum that the engine has built up. However, with the process of regenerative braking, this energy effectively finds a new home. Instead of being lost as heat in the brakes, the energy is used to drive an alternator which allows the energy to be partially recovered and stored in a battery. In conventional vehicles this stored energy is then used to power electrical components including headlights, stereos and air conditioning.

In hybrid cars, regenerative braking is used to charge the battery that propels the electric motor. This is particularly advantageous in town driving situations when cars traditionally travel at low speeds. With regenerative braking a hybrid can rely solely on the electric motor in these situations, therefore producing zero emissions. Regenerative braking is sometimes confused with dynamic braking but the processes are very different. By contrast, dynamic braking dissipates the energy as heat and does not recapture it. What are the pros and cons of regenerative braking? The advantages of regenerative braking are clear-cut as effectively drivers can enjoy something for nothing. They will notice no difference to regular braking and yet enjoy better fuel economy, reduced CO2 emissions and know that they are saving energy. Effectively the electric motor works in reverse during the process of regenerative braking. The motor acts as the generator to recharge batteries with the energy that would normally be lost. This reduces the reliance on fuel, boosting economy and lowering emissions.

The main issue with regenerative braking is that it still relies on friction braking too. For example, if used alone the effect of regenerative braking is dramatically cut at lower speeds. Consequently the friction brake is still necessary to bring the vehicle to a complete halt. Friction brakes will always be necessary alongside regenerative brakes just in case the system suffers a failure. Theres still room for improvement with regenerative braking too. In conventional vehicles there is an additional cost and a reliance on the second engine - the electric motor - to reach its full potential. The amount of electrical energy that can be dissipated is also restricted by the capacity of the supply system. As a consequence, dynamic braking is often included alongside regenerative braking to increase the absorption of excess energy. Which green cars use regenerative braking? Any current hybrid car will make use of regenerative braking. Some of the earliest examples of hybrids using the system include the Toyota Prius, the Honda Civic hybrid, the Lexus RX 400h and the GS 450h. Regenerative braking is also crucial to the development of cars using compressed air.

Compressed air cars have a similar range to electric vehicles with zero emissions. Compressed air engines reduce the cost of vehicle production by around 20 per cent as there is no need for a fuel tank, cooling system, spark plugs or silencers. In addition, regenerative braking systems will soon be vital in the sport of motor racing. All cars must become hybrid by 2013 according to regulations by the FIA with regenerative braking used alongside a kinetic energy recovery system.

WHAT IS REGENERATIVE BRAKE RegenerativeRegenerative brakingbrakingbraking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor whenever the car is in electric mode. Understanding how regenerativeregenerativeregenerative

brakingbrakingbraking works may require a brief look at the system it replaces. Conventional braking braking braking systems use friction to counteract the forward momentum of a moving car. As the brake pads rub against the wheels (or a disc connected to the axle), excessive heat energy is also created. This heat energy dissipates into the air, wasting up to 30% of the car's generated power. Over time, this cycle of friction and wasted heat energy reduces the car's fuel efficiency. More energy from the engine is required to replace the energy lost by braking. Hybrid gas/electric automobiles now use a completely different method of braking at slower speeds. While hybrid cars still use conventional brake pads at highway speeds, electric motors help the car brake during stopand-go driving. As the driver applies the brakes through a conventional pedal, the electric motors reverse direction. The torque created by this reversal counteracts the forward momentum and eventually stops the car. But regenerative braking does more than simply stop the car. Electric motors and electric generators (such as a car's alternator) are essentially two sides of the same technology. Both use magnetic fields and coiled wires, but in different configurations. Regenerative

braking systems take advantage of this duality. Whenever the electric motor of a hybrid car begins to reverse direction, it becomes an electric generator or dynamo. This generated electricity is fed into a chemical storage battery and used later to power the car at city speeds. Regenerative braking takes energy normally wasted during braking and turns it into usable energy. It is not, however, a perpetual motion machine. Energy is still lost through friction with the road surface and other drains on the system. The energy collected during braking does not restore all the energy lost during driving. It does improve energy efficiency and assist the main alternator

Regenerative Brake A regenerative brake is a mechanism that reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy into another useful form of energy. This captured energy is then stored for future use or fed back into a power system for use by other vehicles. For example, electrical regenerative brakes in electric railway vehicles feed the generated electricity back into the supply system. In

battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Other forms of energy storage which may be used include compressed air and flywheels. Regenerative braking should not be confused with dynamic braking, which dissipates the electrical energy as heat and thus is less energy efficient.

Traditional friction-based braking is still used with electrical regenerative braking for the following reasons:

The regenerative braking effect rapidly reduces at lower speeds, therefore the friction brake is still required in order to bring the vehicle to a complete halt, although malfunction of a dynamo can still provide resistance for a while. The friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake. Most road vehicles with regenerative braking only have power on some wheels (as in a 2WD car) and regenerative braking power only applies to such wheels, so in order to provide controlled braking under difficult conditions (such as in wet roads)

friction based braking is necessary on the other wheels. The amount of electrical energy capable of dissipation is limited by either the capacity of the supply system to absorb this energy or on the state of charge of the battery or capacitors. No regenerative braking effect can occur if another electrical component on the same supply system is not currently drawing power and if the battery or capacitors are already charged. For this reason, it is normal to also incorporate dynamic braking to absorb the excess energy. Under emergency braking it is desirable that the braking force exerted be the maximum allowed by the friction between the wheels and the surface without slipping, over the entire speed range from the vehicle's maximum speed down to zero. The maximum force available for acceleration is typically much less than this except in the case of extreme highperformance vehicles. Therefore, the power required to be dissipated by the braking system under emergency braking conditions may be many times the maximum power which is delivered under acceleration. Traction motors sized to handle the drive power may not be able to

cope with the extra load and the battery may not be able to accept charge at a sufficiently high rate. Friction braking is required to absorb the surplus energy in order to allow an acceptable emergency braking performance. For these reasons there is typically the need to control the regenerative braking and match the friction and regenerative braking to produce the desired total braking output. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this. Engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued 2 patents for this 'Brake by Wire' technology.[1][2] The motor as a Generator Regenerative braking utilizes the fact that an electric motor can also act as a generator. The vehicle's electric traction motor is operated as a generator during braking and its output is supplied to an electrical load. It is the transfer of energy to the load which provides the braking effect. An early example of this system was the Energy Regeneration Brake, developed in 1967 for the Amitron. This was a completely battery powered urban concept car whose batteries were recharged by regenerative braking, thus increasing the range of the automobile.

Electric railway vehicle operation During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction generator (MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply (regenerative braking) For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from the rolling direction. Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field windings, times that of the armature windings. Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos.[4] There is also less wear on friction braking components. The Delhi Metro saved

around 90000 tonnes of Carbon Dioxide from being released into the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 Megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems during between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of Carbon Dioxide from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative braking. Comparison of dynamic and regenerative brakes Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative brakes, dissipate the electric energy as heat by passing the current through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives and streetcars. If designed appropriately, this heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior. If dissipated externally, large radiator-like cowls are employed to house the resistor banks. The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with dynamic brakes is the need to closely match the generated current with the supply characteristics. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely controlled. Only with the development

of power electronics has this been possible with AC supplies, where the supply frequency must also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC supply is rectified for DC motors). A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power supplies and 3-phase induction motors. This results in a near constant speed for all trains as the motors rotate with the supply frequency both when motoring and braking. Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) are currently under development both for F1 motor sport and road vehicles. The concept of transferring the vehicles kinetic energy using Flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard Feynman in the 1950s and is exemplified in complex high end systems such as the Zytek, Flybrid[6], Torotrak[7][8] and Xtrac used in F1 and simple, easily manufactured and integrated differential based systems such as the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Vehicle Kinetic Energy Recovery System (CPCKERS)[9] Xtrac & Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which employ a small and sophisticated ancillary gearbox incorporating a

continuously variable transmission (CVT). The CPC-KERS is similar as it also forms part of the driveline assembly. However, the whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicles hub (looking like a drum brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential replaces the CVT and transfers torque between the flywheel, drive wheel and road wheel.

Use in motor sport F1 teams began testing Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems, or KERS, in January 2009. Teams have said they must respond in a responsible way to the world's environmental challenges.[10] The FIA allowed the use of 60 kW KERS in the regulations for the 2009 Formula One season.
[11]

Energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or can be stored as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor). [edit] Motorcycles

KTM racing boss Harald Bartol has revealed that the factory raced with a secret Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS) fitted to Tommy Koyama's motorcycle during the season-ending 125cc Valencian Grand Prix. History The first of these systems to be revealed was the Flybrid[14] which appeared in an article in Racecar Engineering magazine. Flybrid Systems F1 KERS weighs 24 kg and has an energy capacity of 400 kJ after allowing for internal losses. A maximum power boost of 60 kW (81.6 PS) for 6.67 sec is available. The 240mm diameter flywheel weighs 5.0 kg and revolves at up to 64,500 rpm. Maximum torque is 18 Nm. The system occupies a volume of 13 liters. It may not be used by all of the F1 teams but a few, such as Williams F1 are going to use it, if not at the first race, at one point during the season. Two minor incidents have been reported during testing of KERS systems in 2008. The first occurred when the Red Bull Racing team tested their KERS battery for the first time in July, it malfunctioned and caused a fire scare, resulting in the team's factory being evacuated.[15] The second was less than a week later when a BMW Sauber mechanic was given

an electric shock when he touched Christian Klien's KERS-equipped car during a test at the Jerez circuit. Races Automobile Club de l'Ouest, the organizer behind the annual 24 Hours of Le Mans event and the Le Mans Series is currently "studying specific rules for LMP1 which will be equipped with a kinetic energy recovery system." Peugeot was the first manufacturer to unveil a fully functioning LMP-1 car in the form of the 908 HY at the 2008 Autosport 1000km race at Silverstone. Autopart makers Bosch Motorsport Service (part of the subsidiary Bosch Engineering GmbH) is developing a KERS for use in motor racing. Hybrid systems by Bosch Motorsport comprise an electricity storage system (a lithium-ion battery with scalable capacity or a flywheel), the electric motor (weigh between four and eight kilograms with a maximum power level of 60 kW) and the KERS controller, containing the power electronic, battery management, and management system for hybrid and engine functions . The Bosch Group offers a range of electric hybrid systems for commercial and light-duty applications.

Carmakers BMW and Honda are testing it. At the 2008 1000 km of Silverstone, Peugeot Sport unveiled the Peugeot 908 HY, a hybrid electric variant of the diesel 908, with a KERS system. Peugeot plans to campaign the car in the 2009 Le Mans Series season, although it will not be capable of scoring championship points.[21] Vodafone McLaren Mercedes have recently begun testing of their KERS system at the Jerez test track in preparation for the 2009 F1 season, although it is not yet known if they will be operating an electrical or mechanical system.[[22]]. In November 2008 it was announced that Freescale Semiconductor will collaborate with McLaren Electronic Systems to further develop its KERS system for McLaren's Formula 1 car from 2010 onwards. Both parties believe this collaboration will improve McLaren's KERS system and help the system filter down to road car technology. Toyota has used a supercapacitor for regeneration on Supra HV-R hybrid race car that won the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in July 2007.

Use in compressed air cars Regenerative brakes are being used in compressed air cars to refuel the tank during braking.

Basically, a hybrid electric vehicle combines an internal combustion engine and an electric motor powered by batteries, merging the best features of today's combustion engine cars and electric vehicles. The combination allows the electric motor and batteries to help the conventional engine operate more efficiently, cutting down on fuel use. Meanwhile, the gasoline-fueled combustion engine overcomes the limited driving range of an electric vehicle. In the end, this hybridization gives you the ability to drive 500 miles or more using less fuel and never having to plug in for recharging. Gasoline-fueled HEVs are among a select few vehicle technologies that can provide dramatically increased fuel economy and

extremely low levels of smog-forming and cancer causing emissions, while delivering the safety and performance the public has come to expect. But that all depends on how well automakers apply the technology. To help you navigate the hybrid market, let's take a closer look at what's under the hood that sets hybrids apart. But remember, when looking at hybrids, no matter what the technology, the clearest and most direct way to evaluate the environmental performance of a hybrid electric vehicle is by its fuel economy and emissions. So don't just trust an automaker when they tell you it is a hybrid, check the fuel economy and emissions to make sure the vehicle is significantly cleaner and more efficient than its conventional counterparts.

How we classify Hybrids: Understanding the technology Not all hybrids are created equal. In fact, there are degrees of hybridization such as "mild" and "full" and even different drivetrains utilized depending on which hybrid you're looking at. If

we approach hybrids by looking at five technology steps that separate conventional vehicles from battery electric vehicles, we can better evaluate how a particular hybrid operates. To be a true hybrid, a vehicle needs the first three steps. The fourth and fifth create the potential for hybrids with superior energy and environmental performance, but remember, don't just rely on the type of hybrid, always check the fuel economy and emissions data available at our Hybrid Consumer Center. 5 Steps to Hybridization
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Idle-off capability Regenerative braking capacity Power Assist and Engine downsizing (at this step you reach a "mild" hybrid) Electric-only drive (at this step you reach a "full" hybrid) Extended battery-electric range (at this step you become a "plug-in" hybrid)

1) Idle-Off Like the switch that turns off the refrigerator light bulb when the door is closed, this feature allows a vehicle to turn off its gasoline engine when stopped, saving fuel. In a well-designed system, the engine will turn back on and be ready to go in less time than it takes for you to move your foot from the brake to the gas pedal. However, while hybrids use a full function electric motor operating above 100 Volts to accomplish this, conventional vehicles accomplish this same thing by using a beefed up 12 Volt or 42 Volt starter motor (often called an integrated starter-generator). So, this ability alone does not define a hybrid even though all hybrids can do this.

A "muscle hybrid" is a vehicle that uses hybrid technology to increase power and performance rather than significantly increasing fuel economy--leading to an expensive vehicle with very low cost-effectiveness. Some automakers are trying to take advantage of idle-off provided by beefed up starter-motors to claim they are actually putting hybrids on the road, garnering an undeserved green image. Claiming these vehicles are hybrids simply rings hollow because they don't take the next two steps, which are necessary to qualify as a real hybrid. Be wary, these are, at best, half-hearted attempts at hybridization. Find out more information in our Hybrid Watchdog. 2) Regenerative Braking The energy associated with a car in motion is called kinetic energythe faster a car moves, the more kinetic energy it has. To slow down or stop a car, you have to get rid of that energy. In a conventional car, you use the friction of your mechanical brakes to stop, turning the kinetic energy into hot brakes and thereby throwing away the energy. "Regen," or regenerative braking takes over some of the stopping duties from the friction brakes and instead uses the electric motor to help stop the car. To do this, the electric motor operates as a generator, recovering some of the kinetic

energy and converting it into electricity that is stored in the battery so it can be used later to help drive the vehicle down the road. In order for the system to actually improve fuel economy, however, the vehicle must have a large enough electric motor operating at a high enough voltage to efficiently capture the braking energy. Also, the vehicle requires a battery pack with enough capacity to store this energy until it is needed. Some automakers claim to have regenerative braking on conventional vehicles with integrated startergenerators, but their system cannot recover enough energy to actually help power the vehicle or cut fuel use beyond what is achieved with their idle-off ability. 3) Power Assist and Engine Downsizing The most basic definition of a hybrid vehicle is one that uses two methods of providing power to the wheels. As a result, the ability of an electric motor to help share the load with a gasoline engine is the technology step that, on top of the first two, truly qualifies a vehicle as a hybrid. A vehicle meets this classification only if it has a large enough motor and battery pack such that the motor can actually supplement the engine to help accelerate the vehicle while driving. This power assist ability, combined with downsizing the engine, allows the vehicle to achieve the same performance as a vehicle

with a larger engine while achieving superior fuel economy. Typically vehicles containing these first three features are categorized as a "mild" hybrid like the Insight, Civic, and Accord hybrids from Honda. 4) Electric-only-drive This technology step allows the vehicle to drive using only the electric motor and battery pack, thus taking full advantage of electric side of the dual system. With this step, we separate out "full" hybrids such as the Toyota Prius and Ford Escape Hybrid. This is the reason why Prius owners are sometimes shocked when they start their car and don't even realize it's ononly the quiet battery system is operating the car rather than the traditional rumble of the combustion engine. The greater flexibility of full hybrids allows the vehicle to spend more time operating its engine only when it is at its most efficient. At low speeds and at launch, the electric motor and battery powers the car and at high speeds the engine takes over.

5) Extended Battery-Electric Range Hybrids can boast better "low end torque" than comparable conventional vehiclesmeaning that the gasoline-electric drive will actually deliver better acceleration at low speeds. The final level of hybridization extends the electric motor's capacity to drive the car by recharging the battery from a clean energy grid (i.e. "plug in"). This would allow the hybrid to operate solely as a battery-electric vehicle for as much as 20-60 miles, thus improving their environmental performance if they are using clean sources of electricity. A Plug-in can operate as a typical full hybrid if it is not recharged from the power grid, so the benefits of this feature are largely dependent on how often the consumer plugs in. The biggest challenge with these hybrids is costthey have the highest up-front costs because they require larger motors and battery packs to ensure good vehicle performance and sufficient allelectric range. To date automakers have not offered any of these hybrids for passenger vehicles, though DaimlerChrysler is currently testing a commercial van-based plug-in hybrid.

Regenerative Braking... The Stop n' Go Money Saver For decades we have always heard that stop n' go traffic was not only bad for our pocketbooks, but as you'll see on Mean Green Machines, it's also hard on the environment due to the extended driving, excess idling, and wasted engine output. Did you know that about 30 percent of your cars' engine output is lost through braking in heavy traffic, and the deeper in the city you travel, chances are the worse your percentage is. Not to mention the higher the road rage in your area... the more people are probably stomping on the gas peddle, racing up to your bumper, and then hard braking to a stop. What if we told you that you could actually save money and a little bit of wear and tear on the environment through such stop n' go traveling? Even those road rage drivers may do the environment a bit of a favor. Well you can, and it is through the nifty little technology called regenerative braking. While not exactly much of a complicated technological advancement, regenerative braking offers a huge advantage, but it only works with hybrid-electric vehicles. Conventional combustion engines can only do

one thing and that is convert fuel to energy and heat to move forward. This means that every time you apply the brakes to stop that forward movement, you are wasting energy. However, in the case of the hybrid/electric, you would be creating energy. How it works is very similar to an electric generator. Every time an electric car moves forward it is using its stored energy. This is its torque phase and it generally causes your vehicle to lose stored energy in order to create the energy necessary to move you forward. However, at the moment you lift up from the accelerator to slow down, the torque phase shuts down and the electric engine switches over to an electric generator and uses the "free" momentum of the vehicle to create new energy stores for the battery. This translates to a vehicle that can generate the energy necessary to leave a stop light while it is coming to a stop in front of it. Ultimately any car that can produce energy while in motion is bringing us closer to a self sustaining energy source. Imagine a car that could replenish itself while driving. This would offer us a never ending

source of energy, with practically zero emissions and zero cost out of our pockets. This is just one step in that direction and something that we all can enjoy if you purchase or convert your current vehicle into a (PHEV) plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. A conversion will cost upwards of $5,000, but at $4.00 a gallon for gasoline, you could make that up and then some over the course of the several years you own that vehicle

Regenerative braking is a system in which the electric motor that normally drives a hybrid or pure electric vehicle is essentially operated in reverse (electrically) during braking or coasting. Instead of consuming energy to propel a vehicle, the motor acts as a generator that charges the onboard batteries with electrical energy that would normally be lost as heat through traditional mechanical friction brakes. As the motor acts in reverse, it generates electricity. The accompanying friction (electrical resistance) assists the normal brake pads in overcoming inertia and helps slow the vehicle. Also Known As: May be confused with dynamic

braking, which dissipates the energy as heat, but does not recapture it. Examples: All hybrid and electric vehicles use regenerative braking to generate electricity to help recharge their batteries. The process of regeneration is entirely automatic and occurs when the motor overruns (or the demand speed is reduced) so that the motor's back EMF is greater than the output voltage from the controller. It is best treated as braking (which just happens to feed the braking energy back to the battery) rather than a means of saving lots of energy. This is because most motors and drive systems are inefficient and you won't save a lot of battery! However there are applications - such as Go-Karts with the Lynch motor - where the energy re-generated can make a significant difference to the battery life. It is actually the battery which is doing the braking, not the controller, since the braking energy gets dumped into the battery. For this reason regen braking should not be considered as a safety or emergency braking system. A properly designed vehicle will also have an adequate mechanical brake, for emergencies.

Regen braking is indeed variable. In the same way as you adjust the acceleration (power to the motor) by advancing the speed control, you adjust the braking (power from the motor) by reducing the speed. There are adjustable acceleration and deceleration ramps which vary the maximum acceleration and deceleration rates An Automatic braking system With Regenerative Braking, is a safety system on motor vehicles which prevents the wheels from locking while braking. In a vehicle with a first set of first and second wheels coupled to an electric drive system capable of providing regenerative braking and a second set of third and fourth wheels, wherein the vehicle dynamically adjusts a brake proportioning between the first and second sets responsive to a determined wheel speed difference between the first and second sets, the improvement comprising a regenerative braking control method according to the steps of: measuring first, second, third and fourth speeds of the first, second, third and fourth wheels; for each wheel of one of the first and second sets, determining a set-off value inversely relational to a commanded brake

torque and a wheel deceleration; determining modified wheel speeds for each wheel of said one of the first and second sets responsive to the wheel speeds and the set-off values; and determining the wheel speed difference between the first and second sets responsive to the modified wheels speeds of said one of the first and second sets and the wheel speeds of the other of the first and second sets, wherein the dynamic adjusting of brake proportioning between the first and second sets increases brake torque load on the first and second wheels, increasing an amount of braking achieved regeneratively.

Regenerative braking in DC systems Electric stock may recuperate energy during braking by using traction motors as generators. In DC supply systems (1,5 and 3 kV) high recovery rates are only achievable under favourable conditions. Technology field: Regenerative braking and energy management General information Description Principle:

The energy put into accelerating a train and into moving it uphill is stored in the train as kinetic and potential energy. In vehicles with electric traction motors (this includes electric, diesel-electric and hybrid stock) a great part of this energy can be reconverted into electric energy by using the motors as generators when braking. The electric energy is transmitted backwards along the conversion chain and fed back into the catenary. This is known as regenerative braking and widely used in railways. Braking and safety Braking safety requires installation of additional brakes besides regenerative

brakes, for two reasons:

Braking power of 3-phase AC motors is of the same order as power installed for traction. Additional braking power is therefore indispensable and provided by mechanical (e.g. disk

brakes) or other dissipative brakes. Typically when the brakes driver are blended, first i.e. the brakes,

regenerative brakes are applied, if more power is needed (especially in unforeseen

situations)

additional

brakes are applied. If the contact between pantograph and catenary is interrupted, regenerative braking is impossible.

Use of recovered energy The energy recovered by dynamic braking is used for different purposes:

on-board

purposes

(auxiliaries

or

comfort functions). On-board demand is usually far too low to consume all the energy supplied.

energy is fed back into catenary to be used by other trains motoring close

enough (in a section of track supplied by the same substation).

If DC substations are equipped with thyristor inverter units, they can feed back energy into the national grid.

Influence of supply system The electric supply system has a considerable influence on the feasibility of energy recovery. In DC systems, the catenary can be interconnected over great

distances (since in contrast to AC systems, no phase shifts can occur). This would in principle allow of for a long-distance energy. transmission recovered

However, given the low voltage of these systems (1,5 or 3 kV), transmission losses strongly having limit trains the feasible and feeding trains distances. Therefore the probability of braking accelerating close enough to each other to allow for an effective transmission is rather small. BACKGROUND OF Automatic Braking System With Regenerative Braking. Work machines, such as wheel loaders, are employed to perform work, such as digging, lifting, and moving large objects, in the agricultural, construction, and forestry related industries. Each work machine is typically powered by engine, such as a diesel engine, which operates a hydraulic system, a steering system, and a transmission for use in moving to and from the work site, moving around the

worksite, and in performing the tasks designated for the work machine. It is becoming increasingly important to improve the fuel efficiency of work machines, and hence thereby reduce the cost of operating a work machine, as well as to reduce engine emissions from the work machine. However, the cost of additional systems to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions output may be prohibitive. It is therefore desirable to improve efficiency and reduce emissions using primarily components and subsystems already employed in the work machine. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a regenerative braking system for a work machine. The invention, in one form thereof, is directed to a regenerative braking system for a work machine. The work machine has a drive system for driving the work machine, and a hydraulic system for operating the work machine, the hydraulic system powered by a main hydraulic pump. The regenerative braking system includes a ground driven hydraulic pump

coupled to the drive system, the ground driven hydraulic pump being configured to absorb shaft power from the drive system by converting the shaft power into a hydraulic flow, and the hydraulic pump also being configured to provide shaft power to the drive system by converting hydraulic flow into shaft power. The regenerative braking system also includes a hydraulic circuit fluidly coupled to the ground driven hydraulic pump.

The hydraulic circuit is configured to selectively receive and store energy from the drive system via the ground driven hydraulic pump; transmit the energy back to the drive system via the ground driven hydraulic pump; and direct hydraulic flow from the ground driven hydraulic pump to the hydraulic system when an output of the main hydraulic pump drops below a desired level. The invention, in another form thereof, is directed to a work machine. The work machine includes an engine; a drive system powered by the engine for driving the work machine; a main hydraulic pump powered by the engine; a

hydraulic system for operating the work machine, wherein the hydraulic system powered by the main hydraulic pump; and a regenerative braking system. The regenerative braking system includes a ground driven hydraulic pump coupled to the drive system, the ground driven hydraulic pump being configured to absorb shaft power from the drive system by converting the shaft power into a hydraulic flow, and the hydraulic pump also being configured to provide shaft power to the drive system by converting hydraulic flow into shaft power. The regenerative braking system also includes a hydraulic circuit fluidly coupled to the ground driven hydraulic pump. The hydraulic circuit is configured to selectively receive and store energy from the drive system via the ground driven hydraulic pump; transmit the energy back to the drive system via the ground driven hydraulic pump; and direct hydraulic flow from the ground driven hydraulic pump to the hydraulic system when an output of the main hydraulic pump drops below a desired level. A two-phase bipolar stepper motor has two coils A and B which are wound around the upper and lower halves of stator as shown in figure 1. The stator surrounds a rotor that contains specifically

aligned permanent magnets. The number of steps per revolutions determined by the number of pole pairs on the rotor and stator. The cross sectional view of stator and rotor of the stepper motor are clearly depicted in figure 1 and 2. The stepper motor are clearly used in our circuit is having 10 pole rotor structure but still 6 pole rotor structure principle. Stator: Stator of the stepper motor has salient poles on which concentrated windings A and B are wound. These windings are appropriately connected so as to result in two-phase windings on stator. The salient pole structure of stator is continuous from one end to other end of the rotor. Rotor: has been depicted in figure 2 for simplicity of the figure and easy understanding

The rotor of stepping motor does not carry any winding. The rotor is made up of ferromagnetic material. A schematic view of a bipolar hybrid stepping motor is shown in figure 2. It consists an axial permanent magnet at the two ends of which are attached tow identical ferromagnetic stacks as shown. These stacks consist of equal number of teeth and there are three teeth on each stack. At one end the stack attains north magnetic polarity and at other end stack gets south magnetic polarity. The two stacks have an angular displacement of one half of the rotor tooth pitch. Once the voltage is applied to the windings, the permanent magnet rotor of stepper motor assumes it unloaded holding position. This means that the permanent magnet poles of rotor are aligned according to the electromagnetic pole on the stator. The maximum torque with which the excited motor can be loaded without causing a

continuous rotation is termed as stepper motor holding torque. A torque can also be perceived with a non-excited motor. This is because of the pole induction of permanent magnet on stator. This effect known as cogging together with motor internal friction produces detent torque, which is the torque with which a non-excited motor can be statically loaded. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: The stepper motor is having a 10 pole rotor structure i.e. the rotor is axial permanent magnet type with ferromagnetic stacks of opposite polarities on the opposite ends. The numbers of stacks are 5 on each end. But for simplicity of the explanation of underlining we will first describe a simple PMDC stepper motor with two poles on rotor. WORKING MOTOR: OF A SINGLE PMDC STEPPER

A simple PMDC motor with two coils A A' and B B' wound on stator and the motor having a two pole structure is shown in figure along side. The operation of this motor is clearly described in steps below with the corresponding figure showing the magnetic flux linkage between stator and rotor structures is shown along side: Referring to figure 3. Now if the terminal A and B of stator windings are connected to the positive voltage, then two stator magnetic field vectors Fa and Fb will be produced as shown in fig.3. The rotor will position itself in such a way as to lock its north pole to the resulting stator south pole and vice versa. The rotor will move in anti-clockwise direction.
1.

Refer figure 4. When the voltage polarity of coil A

A' is revered with coil B B' energized a before, the resultant stator magnetic field vector F will be at 900 from its former position. Hence the rotor will move through a fixed angle of +900 as shown.

2.

Refer figure 5. With coil A A' energized as before

the voltage polarity of coil B B' is reversed. The rotor will move through another 900 to align itself with the resultant stator magnetic field F as shown. 3.Refer figure 6. With coil B B' energized as before, the voltage polarity of coil A is again reversed. The motor will further move through another 900 to align itself with the resultant stator magnetic field F as shown. 4.Refer figure 6. With coil A A' energized as before the voltage polarity of coil B B' is again reversed. The rotor will align itself as shown. So the motor can be made to step in one direction by continuously changing the direction of current through these coils. To step in reverse direction the direction of current should be changed in reverse order through these coils. This method is called two phases on full step drive since the two-phase coils are energized together.

PRINCIPLE MOTOR:-

OF

SINGLE

PMDC

STEPPER

The principle of operation of PMDC stepper motor having been clearly described above will now help us to have a clearer picture of working of hybrid stepper motor. We take the simpler case of 6 pole on the rotor structure and explain its working. Referring to figure 7, 8, 9 the north poles are at the front end shown with full lines whereas the south poles are at far end shown with dotted lines.When phase A winding is energized with current Ia North Pole at A and South Pole at A' are created on the stator. Pole at A attracts South Pole of far end and pole at A' attracts North Pole at front end as shown in figure 7. This equilibrium position of rotor structure results in maximizing the flux linkages with the phase winding A. For turning the rotor clockwise through a

step de-energies phase winding A and excite phase winding B so that North pole at B and South pole at B' are created on the stator. Pole at B attracts the pole of rear end and pole at B' attracts North Pole of front end, so a step angular rotation of 300 clockwise is achieved as in figure 8. In this equilibrium position, maximum flux linkages are now linked with phase winding B. If excitation is removed from phase winding B and reverse excitation is applied to phase winding A, pole on A attracts North pole and pole at A' attracts rear S pole as in figure 9. In this manner 12 steps will complete one revolution. Sequence of exciting the phase windings for clockwise rotation is A B A' B' A and therefore for anticlockwise rotation the sequence will be A B' A' B A. The magnitude of step angle

For Hybrid stepper motor = 3600/mP Where m = number of stator phases P = number of poles on rotor structure. The working of actual bipolar hybrid stepper motor used in the project can now be analogically understood. The only difference in the hybrid stepper motor described earlier and the one used in our project is that the numbers of poles on the rotor structure are different. In our motor we have 10-pole rotor structure i.e. 5 pole of North and South polarity on the two ends of an axial permanent magnet. Some terms applicable to stepping motors are as under: Step angle is the angle through which the shaft rotates in response to one input pulse. Single step resolution is inversely proportional to step angle. Smaller the step angle greater the

number of steps per revolution and therefore higher single step resolution. At stand still the excited motor opposes the rotor rotation due to load torque. Holding torque is a term introduced for the measure of this opposing torque.

Thus holding torque is defined as the maximum

load torque that can be applied to the shaft of an excited motor without continuous rotation.In case motor is unexcited the permanent magnet hybrid stepping motors are able to develop a torque restricting the rotor rotation. The term detent torque is defined as the maximum load torque that can be applied to shaft of an unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation. Electric motors An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse process, that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives and some electric and hybrid

automobiles often perform both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and fanforced ovens. They are also found in many other devices such as computer equipment, in its disk drives, printers, and fans; and in some sound and video playing and recording equipment as DVD/CD players and recorders, tape players and recorders, and record players. Electric motors are also found in several kinds of toys such as some kinds of vehicles and robotic toys.

History and development

Jedlik's electric car of 1828. The principle of conversion of into mechanical energy by means was demonstrated scientist Michael Faraday electrical energy electromagnetic by the British in 1821 and

consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power. The first real electric motor, using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating parts, was demonstrated by nyos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary. He built an electricmotor propelled vehicle in 1828. The first English commutator-type directcurrent electric motor capable of a practical application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type directcurrent electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built

and used to operate equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors. The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe Gramme connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry. In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company. Categorization of electric motors The classic division of electric motors has been that of Direct Current (DC) types vs Alternating Current (AC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run on AC

power, these motors being referred to as universal motors. The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation of. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping motor, both being polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control. Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip in order to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (eg. permanent magnet motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).

Comparison of motor types Typical Advantag Disadvant Typical Applicat es ages Drive ion

Type

Least Rotation AC expensiv slips from Induction e frequency Fans (Shaded Long life Low Pole) high starting power torque AC Induction (splitphase capacitor ) High power high starting torque

Uni/Poly -phase AC

Rotation Uni/Poly Applian slips from -phase ces frequency AC

Rotation in-sync AC with freq More Synchron long-life expensive ous (alternat or) Stepper DC Precision Slow positioni speed

Clocks Audio Uni/Poly turntabl -phase es AC tape drives Positioni Multiph ng in ase DC

ng High holding torque

printers Requires a and controller floppy drives

Long Hard lifespan Brushless High initial drives low DC cost CD/DVD Multiph maintena electric Requires a players ase DC nce motor controller electric High vehicles efficiency Low initial Brushed cost DC Simple electric speed motor control (Dynamo ) Treadmi High ll maintenan exercise ce Direct rs (brushes) (PWM) automot Low ive lifespan starters

Torque capability of motor types When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will

exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators. Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded). Field Weakening, which is not readily available with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation without electrical damage. Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current (i.e., torque) as useless. Furthermore,

the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum operating torque rating are attempted. Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such Induction (i.e., asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to core saturation. Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.

The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated. DC Motors A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which

is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense. Brushed DC motors The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery. Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electrical noise. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and

maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. There are three types of DC motor: 1.DC series motor 2.DC shunt motor 3.DC compound motor - these are also two types: 1.cumulative compound 2.differentially compounded Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient. Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated

drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as outrunner motors. Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to muchimproved life of the fan's bearings. Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be

significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers. The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient tachometer signal for closedloop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal. The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed control. Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health. Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat. They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft. Coreless or Ironless DC motors Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring board) running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with Electrical epoxy potting systems. Filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. These systems are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm. Typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) UL File No. E 210549.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives and are still widely used in high-performance servocontrolled systems, like radio-controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical devices, etc. Universal motors A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the motor must

be specially designed to cope with the AC (impedance must be taken into account, as must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an equivalent pure DC motor. Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors is limited and motors exceeding one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower) are rare. But universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC. The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a

universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM. Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor

speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field windings. With the very rectifiers, some previously used pure DC motor, magnet field. AC motors low cost of semiconductor applications that would have a universal motor now use a sometimes with a permanent

In 1882, Nikola Tesla invented the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered the use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique twophase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin. Introduction of Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is sometimes referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution, making possible the efficient generation and long distance distribution of electrical energy using the alternating current transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888).[2] Before the invention of the rotating magnetic field, motors

operated by continually passing a conductor through a stationary magnetic field (as in homopolar motors). Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and the device could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to building a perpetual motion machine.[3] Tesla would later attain U.S. Patent 0,416,194 , Electric Motor (December 1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor. Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications. Components A typical AC motor consists of two parts: 1.An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and; 2.An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. Torque motors

A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of induction motor which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name). A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer world, torque motors are used with force feedback steering wheels. Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic

pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

Slip ring The slip ring or wound rotor motor is an induction machine where the rotor comprises a set of coils that are terminated in slip rings to which external impedances can be connected. The stator is the same as is used with a standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the impedance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered. The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter,

the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low current from zero speed to full speed. A secondary use of the slip ring motor is to provide a means of speed control. Because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the resistance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed of the motor can be altered. Increasing the value of resistance on the rotor circuit will move the speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced. When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation is also very poor. Stepper motors

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper motors, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a large iron core with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards. Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle with ease, and hence stepper motors are used in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives, thus newer hard disk drives use read/write head control systems based on voice coils. Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM (switched reluctance machine). Linear motors

A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic field. Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail.

Doubly-fed electric motor Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that actively participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two is the most active multiphase winding sets possible without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set. A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.[4] Singly-fed electric motor Singly-fed electric machines incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or synchronous. The active winding set can be electronically

controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque at zero speed and can operate as standalone machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means for startup, such as a starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous speed for a given excitation frequency. The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor), synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.), which are discussed on the this page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the predominantly installed type of motors.

Understanding D.C. Motor Characteristics

Contents:

1.Preface 2.Background From Physics o 2.1 Torque o 2.2 Speed o 2.3 Power 3.Motor Characteristics o 3.1 Torque/Speed Curves o 3.2 Power Curves

1. Preface This site deals with Direct Current permanent magnet motors operated at a constant voltage. Motor characteristics vary considerably from type to type, and their performance characteristics can be altered by the way electrical power is supplied. can be quite different than those covered here.

2. Background From Physics Section 2.1: TORQUE Torque Main Entry: torque Function: noun Etymology: Latin torquEre to twist 1 : a force that produces or tends to produce rotation or torsion (an automobile engine delivers torque to the drive shaft); also : a measure of the effectiveness of such a force that consists of the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation 2 : a turning or twisting force Torque The quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause or change rotational motion is called torque. Torque (also called a moment) is the term we use when we talk about forces that act in a rotational manner. You apply a torque or moment when you turn a dial, flip a lightshwitch, drill a hole or tighten a screw or bolt.

As shown in the picture of a ratchet, a torque is created by a vertical force applied at the end of the handle. The force, F, applied to the ratchet as shown causes a tendency to rotate about point O. The force can be broken down into two components: a radial component, Frad, parallel to the ratchet handle that does not contribute to the torque, and a tangential component, Ftan, perpendicular to the handle that does contribute to the torque. The distance from point O to the point of action of F is described by the direction vector, r. The moment arm, l is the perpendicular distance between point O and the line of action of F. If we were to shorten the moment arm by applying the force closer to the head of the ratchet,the magnitude of the torque would decrease, even if the force remained the same. Thus, if we change the effective length of the handle, we change the torque (see equation 1).

UNITS of TORQUE SI English newton- inchmeters pounds {Nm} {inlb} footpounds {ftlb} inchounces {inoz} 1 Nm = 1 inlb = 0.738 ftlb 0.113 Nm 1 Nm = 1 ftlb = 0.113 1.356 Nm inlb 1 inoz = 1 Nm = 7.062E-03 141.61 Nm inoz

Section 2.2: SPEED Speed (Angular Velocity) Main Entry: angular velocity Function: noun he rate of rotation around an axis usually expressed in radians or revolutions per second or per minute Motors are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The D.C. motors that we have been dealing with here convert electrical energy into rotational energy. That rotational energy is then used to lift things, propel things, turn things, etc... When we supply the specified voltage to a motor, it rotates the output shaft at some speed. This rotational speed or angular velocity, is typically measured in radians/second {rad/s}, revolutions/second {rps}, or revolutions/minute {rpm}.
o

When performing calculations, be sure to use consistent units. In the English system,

calculations should be done in degrees/second, and radians/sec for SI calculations. NOTE: 1 revolution = 360 1 revolution = (2* radians ) 1 radian = (180/) 1 = (/180) radians From the angular velocity, , we can find the tangential velocity of a point anywhere on the rotating body through the equation tangential velocity, v = r* , where r is the distance from the axis of rotation. This relation can be used to compute the steady state (constant speed - no acceleration) speed of a vehicle if the radius and angular velocity of a wheel is known, or the linear speed of a rope as it is wound up by a winch.

Section 2.3: POWER Motive Power Main Entry: 1power

Pronunciation: 'pau(-&)r Function: noun Usage: often attributive Etymology: Middle English, from Old French poeir, from poeir to be able, from (assumed) Vulgar Latin potEre, alteration of Latin posse Date: 13th century 1 a : (1) : ability to act or produce an effect 6 a : a source or means of supplying energy; especially : ELECTRICITY 6 b : MOTIVE POWER c : the time rate at which work is done or energy emitted or transferred Power in Rotational Motion , When you pedal a bicycle, you apply forces to a rotating body and do work on it. Similar things happen in real-life situations, such as a rotating motor shaft driving a power tool or a car engine propelling the vehicle. We can express this work in terms of torque and an angular displacement... What about the power associated with work done by a torque acting on a rotating body? dW/dt is the rate of doing work, or power P. When a torque T (with respect to the axis of rotation) acts on a body that rotates with angular velocity W, its power (rate of doing work) is the product of the torque and angular

velocity. This is the analog of the relation P = Fv for particle motion.

Power in rotational motion can be written as:

UNITS of POWER SI English Watts {W} foot-pounds per newton-meters per second {ftlb/s} second {Nm/s} horsepower {hp} 1 W = 1 Nm/s 1 W = 0.738 ftlb/s 1 W = 1.341E-03 hp 1 ftlb/s = 1.818E-03 hp 1 ftlb/s = 1.356 W

2. Motor Characteristics

Section 3.1: TORQUE/SPEED CURVES In order to effectively design with D.C. motors, it is necessary to understand their characteristic curves. For every motor, there is a specific Torque/Speed curve and Power curve.

The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a typical D.C. motor. Note that torque is inversely proportioal to the speed of the output shaft. In other words, there is a tradeoff between how much torque a motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins. Motor characteristics are frequently given as two points on this graph:

The stall torque, , represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a maximum, but the shaft is not rotating. The no load speed, , is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the output shaft).

The curve is then approximated by connecting these two points with a line, whose equation can be written in terms of torque or angular velocity as equations 3) and 4):

The linear model of a D.C. motor torque/speed curve is a very good approximation. The torque/speed curves shown below are actual curves for the green maxon motor (pictured at right) used by students in 2.007. One is a plot of empirical data, and the other was plotted mechanically using a device developed at MIT. Note that the characteristic torque/speed curve for this motor is quite linear. This is generally true as long as the curve represents the direct output of the motor, or a simple gear reduced output. If the specifications are given as two points, it is safe to assume a linear curve.

Recall that earlier we defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity. This corresponds to the area of a rectangle under the torque/speed curve with one cornerat the origin and another corner at a point on the curve (see figures below). Due to the linear inverse relationship between torque and speed, the maximum power occurs at the point where = , and = .

Section 3.2: POWER/TORQUE and POWER/SPEED CURVES

By substituting equations 3. and 4. (torque and speed, section 2.1) into equation 2. (power, section 1.3), we see that the power curves for a D.C. motor with respect to both speed and torque are quadratics, as shown in equations 5. and 6.

From these equations, we again find that maximum output power occurs at = , and = repectively.