Rocky Plateaus Aparna Watve

Rocky plateaus (Northern Western Ghats and Konkan) Aparna Watve, draft version
Rocky plateaus
(special focus on the Western Ghats and Konkan)
Aparna Watve BIOME 34/6, Gulawani Maharaj Road, Pune 411 004.
Prepared for submission to the WGEEP 2010
Contents Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Study area Chapter 3: Biotic environment Chapter 4: People and Plateaus Chapter 5: Conservation Chapter 6: Recommendations References Acknowledgment
Chapter 1 Introduction The Western Ghats
The Western Ghats is an imposing north-south hill range that forms the western edge of the Deccan plateau. The Konkan-Malabar region, is a narrow coastal belt that extends parallel to the Western Ghats, having some outliers like Matheran hills. The Western Ghats hilltops are characteristically flat tabletops or mesas. The KonkanMalabar zone has large plateaus along the coast. The plateau surfaces of present are remnants of original plain which has been altered considerably due to physical as well as chemical weathering processes. In many areas the plateaus have large open rocky areas devoid of or having very less amount of soil. The toposheets of the region often mark these rocky plateaus as rocky scrub or rocky waste or simply as sheet rock. Owing to the scarcity of woody species or forest cover, the plateaus appear devoid of vegetation in the Remote Sensing images. This is probably the reason why many of the rocky plateaus are identified as wastelands of category Barren Rocky Area as per the department of Land Resources mapping of wastelands in India. This paper describes in detail the physical and biological environment of the rocky plateaus in the Western Ghats and Konkan region of Maharashtra. Based on close observation, qualitative study and quantitative assessment it evaluates the biodiversity of the rocky plateaus, which are special habitats of conservation importance. Despite the fact that rock outcrops habitats (See Box) form striking landscape elements throughout India and often have an immense cultural and religious importance, very few have been studied for their biodiversity values. This paper is based on surveys carried out on rocky plateau habitats between 2001 to 2010. It quotes observations from a quantitative study on plant communities on the rocky plateaus of the Northern Western Ghats. Similar plateaus exist in Karnataka, Goa and Kerala, and some observations from these states are also reported.
Rock outcrops is a recognized habitat category under IUCN habitat classification. They are generally defined as portions of exposed bedrock protruding above the soil level due to geological activities. The term includes landforms ranging from cliffs, isolated hills and platforms with diverse geology. Wiser & White (1999) identified rock outcrops as distinct from the surrounding areas by having on average 55% ground surface of exposed rock while S. Porembski & W. Barthlott, have stressed on the naturally formed or primary outcrops which are exposed due to geological reasons such as volcanism, weathering etc. (Porembski and Barthlott, 2000). Open rocky areas in the form of naturally exposed plateaus,
monoliths, koppjes or cliffs are major components of the landscape in India, but are under heavy biotic pressure.
The Rocky Plateaus The northern sector of the Western Ghats and the Konkan lies approximately between 1506020075N and is is composed entirely of Deccan flood basalts, except in the southernmost tip of Konkan. Details of origin, evolution and geomorphology of these regions are given by Gunnell and Radhakrishna (2001). Many of the plateaus in region have undergone heavy weathering and have well formed soil layers which support woody or forest growth. The forest-clad plateaus have been discussed in many of the Western Ghats papers on vegetation (Puri and Mahajan 1960; Pascal, 1988, Ghate, et al. 1997). Many plateaus have rocky surface exposed as a result of lateritisation. In some parts the laterite cap has eroded to expose the basalt again in the form of a rocky plateaus. There are many similarities in species lists on rocky or soil-clad plateaus mainly due to the altitude specificity of some of the species of plants and animals ex. Pinda concanensis. However, present paper focuses on the flora and fauna specific to the rocky plateaus, comparing only briefly with soil clad plateaus.
State of Art The distinctness of rock outcrops from the surrounding is a major factor which leads to exclusivity of the plant diversity on them. Hence, they have been described as terrestrial habitat islands and the microhabitats on them as islands upon islands (Porembski et al. 2000). A large body of literature, exclusively on rock outcrops, exists for Africa, north and south America and Australia. Azonal vegetation on tropical inselbergs in Africa, Australia and America has been studied in depth (Burbanck and Platte, 1964; Wyatt, 1997; Porembski & Barthlott, 2000a; Burke, 2002). The geology and geomorphology of the Western Ghats has been a subject of great discussion (Gunnell, 2001). Hence the origin and distribution of the rock outcrops especially of laterite (= ferricretes) and also of basalt in northern Western Ghats is very well documented. Geomorphologists and geologists like Fox (1923) have conducted intensive documentation of hard rocky plateaus (=duricrusts) and mineral resources associated with it. But very little data is available on the biodiversity aspects. Regional floristic studies have reported presence of many narrow niched endemics and habitat specialist plants from low as well as high-level rocky plateaus (Bachulkar, 1983; Deshpande et al., 1993a,b; Mishra & Singh, 2001; Yadav & Sardesai, 2002; Joshi & Janarthanam 2004, Jagadale & Kanwar undated). Bharucha and Ansari (1963) carried out some studies to analyze herbaceous vegetation in relation to soil, slope and aspect on the slopes and screes of Western Ghats but detailed enumeration was not
made. Chavan et al (1973) studied the Kas area near Satara, but did not restrict the study to rocky parts. Ferricretes (=lateritic plateaus) exist in many countries, but very few ecological studies have been conducted. They are known to be rich in species diversity, endemics and edaphic specialists (Verboom & Pate, 2001) but only a few studies describe their vegetation (Porembski et al., 1994; 1997, Porembski and Watve, 2005). The lack of baseline information regarding the outcrops ecology has hampered efforts of conservation. It is beyond the scope of this review to make a complete enumeration of the all rock outcrops (ferricretes, basalt mesas, cliffs) in the Western Indian region. But it tries to give an in-depth understanding of plant species and community diversity on rocky plateaus, their patterns and effect of biotic pressures. Based on this, aims to identify ecologically sensitive areas, define conservation priorities, make management recommendations
Chapter 2
Geology, geomorphology and geography The Western Ghats stretches from Navapur on Gujarat-Maharashtra border till Kerala and is almost continuous except a gap near Palaghat. It thus traverses through diverse bioclimatic zones, and has a pronounced N-S gradient of increasing dry period. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra and Goa differ in geology and bioclimate from the southern sector. The crest of the Northern Western Ghats is around 1000m reaching to 1400m ASL at some places (e.g. Mahabaleshwar). Jog et al. (2002) have described the general geology of the northern section of Western Ghats. The base rock basalt has weathered to laterite on top, but the cover of laterite has eroded in most places and remains only as caps on the summits of the Western Ghats escarpment, especially in portion south of 18020N (Widdowson and Cox 1996). Laterites have also formed on the Deccan traps lavas along the plain of the Konkan-Malabar coast. North of 18020N (roughly Mahabaleshwar area), the lower basalt is exposed on the summits again in the form of plateaus.
BOX 1. Laterite is a metamorphic type of rock observed in many areas with current or past humid environments. It is a product of intense chemical weathering under leaching environment and subsequent or simultaneous induration (Jog et al. 2002). It is rich in oxides of iron and aluminum.
The primary division of rocky plateaus is made on the substrate as the lateritic plateaus (laterite mesas/ferricretes) and the basaltic plateaus (=basalt mesas). A. Ferricretes are indurated platforms of laterite typically with wide and flat to gently sloping plateau-like tops and sharp escarpments marking the edges. Most floristic literature of the region refers to these as lateritic plateaus, without making distinction between the rocky lateritic plateaus and latiritic soil clad plateaus. High level ferricretes: are seen between 150N to 18020N. They are extended inland to 740E. These occur in Satara and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra and in part of Sangli, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts which stretch up to the Western Ghats crestline. These are located between 800- 1200m ASL Photo 1a
Low level ferricretes: on the interfluves of the Konkan plains are much more extensively preserved than the high level carapace. They occur in Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra, entire Karnataka and Kerala coast. These
extend between the entire areas from sea coast to the foothills of the Western Ghats. These are located between 50-200 m ASL. Photo 1b
Ferricretes are commonly known as tablelands owing to the wide flat or undulating rock surfaces surrounded by steep edges. Locally they are known as Sadas in Marathi. But the term is also applied to secondary exposures. Although personal observations indicates presence of lateritic plateaus in between Belgaum to Chorla area, they are not as extensive as those seen in Kolhapur or Satara districts. B. Basalt plateaus- The basalt mesas are seen between 18020 N-210N and 73035 to 73050 E. Photo 2. These are areas where the upper layers of laterite have eroded to expose the lower basalt flows, and hence can occur at any altitude depending upon the degree of weathering (e.g. most forts of the region have exposed basalt outcrops). The basalt outcrops at altitudes 900-1100m ASL at the crest of the Ghats are comparable with the ferricretes in flora and fauna. They occur in Pune, Akole, Ahmednagar and Nashik districts. Locally in some areas they are known as katal, or kharam lands. Katal is a term also seen applied to lateritic plateaus but and more studies are required to understand the local terminology and use.
The terminology: The correct technical terms to be used for the plateau types will be ferricretes (high level and low level) and basalt outcrops. However, the more familiar terms lateritic plateau and basalt plateau are chosen in this paper as they are widely used in the local floristic and faunal literature. But the terms are used only in the sense of the rocky plateaus in this review. The correct technical term use needs to be increased, especially in scientific literature and with full understanding of the meaning.
The study: The earliest exploration visits were made in 2001 and rigorous records of sites and local diversity were kept. Between 2003- 2006 a quantitative study was conducted on the Northern Western Ghats rocky plateaus with support of Department of Science and Technology. At the same time short studies were carried out in the Panchgani plateaus (with support of Agharkar Research Institute and Bombay Environmental Action Group) and on Konkan plateaus. Qualitative observations continued from 2006 onwards till the time of writing this paper. The findings presented here are thus a result of 10 years of observations both qualitative and quantitative. In addition the study also quotes from the voluminous floristic literature available from the region and faunal surveys.
Basalt plateaus mapped in white on Google Earth. Most are too small in extent to be visible at this scale.
Laterite plateaus roughly between 16015 to 180 From: Widdowson and Cox (1996) Grey and black areas are the rocky plateaus.
Laterite plateaus roughly between 80 to 150 From: Gunnell (2001) Dark grey and black areas are rocky plateaus
Distribution Map based on RS and ground truthing in the northern sector of the Western Ghats and Konkan observation sites in red
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List Of Localities High Level Ferricretes: Panhala, Amboli, Idarganj, Sawrai, Borbet, Burki, Masai, Girgao, Malaiwad, Wadi Dhopeshwar, Zenda , Amba, Gothane , Mhavashi , Thoseghar, Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Kas, Khingar, Mahabaleshwar, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani, Dandeghar Low Level Ferricretes: Mollem (Goa), Savantwadi, Nerurpar, Kudal, Aare , Deogad, Talebazar, Achirne Jaitapur, Rajapur, Navazarwadi, Guravvadi, Dorle, Dingni, Ratnagiri, Vayangani, Deverukh, Ratnagiri, Jakadevi, Pachir , Dodavli, Abloli -Jambhari , Abloli, Male, Dhopave, Chikhalgaon, Nante, Tere Vayangani, Olgaon, Umbarle, Nigde Basalt Mesas: Korigad, Sakharpathar, Kune, Matheran, Terungan, Durguwadi, Warsubai,Naneghat, Malshej Ghat Area, Harishchandragad, Anjaneri
Abiotic environment
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The regional climate is monsoonal being characterized by four month long monsoon. Average rainfall 6000mm in the main range of the Western Ghats (Gadgil, 2002), which can exceed 8000mm while in Konkan it is upto 200cm (Hobbhahn et al. 2006). The monsoon shows three phases- early phase in July, when continuous showers are interrupted by short sunny periods. In August, rain is continuous and conditions are foggy with brief or none sunny periods in the region. In the late phase in September, conditions are mostly sunny interrupted by a few heavy showers. In the post monsoon phase, in October, conditions are hot and dry with rarely a few clouds or some post monsoon showers. The monsoon is followed by eight month long dry period of winter (from October to January) and Summer (between February to May). Humidity is maximum in monsoon (99%)and minimum in the summer during day (14%) on the hill tops (pers. obs.). Temperature The average annual temperature ranges between 200-350C but shows extremes. The air temperature varies from minimum of 40C to maximum of 420C at the top of the ghats. While the Konkan temperatures are less extreme varying from minimum of 150C to maximum 400C. Microclimate The microclimate of the rocky plateaus is influenced by the regional climate. However, two other factors have a major influence, viz. insolation (exposure to sun) and scarcity of soil. Owing to this the environmental conditions experienced by the outcrops are more extreme. There is also a large diurnal fluctuation in climate owing to the exposed nature of the sites. During the dry period, the thin soil layer does not hold any moisture and the conditions are dry, almost arid. However, in monsoon, the impermeable nature of the hard rock surface leads to waterlogging of the soil and creation of wetland like habitat. As seen from this, the microenvironment of the rocky plateaus tends to extremes, from xeric to water logged.
A short monitoring study of the micro-climatic conditions was made at two sites in Satara and Kolhapur. Actual readings of temperatures of air, rock surface, soil and humidity were taken on three outcrops for a 24 hr cycle at the peak of the summer (14-15 May). The humidity and air temperature was taken about 10cm from the ground. Soil temperature was taken at 1cm depth. The results are shown in figures 1a-d below. There was extreme diurnal variation in humidity and temperature.
Fig. 1a-d
Rock temp K Air Temp K Rock temp Z Air Temp Z
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Rock temperature variation
Air temperature variation
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Soil type Red lateritic soils are prevalent at the high altitude and high rainfall areas. These are known to be acidic oxisols (Dikshit 2002). On the sites, soil varied from sandy to sandy loam type and was highly acidic (4.5-5.9), rich in organic carbon, available nitrogen and available potassium but poor in available phosphates. .
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Chapter 3 Biotic environment
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Rock outcrops across the world are known to harbour habitat specialist plants, many of which show certain adaptive strategies like carnivory, poikilohydry (desiccation tolerance), succulence etc. Owing to the microclimatic variations, at times species of xeric conditions grow within a few inches from hydrophytic species on the rocky plateaus. The rocky plateaus are separated by large areas with deep soil profile and occur as terrestrial habitat islands. Scarcity of soil and harsh physical conditions prevalent on outcrops lead to the formation of natural azonal vegetation dominated by herbs (See Box), that differs widely from the adjacent semi-evergreen forests. Shrubby and stunted forest vegetation is restricted to the edges of plateaus and some depressions where soil accumulates. According to Walter (1954) in each Biome Zone, the vegetation would develop to its typical climax condition, the zonal vegetation, unless stress-factors or extreme soil conditions prevent such development, in which case azonal vegetations or pedobiomes occur. The primary physical conditions that distinguish azonal vegetation types from zonal vegetation types are stress-factors, such as unfavourable soils and poor or excessive drainage.
The rocky plateaus on the hilltops are generally surrounded by low statured dense semievergreen forest described as Memecylon-Syzygium-Actinodaphene series by Pascal (1988). In the areas of high biotic pressures such as Konkan, the forests have degraded to secondary shrub-savannahs dominated by Carissa conjesta or scrublands dominated by Themeda quadrivalvis and Heteropogon contortus.
Methodology The distribution of rocky plateaus was mapped using toposheets, geological maps, remote sensing imagery and ground survey. Around 30 different locations were documented and are listed here. Between 2003-2006, DST sposnored a Young Scientist project to quantitatively study plant communities on rocky plateaus in the NWGhats. The aim was to record floristic richness, phenology and microhabitat preference of plants on the high-level rocky plateaus. As a part of this study, floristic surveys were carried out on six representative sites (2 from basalt plateaus, 4 from laterite plateaus, 2 each in Pune, Satara, Kolhapur districts) between 160-200N. Seven microhabitats were identified following the classification suggested by Porembski et al. (2000) for azonal communities on rock outcrops. The vegetation was sampled using permanently marked 1X1m quadrats. A total of 150 quadrats were enumerated from six sites. Vegetation sampling was carried out in the early, late and post monsoon phases that roughly
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correspond with the first week of July and September and end October. For each species total ground cover was used as a measure of abundance. IVI and Shannons index was calculated. Species were tagged in vegetative conditions and collected during flowering and fruiting stages for identification. Voucher specimens for all the species were collected, processed using conventional herbarium techniques and deposited in the herbarium of Agharkar Research Institute (AHMA). The results of this quantitative study will be quoted in this review.
Description of microhabitats The rocky plateaus are gently undulating rocky surfaces that consist of discreet vegetational habitat types as seen in rock outcrop ecosystems throughout the world. Jagadale & Kanwar (undated) were the first to describe diversity of microhabitat specific plant communities (referred to as habitat niches by them). The microhabitat classification as per Porembski et al. (2000), is followed here but with modifications.
A. Vegetation of rock surfaces A1. Cryptogamic vegetation of rock surfaces [R]: Exposed rock surfaces on laterite as well as basalt are completely covered by cyanobacterial crust and some crustose and foliose lichens. The cyanobacterial crust imparts the typical blackish colour to the rocks. Immediately after the onset of monsoon, the rocks become slippery due to the slimy sheaths of the cyanobacteria. The layer can be a few mm thick with accumulation of some organic matter. Nostoc spp. were seen. Lichens are generally rare but can form dense patches on some boulders and rocks showing large cushions. They consist of typical saxicolous crustose lichens. Murdannia semiteres finds suitable growing sites in this thin humus layer and large patches may be seen on uneven rock surface. (Photo 3) A2. Cryptogamic vegetation of boulders [B]: boulders of different sizes upto a meter in height occur often on the outcrop surfaces. On some ferricretes in Kolhapur, the entire surface was covered by loose boulders which made it look like rock field (Photo 1). However, on Satara ferricretes boulders were very few, probably removed for construction of local roads, houses, pillars etc. The boulders are also covered by cyanobacterial crust, and have other species according to the available surface, crags and height of the boulders. Moss cushions and ferns are frequent on the boulders. Cheilanthus farinosa silver fern is the most common inhabitant of boulder bases. (Photo 4) Lithophytic orchids find this a suitable place for growth at places forming dense cushions. Eria reticosa, Dendrobium spp., Utricularia striatula are often seen on vertical surface of boulders.
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A3. Vegetation of drainage channels [DR]: On the gently sloping outcrops, water drains through slowly over the entire surfaces. But at places, drainage channels of 10 or more cm width but very little depth are seen running downhill into small puddles. In some areas they are deep channels with some vascular plants. Eriocaulon dalzellii is seen in running water. Cryptocoryne spp. often occupy the sides of such drainage channels and of shallow rock pools B. Vegetation of rock crevices [CR]: Crevices in rocks provide opportunities for establishment of the plants. Depending upon the depth and width, they can be small or large. Small crevices are very common on the outcrops and provide safe growing sites for mosses, ferns and some angiosperms. (Photo 5) Indopoa paupercula, Tripogon bromoides, Fimbristylis tenera are dominant in crevices. Ceropegia jainii finds safe growing site in crevices and is seen on the high level lateritic plateaus. Neanotis lancifolia, N. montholoni, N. foetida often occupy rock crevices forming colourful patches. Glyphochloa spp. (G. forficulata, G. acuminata, G. ratnagirica, G. talboti and other Glyphochloa spp. ) often grow in crevices. Mollugo pentaphylla var. rupestris is also seen in crevices. C. Vegetation of depressions: C1. Vegetation of ephemeral pools [SRP] : Seasonally water-filled rock pools occur very commonly in large number of rocky habitats throughout the world. Two types of ephemeral pools could be distinguished on the outcrops in study area. c1.1 Shallow pools commonly formed in places where water accumulates after flowing over a gently sloping area. They have gently sloping sides, little accumulated soil at bottom and about 2-5cm water depth. These are ephemeral in nature and dry up fast if rain stops for 1-2 days. Pogostemon spp. Rotala spp., Dopatrium sp. are commonly seen in such pools on the rocky plateaus. Aponogeton satarensis and Eriocaulon tuberiferum are specific to such pools on high level lateritic plateaus. (Photo 6) c1.2 Deep pools are more common on the basaltic outcrops. They form in large potholes, with well defined and almost vertical rocky edges, have 10cm or more water depth and often have a few cm of soil accumulated at the bottom of the pothole. Deep pools on lateritic outcrops form in low-lying areas, where water accumulates, they may or may not have rocky edges and are not as well defined as the basaltic potholes. Some of the deep pools can be more than 1m deep and retain some water in the deepest part almost through the year. They have typical aquatic vegetation of floating and rooted species. Wiesneria triandra is seen on low level lateritic plateaus in such pools. Marsilea spp. Cyperus spp., Pycreas spp. , Eleusine indica, Nymphoides spp. often occupy such deep pools on most
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rocky plateaus. The species of this microhabitat easily occupy adjacent secondary habitats such as paddy fields with similar abiotic conditions. C 1.3 Vegetation of Ponds Many rocky plateaus have wide soil filled ponds which retain water for long periods. They have deep layer of soil accumulated over many years and water depth may exceed 1 m in monsoon. Their vegetation consists of typical hydrophytes including green algae, Nymphoides spp., Jussia sp., Aponogeton natans, Crinum viviparum occupy ponds here. These are often drinking and wallowing grounds of cattle and are highly disturbed.
C2 Soil filled depressions Soil filled depressions occur where rock is relatively flat and soil and humus have accumulated over the years. These are dominant feature of the rock outcrops especially the basaltic outcrops in study area. They are not easily distinguishable by appearance as they merge gradually with the undulating areas. For the present study two types of shallow depressions could be identified c2.1 Shallow depressions [SD] are defined as areas with soil depth ranges between 5-30cm. After heavy downpours shallow depressions can remain inundated for some days. They are mostly with herbaceous vegetation. (Photo 7) Paspalum canarae, Smithia spp., Habenaria spp. Pycreas spp., Jansenella griffithiana, Senecio dalzellii, Coelachne minuta, Linum mysorense are some common species observed in this habitat. Basalt outcrops differ from ferricretes in having dominance of Shallow Depression type of microhabitat where Cyathocline lutea, Senecio dalzellii, Hygrophila serpyllum. Arundinella ciliata are locally abundant. c2.2 Deep soil filled depressions are defined as areas with soil depth more than 30cm. These are areas where tall herbaceous vegetation or woody vegetation develops. They are mostly on the fringes of the outcrops where weathered material, soil and humus accumulate for several years. On high level laterite plateaus dense communities of Strobilanthes sessilies var. ritchie, Impatiens lawii colonize such areas. Alongwith this Euphorbia spp., Eulalia spp. Senecio spp., Pulicaria spp., Chemicristae mimosoides, Peristylus spp. are very common. (Photo 8)
D. Ephemeral flush vegetation [EFV]: The term ephemeral flush vegetation (EFV) has been coined by Richards (1957) and denotes a highly seasonal plant community that develops at the base of more or less inclined rocky slopes or along the downslope fringes of monocotyledonous mats. Additionally Porembski and Watve (2005) include under the term EFV a plant community that is physiognomically and floristically similar to EFV on inselbergs and that occurs on flat, seasonally wet or even
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inundated ferricretes where percolation of water is impeded by the presence of a hard duricrust. An important precondition for the development of EFV is the continuous supply of seepage water during the rainy season. The present knowledge about EFV is based on relatively few studies conducted in Africa (e.g. Drrstock et al. 1996). This habitat occurs on tropical as well as temperate outcrops. During the rainy season, EFV has a lush physiognomic appearance whereas the dry season aspect only shows thin soil covered with sparse desiccated plant remnants. It is well-developed community on rocky plateaus as they slope gently and have slow seepage of water. This is dominated by Utricularia spp. (U. purpurascens, U. albo-caerulea, U. reticulata, U. praeterita, U. uliginosa etc.) and Eriocaulon spp. (E. sedgwickii, E. eurypeplon, E. achiton, E. stellulatum, E. cuspidatum etc.) (Photo 9, 11). Also seen are Swertia minor, Hedyotis stocksii, Cyanotis fasciculata, Drosera burmanni, D. indica, Burmannia spp., Dichanthium spp. and some other small ephemerals. Dimeria woodrowii and Trithuria konkanensis are specific and common to lateritic plateaus EFV especially of Konkan, Goa, Karnataka region.
E. Deep soil Areas of deeper soil (more than 1m or so) are often seen around the rocky parts described habitat. These can support woody vegetation of shrubs or trees such as Celastrus paniculatus, Memecylon umbellatum, Carissa conjesta, Catunaregam spinosa, Xantolis tomentosa etc.. Ficus spp. establish in deep clefts along the plateau edges. In less undisturbed parts Gnidia glauca may attain a tree form being protected from constant lopping. Stunted vegetation of high altitude plateaus Memecylon Syzygium-Actinodaphne type (Pascal, 1988) is often seen on the deep soil parts of the plateaus. However, the species composition is not described here in details, as it is close to the perennial vegetation described by other forest habitat studies (Puri and Mahajan, 1960; Pascal, 1988, Ghate, 1997; Watve et al. 2003) from this area. In the quantitative study of the high level rocky plateaus, assessment of percent ground cover by four microhabitat types was made based on soil depth in each quadrat. Percentages of shallow depressions (SD) and Ephemeral Flush Vegetation (EFV) varied with locality. They are not always distinct and could be differentiated mainly by soil depth and slope. The Shallow Depressions were the most species rich microhabitat as also noted on the outcrops in US (Burbanck & Platt, 1964). The moderately deep soil, 5-30cm, of shallow depression allowed establishment of geophytes from Orchidaceae and Liliaceae. Compared to this, EFV were poorer in species. Cryptogamic crust on exposed rocks consisted of Cyanobacteria and very rarely lichens which were not completely inventoried here. Moss cushions were also common and persisted in desiccated form in the dry period. In all the sites, species
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composition changed moderately over the time as species showed a gradual increase or decrease in dominance as per their life cycle.
The vegetation of all the rocky plateaus, irrespective of the rock type is dominated by small herbs generally less than 60cm in height. Clumps of Tripogon bromoides, (Poaceae) and Fimbristylis tenera (Cyperaceae) are common. The sites although slightly different in species composition followed the same temporal (phenological) trajectory. Monocotyledons were much higher in dominance compared to Dicotyledons. Poaceae was dominant throughout the monsoon together with Cyperaceae and Eriocaulaceae.
Seasonal changes and phenology A phase wise account of vegetation communities from selected sites is given in the box in brief. Although the rocky plateaus face extreme scarcity and high temperatures before monsoon, some species characteristically flower during this period. Euphorbia panchganiensis characteristically flowers during April-May the high altitude lateritic plateaus. Scilla hyacinthina flowering is also seen on many rocky plateaus just before monsoon. In the early monsoon, Poaceae members such as Glyphochloa spp., Isachne lisboae were abundant and dominant together with Fimbristylis tenera (Cyperaceae) and Eriocaulon spp. although all were in vegetative conditions. This phase was marked by the flowering of Hypoxis aurea, Iphigenia stellata In August few species such as Dipcadi montanum, Habenaria heyneana, H. panchganiensis, Swertia minor reached flowering peak. Lithophytic orchids like Eria spp. on boulders are also seen to flower. In the late monsoon phase in August-September, several species reach flowering peak. Most dominant are Fimbristylis tenera together with Poaceae members. Hedyotis stocksii, Rotala sp., Flemingia nilgheriensis, Jansenella griffithiana, Coelachne minuta, Indopoa paupercula were most abundant at this time. Similar vegetation is seen on the Konkan plateaus. But presence and abundance of Dimeria woodrowii is a unique feature of the coastal plateaus. Gregarious flowering of Utricularia spp. and Eriocaulon spp. marks the late monsoon phase and it is common to see blue and white masses of these groups. Large flowered bladderworts, U. purpurascens, U. albo-caerulea on high altitude plateaus and U. reticulata and U. albocaerulea on low altitude plateaus are common (Photo 10). Ericaulon sedgewickii, E. stellulatum, E. achiton, E. eurypeplon are some of the most abundant species on rocky plateaus and many more Eriocaulon spp. have been recorded on rocky plateaus during this phase of monsoon. Drosera indica, D. burmanni, Neanotis spp., Burmannia spp., Chemicraesta mimosoides, Senecio spp., Vicoa spp., Impatiens spp., Smithia spp. Geissaspis spp. , Lindernia spp., Torenia spp. are some of the gregarious species in flowering peak on
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rocky plateaus during this phase. This is the time that has attracted most of attention as the plateaus look like multi-hued carpets of flowers. The basalt plateaus have many common elements at generic and species level with the lateritic plateaus. But species such as Smithia purpurea, Cyathocline lutea are typically present on basalt outcrops or the surrounding secondary wet outcrops but NEVER on the lateritic plateaus. In the post monsoon phase, abundance and dominance of Poaceae reached peak with some grasses such as Glyphochloa forficulata almost singly dominant in most quadrats on higher altitude rocky plateaus. Many species of Glyphochloa have been recorded from Konkan plateaus and it is one of the important, species rich genus in this habitat. Sub dominants include endemic Dimeria spp. Ischaemum spp. and Dichanthium spp. that are in the fruiting stages by post monsoon. Depending on the local moisture retention, Swertia spp., Lepidagathis spp. flowering is also seen even when other vegetation starts drying. During winter the rocky plateaus are parched dry with the exception of a few individuals of Blumea malcolmii, B. oxyodonta, Crotalaria vestita etc. In locally moist areas such as drying rock pools, Pogostemon spp. and Rotala spp. remained. Indigofera dalzellii that occurs commonly on the ferricretes starts flowering in May with pre-monsoon showers and continues to flower throughout the monsoon, reaching fruiting stage in October.
Joshi & Janarthanam (2004) observed peak flowering of lateritic plateaus of Goa in September. They conclude that availability of enough soil moisture in an otherwise dry habitat (with low WHC) is important for flowering and phenology of herbaceous flora in the plateaus is mostly controlled by rainfall pattern in addition to other environmental factors. However, in our observation, general flowering event occurred after rainy period of August and corresponded with mild rains and brief dry periods with bright light. Some of the eastern plateaus (Masai plateau near Kolhapur) where rainfall is less harsh with sunny periods throughout July and August showed early onset of flowering. Several studies have shown relation between flowering and photoperiod (Pavn & Briones, 2001; Schaber & Badeck 2003, Gimenes, 2003). Hence, flowering seen on the rocky plateaus may be governed by complex interaction of environmental, edaphic and biotic factors and needs to be analysed experimentally using single species as well as community models.
Comparison of floristic associations Plant communities Although an exact phytosociological classification of vegetation is not attempted here, some similarities with known vegetation types are noted.
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Inventory of the Fimbristylis tenera dominated late monsoon community is to a certain extent similar with Utricularieto- Eriocauletum pumili- community from ferricretes in Guinea (Schnell, 1952); Eriocaulo-Utricularietea class from wet to shallowly inundated rock depressions on West African inselbergs and ferricretes (Knapp, 1966,) and EFV described from inselbergs (Drrstock et al., 1996, Porembski, 2000) due to the abundance of Eriocaulon and Utricularia. However, these species are not the only dominants. Relation also seems to exist with an alliance Fimbristylion tenerae which was discussed by Bharucha and Ansari (1963) from rocky areas of the Western Ghats. Fimbristylis tenera remains one of the dominants in late as well as post monsoon communities.
The post monsoon community can be broadly described as Glyphochloa community, with subdominant Dimeria, Dichanthium and Ischaemum. Some genera from this community viz. Ischaemum, Arthraxon, Pseudanthistiria are frequent in grasslands at high altitude, high rainfall area in Northern Western Ghats (Dabadghao & Shankarnarayan, 1973). But dominance of Glyphochloa, Dimeria, Dichanthium is characteristic of rocky plateaus. These taxa are some of the richest in species and endemics in the western Indian region and show particular affinity to rock outcrops. Extremely localized species of all three genera are seen on various rocky plateaus in wg and Konkan (Blatter & McCann, 1935; Bor, 1960; Deshpande et al., 1993; Mishra & Singh, 2001; Yadav & Sardesai, 2002; Fonseca & Janarthanam, 2003) indicating active speciation. The Poaceae community of post monsoon is unlike any reported from other outcrops. In spite of a few local variations in species dominance between sites, late and post monsoon communities on different rocky plateaus are homogeneous. It is an important feature considering the terrestrial island like distribution of the plateaus. This indicates that the plateau vegetation from all sites has a common origin, and has undergone diversification under similar environmental conditions. The flora is dominated by evolved families especially monocotyledons. Poaceae is dominant along the Western Ghats followed by Acanthaceae, Rubiaceae, and Fabaceae (Arora, 1964; Nayar, 1980, 1984; Karthikeyan, 1983, 1996; Ahmedullah & Nayar, 1986; Sreekumar & Nair, 1991). Poaceae is richest in species and endemics on the rocky plateaus, while Acanthaceae and Rubiaceae are underrepresented. Subdominant families of rocky plateaus are Eriocaulaceae, Fabaceae, Orchidaceae, Cyperaceae and Commelinaceae which are also common and dominant in peninsular India (Sanjappa, 1992; Santapau & Kapadia, 1966; Sharma et al., 1984; Prasad & Singh 2002). Monotypic Indopoa paupercula (Stapf) Bor and Bhidea burnsiana Bor are restricted to the rocky areas in general and are abundant on the lateritic and basalt plateaus respectively. Others like Ceropegia, Hedyotis have obligate endemic species on lateritic plateaus in addition to several related species in the surrounding shrub savannahs, forests and wetlands.
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The outcrops share a large number of species, especially dominants. Occurrence of same dominant (showing highest abundance in terms of ground cover) species (Fimbristylis tenera, Glyphochloa forficulata, Indopoa paupercula) suggests that vegetation of the lateritic plateaus and basalt plateaus share a common pool of species. The presence and dominance of exclusive endemics (e.g. Coelachne minuta on lateritic plateaus, Cyathocline lutea on basalt plateaus) on both the landform types could be a result of multiple factors including evolutionary history of the taxa, habitat, and nutrient or dispersal limitations. The specific reasons can vary with each species. The overall similarity in species dominance on both the rock types indicates that the vegetation belongs to the same association (-in the sense of the word used in vegetation classification) and differs only at a sub-association or class level. It is difficult to describe the vegetation type based upon the standard vegetation classification system. Though grass cover is classified for India (Dabadghao & Shankarnarayan, 1973), herbaceous vegetation has not been described following quantitative data. But based upon the quantitative survey, the dominant community can be described as Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa community, two species which are common to all the three types of rocky plateau form a major portion of the vegetation throughout the growing period. The differences in community are as follows: Late monsoon phase high level lateritic plateaus : Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Eriocaulon spp.- Utricularia Post monsoon phase lateritic plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Dimeria spp.
Late monsoon phase low level lateritic plateaus : Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Eriocaulon spp.- Utricularia Post monsoon phase lateritic plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Dimeria spp.
Late monsoon phase basalt plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Cyathocline lutea- Senecio dalzellii Post monsoon phase basalt plateaus: Fimbristylis- Glyphochloa Dimeria stapfiana
Floristic diversity Species richness and alpha diversity A total of 360 species of phanerogams (angiosperms and pteridophytes) are listed from rocky plateau sites in Maharashtra of which 146 are endemic, to either southern India, or to the Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar zone. The list will certainly increase as more sites are surveyed throughout the growing season. But as the dominants remain more or less the same on the rocky plateaus, the increase will mainly be due to the additions of few restricted distribution species, vagrants from surrounding areas and invasives.
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The quantitative study showed that therophyte dominated azonal vegetation of the rocky plateaus had moderate species number and alpha diversity but was rich in species adapted to extreme environment and endemics. In the quantitative study from six sites, a total of 145 sq. m of area was enumerated and 132 species were reported (Watve, 2007) of which 35 % (57 sp.) were endemic. This included 126 angiosperms, 3 bryophytes and 3 pteridophytes. Several other species of cryptogams, green algae, blue green algae, lichens, hepaticae could not be enumerated floristically due to lack of taxonomic expertise on this taxa. The angiosperms belong to 30 families of which Poaceae (36sp.) is dominant followed by Fabaceae (14 sp.). Table 4.2.1 Average species richness per quadrat in different microhabitats Late N SD R SRP EFV 2004 11.641 9.745 14 10.105 3.667 Post 2004 5.32 3.564 Late 2005 14.026 10.979 18 11.632 Post 2005 11.333 9.34 15 9.816
Table 4.2.2 Average species diversity per quadrat in different microhabitats Late H SD R SRP EFV 2004 2.574 2.25 3.217 2.396 1.191 Post 2004 1.437 1.158 Late 2005 2.848 2.617 3.798 2.696 Post 2005 2.609 2.442 3.508 2.498
Species turnover The species turnover between seasons and between the sites needs to be studied to understand the overall diversity of the habitat. The calculations of species turnover made for the six sites of high level outcrops showes that it is less between closer sites than those further apart. The highest species turnover is between the early and post phases, which is expected as many new species emerge as the monsoon progresses and while the species composition changes between early and late and late and post are gradual. The late phase has a number of species from both the phases and hence is transitional in nature.
Raunkiers life form spectrum
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Therophytes dominate accounting on average for 77.5% of all vascular plants. This is in marked contrast with the vegetation of the surrounding forest areas where phanerophytes are the most common life-forms. Ch = Chamaephytes; G= Geophytes, H= Hemicryptophytes, P= Phanerophytes, Th= Therophytes, E= Ephiphytes
Life form spectrum: percentages of each class Ch 4.082 Ph 3.571 E 1.531 G 13.265
Th 77.551
Plant adaptive strategies Owing to the variable microclimate of the habitat, species adapted to one or more climatic extremes are observed here. Various adaptations and adaptive strategies are seen in the flora. Some are listed below. A. Succulence: Cyanotis spp. seen on the rocky plateaus show some succulence in leaves, probably an advantage in water retention. However true succulents which are abundant on rocky areas of the drier eastern zones of Maharashtra (viz. Caralluma spp.) are not seen on the Western Ghats and Konkan plateaus. B. Hydrophytes: these are plenty and dominant in many areas as waterlogging is common. (Rotala, Aponogeton, Pogostemon, Paspalum, Nymphoides spp. Crinum spp., Polygonum, Jussia suffruticosa.). Ericaulon tuberiferum and Aponogeton satarensis both tuber bearing, are restricted to the shallow ephemeral pools on rocky plateaus. The potholes on basalt plateaus can have Eleusine, Coix, etc. which stand much inundation. Isoetes spp. (I. sahyadrensis,I. panchganiensis) are hydrophytes reported from the high altitude rocky plateaus. C. Geophytes: belong to Orchidaceae, Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Aponogetonaceae are common.
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D. Carnivory: This is an important strategy commonly seen on all types of rocky habitats, esp. in humid tropics. Utricularia spp. and Drosera spp. seen on the rocky plateaus are gregarious and probably at an advantage in the P poor soils owing to the nutrients they can acquire from other organic matter. (Photo 12). E. Desiccation tolerance: or poikilohydry is one of the least studied adaptive strategies in Indian flora. The most commonly known species showing this is Silver fern (Cheilanthus sp. Photo 4) that is seen on rocky areas on plateaus, cliffs, boulders etc. Tripogon spp. are known to show this character. It is possible that other species on rocky plateaus also show this character but more research is needed.
Endemism in flora The diversity and dominance of endemics on the rocky plateaus of Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar region gives them a very high biological value. The reason for the high endemism is probably the general increase of endemics in the Western Ghats region with much environmental heterogeneity over short distances. Geographical isolation of populations especially in grasses appears to be resulting in formation of highly localized endemic species on different ferricretes e.g. Dichanthium panchganiensis, Dichanthium oliganthum etc. Certain species (e.g. Eriocaulon spp. Utricularia purpurascens) display a high degree of morphological variation between populations on different ferricretes which indicates that differentiation processes are yet operative. Rock outcrops are known to contribute towards local and regional species richness (Burke, 2003). Endemism on outcrops is in many cases correlated with the regional endemism (Seine et al., 1998). So far, 146 endemic species have been recorded on the rocky plateau in the Western Ghats and the Konkan region. They belong to only 31 families and 69 genera Around 25 species have been excluded from the final list owing to the lack of conclusive data regarding their occurrence on rock outcrops. This is just a preliminary figure as several of the outcrops esp., in wildlife sanctuaries and other remote areas of Western Ghats are yet to be completely surveyed. Thus, the contribution of rock outcrops towards regional biodiversity is much higher than expected from their area of occupancy. Poaceae is richest (42 sp.) followed by Eriocaulaceae (15sp.) and Fabaceae (14sp.). Dimeria, Dichanthium, Glyphochloa, Eriocaulon, Utricularia and Smithia include many generalist species of wide distribution in the region. But they have speciated into narrow endemics on outcrops. Some like Dichanthium panchganiensis are restricted to a small population on a few outcrops. Shukla et al.(2002) have observed similar manner of speciation in Isoetes on the high- altitude plateaus in Western Ghats and central India. Dimeria woodrowii has relatively larger population which is restricted to the Konkan Malabar plateaus. Others like Ceropegia, Hedyotis have obligate endemic species on rocky plateaus (Ceropegia jainii, Hedyotis
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stocksii) in addition to several related species in the surrounding shrub savannahs, forests and wetlands. There are close floristic similarities between lateritic and basalt plateaus, cliffs and seasonal stream courses (Watve, 2003). Forty endemics were common between all the rocky plateaus at high and low level. Many of these are widespread in open sunny but moist habitats and are not exclusive to the outcrops. Excluding these, many species (around 44) are common between high-level lateritic plateaus and basalt plateaus. This indicates that factors linked to altitude such as rainfall, insolation, wind and events leading to formation of the escarpment top may all be influencing present distribution of endemism in the Northern Western Ghats rocky plateaus. The number of species shared only between high and low level lateritic plateaus is comparatively small (approx. 13) indicating relatively less influence of substrate on endemism. All the species are essentially from open sunny areas, prefer shallow moist coarse soils and can stand water logging to a certain extent. However, 40 species in this list are so far known only from outcrop habitats and can be described as rock outcrop habitat specialist. They include threatened species from diverse families like Aponogetonaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Fabaceae etc. Their threat status needs to be critically assessed by taking into account autecology, population biology and habitat. Joshi & Janarthanam (2004) have also reported that the low-level lateritic plateaus in Goa have higher number of endemics compared to other habitats in Goa region. High endemism in substrate specific communities is well known across the world (Mota et al.,2004, Chiarucci, 2004, Stevanovic et al., 2003, Ojeda et al., 2000, Keener, 1983). Owing to the narrow distribution and small population sizes of endemics, many threatened species occur in these areas. In United States, Baskin & Baskin (1988) report endemics demanding high light intensity on outcrops while soil moisture did not have much influence. Rock outcrops in study area are geomorphologically distinct landscape elements. Presence of large number of endemic and habitat specialist species of which many are in the threatened category indicates that rock outcrops contribute significantly towards regional plant endemism. Von Gaisberg & Stierstorfer (2005) have shown a connection between distribution of endemics and geomorphological and geochronological traits of outcrops on El Hierro island. Generally, local diversification of plant life (including narrow endemics) is typical for landscapes dominated by geomorphological irregularities at a scale of 10-2-10km2 with a span of persistence between 104-107 years (Kruckberg, 2002). This may account for the presence of narrow endemics in Eriocaulon, Glyphochloa, Dimeria, Dichanthium etc. on various outcrops.
From the present study it is clear that rocky plateaus contribute much more to the regional endemism than can be expected from their area. In view of this, it is extremely necessary to
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accord high conservation priority to the rocky plateaus. More detailed field surveys need to be undertaken to study populations of threatened species from the plateaus.
Threatened species The list endemic species on the rocky plateaus was compared with the list of threatened species of Maharashtra compiled by Mishra and Singh (2001), to understand the need for conservation. Fifteen species have been listed as critically endangered, 27 as endangered, 12 as vulnerable in this regional assessment which follows IUCN categories (Species marked in the appendix). Evaluation of some of the hydrophytic species on rocky plateaus was carried out in 2010 as a part of the project of IUCN to assess Freshwater Aquatic Biodiversity of the WGHats). It needs to be understood that rocky parts of the plateaus and most of the specific microhabitats described amount to only a few hundred square kilometers (see map of distribution) within the entire landscape. Hence, species that are specific to these microhabitats habitat specialist, or those having narrow ecological amplitude have a very small AOO (Area of Occurrence for definitions see: IUCN red list categories 2003), although EOO may be comparatively large. However, species that are not having such narrow ecological amplitude, and those which can grow in similar secondary habitats such as secondary rock exposures, flooded rice fields, ponds, ditches etc. have large EOO as well as AOO. Many of the endemics on the rocky plateaus are able to colonize secondary habitats which are similar in physical characters and hence cannot be put into the threatened categories. Ex. Utricularia reticulata, Indopoa paupercula. In case of rocky plateau species, most show naturally disjunct distribution on the terrestrial islands that are rocky plateaus and the criteria Severely Fragmented does not apply to most species. The rocky plateaus are under tremendous pressure and undergoing large or small-scale habitat degradation owing to various reasons through its entire range. The size of the intact near natural habitat is already reduced, and this should be kept in mind while assessing the threats for these species. No specific conservation action has been taken so far for the rocky plateau species. Although some ex-situ conservation has been tried for some species, the efforts have not progressed beyond maintenance of few individuals of some species in one or two gardens like Shivaji University, Kolhapur and Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune.
New species Many plant species have been first described from the rocky plateaus of the Western Ghats and Konkan. A list is given here. In last 10 years, the interest in the rocky plateau specific taxa has increased leading to more taxonomic attention to flora as well as fauna.
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The list of species described from the rocky plateaus is given below. This list is not complete, but indicative of the potential the rocky plateaus have of contributing to regional species richness. Indicative list of new species descriptions from rocky plateau habitats over the years in Western Ghats and Konkan-Malabar region. More can be added after further floristic search. Year of Species 1. Impatiens lawii Hook. F. & Thoms. 2. Dipcadi concanense Baker 3. Wiesneria triandra (Dalz.) Micheli 4. Dimeria woodrowii Stapf 5. Flemingia nilgheriensis (Baker) Wight ex Cooke 6. Eriocaulon sedgwickii Fyson 7. Euphorbia khandalensis Blatt. & Hallb. 8. Dipcadi ursulae Blatt. 9. Euphorbia panchganiensis Blatt. & McCann 10. Isoetes sahyadri Mahabale (=I. sahyadrensis) 11. Bhidea burnsiana Bor 12. Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum (Bhide) Raiz. & Jain 13. Habenaria panchganiensis Sant. & Kap. 14. Coelachne minuta Bor 15. Flemingia gracilis (Mukerjee) M.Sanjappa 16. Smithia agharkarii Hem. 17. Eriocaulon tuberiferum Kulkarni & Desai 18. Dipcadi maharashtrense Deb & S.Dasgupta 19. Isachne bicolor Naik & Patunkar 20. Rotala malampuzhensis R. Vasudevan Nair ex Cook 21. Ceropegia jainii Ansari & Kulkarni 22. Glyphochloa goaensis (Rao & Hemadri) Clayton 23. Glyphochloa ratnagirica (Kulk. & Hemadri) Clayton 24. Aponogeton satarensis Sundararaghavan et al. 25. Camptorriza indica Yadav, N. P. Singh & B. Mathew 26. Isoetes panchganiensis Srivastava, Pant, & Shukla 27. Trithuria konkanensis S.R.Yadav & Janarth. description 1860 1871 1881 1894 1902 1921 1921 1928 1930 1938 1948 1953 1957 1961 1966 1971 1974 1975 1976 1979 1980 1981 1981 1982 1993 1993 1994
28. Euphorbia concanensis Janarth. & S. R. Yadav 29. Fimbristylis ratnagirica V.P.Prasad & N.P.Singh 30. Eriocaulon ratnagiricum Yadav, Gaikwad & Sardesai 31. Fimbristylis ambavanensis V.P.Prasad & N.P.Singh 32. Eriocaulon kanarense Punekar, Watve & Lakshmin. 33. Eulalia shrirangii Salunke & Potdar 34. Isoetes divyadarshanii P.K. Shukla et al. 1995 1997 1998 1999 2004 2005 2005
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35. Eriocaulon epedunculatum Potdar, Anil Kumar bis,Otaghvari & Sonkar 2008 36. Chlorophytum gothanense Malpure & S. R. Yadav 37. Eriocaulon belgaumensis Shimpale & S. R. Yadav 38. Rotala belgaumensis S. R. Yadav, Malpure & Chandore 2009 2010 2010
Phytogeographic affinities: The vegetation of the rock outcrops in the northern Western Ghats comprises floristically and ecologically well defined herbaceous communities. The dominant species have affinities to palaeotropical region. They are widely distributed in Sudanian, Zambezian and West African flora.
Faunal diversity
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The fauna of rocky plateaus is as varied and species and endemic rich as the flora and of same biological value. Great diversity of taxa is seen on the rocky plateaus. Ants, beetles esp. dung beetles, bees and wasps, spiders, grasshoppers, moths, butterflies, birds, fish, frogs, caecilians earthworms, reptiles (snakes, lizards), mammals (rodents use the area for foraging). Large mammals like Gaur and leopard are frequent visitors. Jagdale & Kanwar (undated) recorded 15 vertebrates from rocky areas. Dr. Hemant Ghate has recorded three species of shrimps viz.Tadpole shrimp (Triops granarius Lucas), Fairy shrimp (Streptocephalus dichotomus Baird) and Clam shrimps (Leptesteria maduraensis Nayar and Nair ) and one species of Eulimnada (Eulimnada michaeli Nayar and Nair ) from vernal pools on plateaus like Panchgani and Kas. Quite like the ephemeral flora. A scorpion species Hottentotta rugiscutis is common on the rocky lateritic plateaus in the Western Ghats and Konkan (Amod Zambre, personal communication). Other species reported are a gecko Hemidactylus albofasciatus (Grandison and Soman, 1963) from Dorle village in Ratnagiri dt., caecilian of Gegeneophis seshachari Ravichandran, Gower & Wilkinson, 2003 (Gowar et al. 2007), Indotyphlus maharashtraensis Giri, Gower &Wilkinson, 2004 is known from not too dissimilar (though higher altitude) open plateau habitats elsewhere in Maharashtra (Giri et al. 2004). Giri and Bauer (2008) comment that the herpotofaunal species observed on these (=NWGhats rocky- plateaus are mostly representatives of drier regions (Ophisops sp., Lygosoma sp., Echis carinata), but they also hae unique and uncommon species including Bufo koynayensis, Indotyphlus maharashtraensis belonging to Amphibia. Thakur and Watve (2004) reported Falco naumani (Lesser Kestrel) from rocky plateau areas, which fall in the migratory routes of these species. It is not uncommon to see 10-15 birds resting on one or two lone trees along the rocky areas and hunting on the open plateaus around winter times. Nina Hobbhahn (University of Rostoc, Germany) conducted a detailed study of pollination of Utricularia spp. on the rocky plateaus of Kas, Satara dt. and Aare, Deogad, Talebazar in Sindhudurg dt. And Mollem in Goa state. This has been the first experimental study of plant animal interaction on rocky plateau habitat in India. Hobbhahn et al. (2006) studied pollination biology of three mass flowering Utricularia (U. albocaerulea, U. purpurascens, and U. reticulata), for the first time by extensive observation of flower visitors, pollination experiments, and nectar analyses. They showed that The ephemerality of the Utricularia habitats on lateritic plateaus, weather conditions adverse to insects, lack of observations of flower visitors to other Utricularia spp., and the predominance of at least facultative autogamy in the few Utricularia species studied so far suggested that an autogamous breeding system is the common case in the genus. In contrast, it
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was seen that the studied populations are incapable of autonomous selfing, or that it is an event of negligible rarity. In all three species the spatial arrangement of the reproductive organs makes an insect vector necessary for pollen transfer between and within flowers. However, U. purpurascens and U. reticulata are highly self-compatible, which allows for visitor-mediated auto-selfing and geitonogamy on inflorescence and clone level. Floral nectar is present in extremely small volumes in all three species, but sugar concentrations are high. More than 50 species of bees, butterflies, moths, hawk moths, and dipterans were observed to visit the flowers, and flower morphology facilitated pollination by all observed visitors. During this course of work Vikram Hoshing (pers. comm. 2005) documented 154 sp. of fauna including butterflies, moths, bees and vertebrates (reptiles, birds, mammals) from just two sites (Kas and Aare). He also recorded and photodocumented rich insect diversity. This indicats the need for a thorough taxonomic study of the plateau fauna and plant animal interactions. Detailed research for all faunal taxa has not been undertaken on any of the rocky plateaus and hence data is only scanty and mainly observational and taxonomic. It is very important to undertake multi-taxa assessments of the rocky plateaus to record the complete faunal diversity and try to understand microhabitat use and interactions with the floral components.
The ants occupy crevices in the rock, but anthills are never seen. Grasshoppers are abundant on the rocky plateaus and often with camoflaguing dark brown black colours matching the rock surface. Crested larks are very common on the plateau, foraging, displaying on boulders, and building nests in shadow of small boulders. Frogs are very common around ephemeral pools especially in peak monsoon. Nyctibatrachus spp. have been noted. Amongst snakes, Checkered keelback are frequent and so is Saw-scaled viper. Lizards, geckos and skinks (Hemidactylus spp,. Sitana ponticeriana, Cnemaspis spp.) are frequently observed feeding and or displaying and new species have been reported from rocky plateaus. However, most of the plateau fauna is not highly visible and often takes shelter of the boulders especially during the day, either because of harsh sun or because of vulnerability to predators like raptors (eagles are frequently noted) in such an open area. According to local people these are dwellings of mouse deer which can move easily between the fissures around plateau edges. Laterite plateaus have deep caves beneath which are roosting sites for bats (Panchgani, Robbers Cave of Mahabaleshwar) These observations only indicate the rich and complex relationships between fauna and different microhabitats on the rocky plateaus and need to be studied in detail.
Threatened species
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Lack of rock outcrop species assessments prevents from making any comments on the threatened species of these habitats. However, many species, especially those described recently need to be put in the Data Deficient category and more population and distribution studies need to be undertaken.
New species New species of Caesilians and geckos have been reported from Chalkewadi, Kolhapur and Ratnagiri, Sindhudrug plateaus in Maharashtra by Varad Giri (BNHS).
Chapter 4 People and plateaus
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People form an integral part of most rock outcrop landscapes across the world. In any landscape, rock outcrops either inselbergs, cliffs or rocky plateaus form a very distinct landscape element separate from the surrounding mesic areas. There distinctness is identified by local people who have specific names for the landform in local languages (ex. Sada in Maharashtra). Local people esp. Dhangars use the plateau habitats for grazing which is the most common activity seen on the plateaus in monsoon. The ponds on the plateau are used by cattle for drinking and wallowing. The boulders on plateaus have been used for building houses and shelters for grazers. On Jagmin plateau in Satara dt. local community has a practice of leaving boulders in mound at one place in memory of dead people. The large mound is well known to all and every year on certain date ritual is performed there and prasad offered. Owing to the hard impermeable rock surface, rocky plateaus (and indeed all outcrops of all types) serve as water catchments. The water trickles down into pools and ponds which retain it till winter- offering continued water supply in an otherwise arid area. The lithomarge below laterite allows water drainage from underground channel. Hence it is very common to see perennial springs along the lower edges of the lateritic plateaus ex. Zenda plateau in Kolhapur dt. on which surrounding local people are dependent to some extent. Many large plateaus have a temple of local deity, Masai, Mhavashi, Patan, Durgawadi are some examples. Some of them are locally well known and attract large number of people at festival times. However this happens hardly once or twice in a year and most often they are deserted. More research is needed from anthropogenic point of view to understand peoples relationship with the rocky plateaus. However, most of the plateaus especially those outside the protected areas are negatively impacted by people at various scales.
Impact of anthropogenic activities The entire Western Ghats is heavily impacted by biotic pressures. The main impacts are discussed below: 1. Grazing and trampling Grazing and trampling by people and cattle is common on all the rocky plateaus, especially during the monsoon. The scale may change according to the proximity of villages and in Protected Areas, cattle may not visit the plateaus very often. However in case of Chandoli, Radhanagari plateaus, although they are in sanctuary, there are villages nearby and the cattle often walk up the slopes to graze on the plateaus. There is some amount of compacting of soil
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especially along the footpaths on the outcrops.The effect of grazing intensity can be gauged only after long term study. Burning of vegetation is a regular feature on Kas and Zenda plateaus. It is not a natural phenomenon on plateaus and needs to be stopped. It destroys the seed banks in the shallow soil which are necessary for future growth of vegetation.
2.Agriculture, ponds and plantation Agriculture on large scale is not possible on the rock outcrops, owing to the hard surface. However, in recent years, government has floated some schemes about reclamation of wastelands- which have been enforced on the outcrops. In the Pune district, financial assistance has been given to villages in Ahupe and Durgawadi area for putting soil on rocky areas and converting them in to rice fields. In the same area, Shivakalin tale(- ponds from Shivajis era) scheme for construction of rainwater storage tanks on rocky areas has been promoted. The rock outcrops are highly suitable for such tanks as they have low percolation and already have some deep holes which are expanded to contain rainwater. Such schemes are harmful for the basalt outcrops which are already small in extent. Some plantations of bamboo and Acacia auriculiformis are observed on Satara plateaus. However, these species either do not survive or remain stunted owing to the harsh climate here. 3. Quarrying This has had the largest impact on the entire low level laterite areas. The deep layers of Konkan malabar layers are extensively quarried and the bricks used for local construction of houses etc. In recent times, the aesthetic appeal of the red laterite has increased its use even in many areas even far away from the konkan. The bricks (Jambha) are imported from konkan quarries and used for beautification faade, walls, internal decorative walls. Quarrying is rampant and a major source of destruction of laterite in Konkan,
3. Windmill farming: The rocky plateaus near Chalkewadi, Boposhi, Jagmin, Patan (all in the Satara district ) are entirely taken up by windmill farms of high intensity (Photo 13). The farms are present on the private lands but are adjacent to the forest lands under Koyna sanctuary. The presence of windmills has led to construction of roads and buildings, which now divide the large plateau into many sectors. The rubble of the construction is thrown on the plateau. The digging and construction have disturbed the drainage pattern on the outcrops leading to disturbance of natural microhabitats. Most of the species are able to survive this disturbance by adapting to newly formed habitats, e.g. Aponogeton satarensis grows widely in the ditches formed next to the road. However, the sustained disturbance can be a cause of concern later as it will lead to increased trampling and garbage. The disturbance encourages entry of invasive species, exotic as well as indigenous from surrounding scrub areas, which can colonize the new habitats. E.g.
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Senecio bombayensis, and Blumea oxyodonta , species not-native to the ourcrop habitats, which belogn to the scrub areas now are seen growing on rubble heaps between the windmills.
3. Tourism: Influx of tourists to observe the scenic beauty of the area and especially of the mass flowering on the outcrops is growing in last decade. Panchgani and Kas are two well known places of tourism in the region. These are presented separately as boxes.
4. Mining Mining is the most harmful of the anthropogenic activities on the rocky plateaus. The lateritic plateaus have deposits of bauxite (aluminium ore) underneath the hard surface. The Kolhapur plateaus are well known for high quality bauxite and many have been mined for more than 20 years now. Only those outcrops in the wildlife sanctuary areas of Radhanagari, Dajipur, Chandoli and Koyna are protected at the moment. The large mining areas are around Udgir, Durgmanwad, Waki, Dhopeshwar in Kolhapur dt. which are outside Protected Areas. The mining companies have also made demands on the bauxite reserves inside the sanctuaries, initially claiming that these are barren areas. In Goa, iron and manganese mines have destroyed most of the intact plateaus areas. This continues upto Kerala. Proposed iron mining in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri areas has been widely opposed on environmental grounds.
5. Nuclear Power Plants Around seven rocky plateau areas in Konkan have been identified as sites for proposed nuclear power plants. The Madban-Jaitapur plateau is already being destroyed as the construction activities have started. The early surveys identified these sites as barren lands based on remote sensing images which do not identify the special vegetation. Neither these preliminary surveys nor the following EIA conduted by NEERI took cognizance of the special nature of the rocky habitat and paid no attention to the immense floristic and faunal literature available for the region. The environment management plan has suggested creation of green belt as measure to protect biodiversity. The EIA report does not include even the common species so typical of rocky plateaus of Ratnagiri. All this clearly indicates the lack of knowledge about this important habitat type amongst scientific institutions. In general conversion of land to more intensive urbanization, industrialization has been the bane of Konkan plateaus. In the absence of forest or woody vegetation, the lands are easily mistaken for barren, are categorised as such in wasteland atlas of India, and hence many permissions have been granted, without serious EIAs evaluating the biodiversity of the areas.
Some examples of such projects are Jaitapur nuclear power plant Ratnagiri airport Ratnagiri MIDC Devrukh township Mangalore airport 6. Mango orchards
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Most rocky plateau in Sindhudurg district, especially near Devgad area are taken up by mango orchards. The stone is blasted to dig a pit and filled with soil for planting the Alphanso Mango sapling. The extreme climate of the plateau gives the Alphanso mango its characteristic flavour (Sadyavaracha Amba) and it is a major export of the region.
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Panchgani : Death of a plateau Photo 14 Panchgani town in Satara dt.of Maharashra has a group of 5 lateritic plateaus of which one has been a site of tourism since British period and is well known as Panchgani Tableland. It is claimed to be the second largest table lands of Asia. Being rich in floristic diversity, regions of Pachgani and Mahabaleshwar have been studied by a number of botanists like Cooke (1901-08); Blatter (1909); Deshpande, et al. (1993, 1995). New species have been described from table land and named after location Pachgani. It is a type locality of endangered species like Habenaria panchganiensis, Isoetes panchaganiensis. Mishra and Singh (2001) report around 10 threatened species from Pachgani tableland area. Their abundance in the past has not been documented. But personal communication with field botanists suggests a general decline in the populations of most species. This is especially true for Iphegenia stellata, a medicinally important species which has been collected extensively from Pachgani. Swertia densifolia another medicinally important species reported abundant in the past is now restricted to the far end of the Pachgani plateau. Other species showing a significant decline in abundance at this locality are Isoetes spp., Dipcadi montanum and Habenaria panchganiensis. Santapau had reported abundance of Euphorbia panchganiensis from the Panchgani tableland area, which are now restricted to small patches in the far end of the plateau. Dipcadi maharashtrensis has not been recollected from type location Pachgani in last 30 years (Mishra and Singh, 2001). Dipcadi ursulae which was reported from tableland in 1953 has also not been collected in recent years. Most of the species known from adjacent Kas plateau (an almost undisturbed rocky plateau) are seen here also but are very infrequent now in occurrence- and large barren patches can be seen where tourist movement is high. In the past tourism was restricted to the dry period, but with improved road accessibility the tourism continues even in the monsoon growing period leading to further disturbance. Mass blooming, so characteristic of many species of rocky plateaus and resultant scenic display that is so common to all the rocky plateaus cannot be seen on Panchgani any more. Unplanned growth of tourism on this plateau has led to several negative impacts and destruction of prime vegetation patches. Horse riding, balloon rides and driving were allowed on the plateau in all seasons almost till 2004. More than a lakh of tourists visit this site in a year and small hotels, carts and entertainment stalls have mushroomed on the plateau to cater to the tourists. The below ground lateritic cave with bats has been turned into a teastall causing further disturbance and littering. It appears from the preliminary survey that effects of tourism on floristic richness vary according to the zones of low and high pressure tourism. The areas near parking lot which are extensively used by tourists are more or less bare even in peak monsoon. The main reason of destruction is trampling by horses and tourists leading to compaction of soil and disturbing
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the seed bank of the table land species. Only the hardiest species of Fimbristylis, Mollugo grow sporadically. The effects are severe in heavy tourism areas while lesser as we move away further from the tourism zone. Areas further from the parking lot still retain almost natural vegetation in patches. Most species specific to the tableland are still seen in this low pressure zone. Along the margin are seen Utricularia purpurascens, U. praeterita, Eriocaulon achiton, E. stellulatum etc. Dipcadi montanum, Habenaria panchganiensis, H. heyneana are seen in deeper soil at the farther end of the plateau. Drosera indica and Swertia densifolia is also present in patches. Euphorbia panchganiensis for which tableland is the type locality is seen only in the zones of low tourist activity. The area is included in the Mahabaleshwar Panchgani ecosensitive zone. Around 2003 back Giristhan Parishad (corporation) had banned horse riding and driving on the table land plateau for monsoon months for protecting the flora. The measure adopted for protection i.e. three months protection cannot be called adequate as the destructive processes occur throughout the year. In fact destruction is more during summer and winter when the tourism is at peak and there is no control over trampling. Comparison of the Panchgani tableland with other rocky plateau in the same area (Dandeghar and Khingar) was made. These do not have any tourism and are only impacted by grazing of cattle. There is no significant difference in the presence of species. Endemics like Flemingia nilgheriensis, Euphorbia panchganiensis are seen on all three outcrops. Thus, the effects of tourism are slow acting and at population level only. There is no major disturbance of the rock surface and hence microhabitats necessary for plants do exist. Hence a proper protection to existing population can help in restoration of the degraded parts and conservation of the floral diversity. Eradication of any invasive species not naturally present on the outcrops such as Cynodon dactylon, Tridax procumbens is necessary.
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Kas: How will it end? Kas plateau of Satara district had gained much fame in mediat as Valley of Flowers of Maharashtra owing to the mass flowering of several ephemerals seen on the plateau. This was one of the sites of detailed study for my project and hence it was observed regularly from 2001 to 2006. The high pressure tourism started sometime around 2007 and has grown phenomenally by 2010. Many reasons can be sited, popularization by media, publication of book, increased interest in flower watching, easy availability of digital cameras leading to increased interest in flower photography are some of the most obvious reasons. Although no figures have been available so far, data collected on vehicles visiting indicates that on a peak day like Sunday with clear sunny sky, more than 10000 tourists may have visited this area. Some of the informal mailing groups on internet claim 37000 tourists on one day. The entire plateau is about 10-12 sq. kms , but the most frequented and accessible area is hardly about 1 sq. kms along the roads- and hence the tourist density is a lot higher than can be considered permissible for such an area of richness. Two critically endangered species Aponogeton satarensis and Ceropegia jainii are easily seen here. However, more than 50 narrow endemics are seen in this small area, two new species have been recently described from here and the scenic beauty is unquestionable. Presence of carnivrous species is another attraction. The fauna is also very rich and diverse and a new Lizard has been described from this area. All these factors indicate the extreme conservation significance of the area, and uncontrolled tourism of this extent cannot be allowed here without critical study of carrying capacity. Unfortunately the tourists visiting Kas are completely unaware of the sensitive nature of the different habitats, flora and fauna found here. Even the nature watcher, flower photographers do not realize the tremendous disturbance they cause while photographing some species, leading to trampling of much of the grasses and smaller herbs. The unaware tourists pluck flowers, try to collect plants to grow in homes, picnic on the flowering plants, throw garbage without any sensitivity. Owing to the fragility of the interactions here, a small action can cause much damage as can be seen from Photo 15. It shows a piece of chewing gum thrown by someone on which three beetles attracted by the sweet smell have stuck and are dying. This is just a small example of what can happen owing to even minor actions and how it can affect the habitat of small fauna and flora. The road has already become an entry point to the invasives, as the flora just next to the road is changing with introduction of generalist species from scrub areas. The long term effects of this disturbance can be destructive unless immediate protection is given to the area.
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This year 2010, forest department has taken lead to control and manage the tourism here. The land is a Reserved Forest area and hence the involvement and leadership of forest department in any protection activity is a must. Several NGOs of the region have come forward to protect Kas but are divided on their opinions about whether or not tourism should be allowed in Kas. As a part of the Sahydri Sub-cluster it has been nominated for the World Natural Heritage Site list of the UNESCO-IUCN. At this point of time, one can only observe the effects on the plateau and see whether the plateau continues to live or suffers the fate of Panchgani tableland.
Idarganj: Plateau lives on Idarganj is a very famous plateau in the Radhanagari wildlife sanctuary. Mining was carried out on one part of the plateau around 1990s but was stopped due to pressures by the environmentalists. EIA carried out by a Pune based agency had given clearance for the mining, but environmentalists aided by Dr. Madhukar Bachulkars scientific study fought and won the case. This has protected Idargang plateau till now. At present the mining lobby is claiming that they can restore the habitat to near natural state provided they are allowed to mine the areas and there is growin pressure on the forest department to clear mining leases. On visiting Idarganj plateau 2005 it was possible to compare vegetation on the mined and unmined areas. Only one time sampling was made in late monsoon phase. Twenty-six species including 13 endemics were recorded. Comparison of pooled data from undisturbed vs. disturbed area shows slightly higher diversity, species richness and number of endemics in the undisturbed area. A comparison of species occurrence showed that geophytes (with perennating organs) including members of Orchidaceae, Liliaceae and microhabitat specialists like Coelachne minuta, Eriocaulon tuberiferum and Flemingia nilgheriensis
occurred only in the undisturbed areas. But widely dispersing annuals such as Indopoa paupercula, Neanotis foetida, Hedyotis stocksii which are able to grow on rocky areas colonize the disturbed areas. Some general trends can be summarized as: Although diversity, species richness and endemism of individual microhabitats are low, collectively they show higher diversity and endemism than the disturbed areas. Only a few generalist endemic annuals from the drier microhabitats can colonize the disturbed zone. The entry of invasives is at present restricted , but if such species are introduced they will colonize the disturbed sites with total exclusion of the tiny ephemerals Habitat specific and endemic geophytes Eriocaulon tuberiferum, Flemingia
nilgheriensis, Habenaria heyneana have not colonized the disturbed zone as it lacks the
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necessary soil depth and waterlogging. But endemic annuals especially from rocky areas with better dispersal abilities have colonized disturbed zone. General species richness of the plateau communities is directly related to the microhabitat richness. Each microhabitat has its own specific plant community and endemic components. Species distribution indicates that plateau species will not respond uniformly to the disturbance of surface soil layer. Changes in microclimatic conditions will allow only selected generalist annuals (endemic as well as non endemic) to colonize the disturbed zone. The adverse effect will be more pronounced in case of geophytic endemics. These trends should be considered while designing future study of effect of disturbance on plateau flora. Presence and abundance of endemic geophytes especially habitat specialist or rare will be a good indicator for evaluating the effects of disturbance. At present many plateaus in Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri are marked for mining. Effects of highly destructive iron mining in Goa are well known and hence local agencies have raised several objections on the environmental grounds. This has led Ministry of Environment and Forest to declare a moratorium on all projects till further assessments area made.
Konkan plateaus The rocky plateaus of Konkan are the most extensive, continuous with the Goa, Karnataka, Kerala plateaus and have some specific endemics (Dipcadi concanense, Camptorhiza indica etc.) in large numbers. Mining, quarrying, land conversion for housing, industry, orchards, agriculture have fragmented the already continuous habitat. The effect of this on populations of of endemic, habitat specialist species needs to be studied. There are Protect Areas in this region (not even Reserved Forest). The land generally belong to revenue department or private owners and is easily available for large developmental projects as is seen in case of Nuclear power plants. The species assessments for this type need to be beyond political boundaries, up to Kerala and should take into consideration habitat loss and fragmentation.
Basalt plateaus The basalt plateaus are so far are less disturbed as they occur mostly in inaccessible areas and do not have any major activity like mininig, tourism etc. They are threatened by local land conversion for agriculture, pond construction and would benefit from community based conservation efforts. Excellent example for this is Durgawadi plateau near Junnar which is a large and extensive scenic plateau with no major disturbance so far. Preventive measures need to be started here so that in future it can be retained in prestine state.
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Goa, Karnataka, North Kerala have extensive low altitude ferricretes with rich herbaceous vegetation. (See Box) . The vegetation is similar in composition to the Maharashtra low altitude ferricretes but each zone has its specific endemics. It is necessary to document each and every natural rocky plateau in this zone and its specific endemic flora and fauna. At the same time it is necessary to evaluate the ecological status of these sites to identify appropriate conservation strategies.
Lateritic outcrops located in Bhagwan Mahaveer National Park, Goa. Dr. Mandar Datar
Bhagwan Mahavir National Park has West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests in high altitude regions and West Coast Semi - Evergreen Forests. The low altitude regions are covered with Moist Deciduous Forests. Interspersed amongst these moist deciduous forests are open plateaus or lateritic outcrops, commonly known as Sadas between altitude 80 m and 200 m. These outcrops are smaller fractions of exposed laterite with a very limited layer of soil. Their size ranges between half an acre to almost 10 acres, largest amongst these is a plateau known as Devsada located near village Dogurli on the western borders of the National Park. Except Deosada all outcrops are small in size ranging around 1-4 acres. Smaller outcrops are often situated on slopes, where leaking of ground water uncovers lateritic layers. Utricularia caerulea L., Utricularia lazulina P. Taylor, Utricularia reticulata Sm. are the common insectivorous species on these outcrops. Most of the vegetation on plateaus sustain until September. There are many species of endemic plants documented from the National Park restricted on these plateaus. Flemingia tuberosa Dalzell, Indigofera dailzellii T. Cooke, to name a few. Other plants exclusively restricted to lateritic outcrops from the national park are Teramnus labialis (L. f. ) Spreng., Rotala densiflora (Roth ex Roem. & Schult.) Koehne, Tylophora fasciculata Buch.- Ham. ex Wight & Arn., Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke ex Engl. (growing parasite on Lepidagathis sp.) , Laportea interrupta (L.) Chew, Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Geissaspis tenella Benth., Neanotis subtilis ( Miq.) Govaerts, Rhamphicarpa longiflora (Arn.) Benth., Lepidagathis lutea Dalzell, Lepidagathis prostrata Dalzell, Murdannia semiteres (Dalzell) Santapau, Eriocaulon eurypeplon Koern., Eriocaulon robusto-brownianum Ruhland, Jansenella griffithiana (C. Muell.) Bor, Impatiens minor (DC.) Bennet. There are many such small lateritic outcrops located outside the National Park. But all these are threatened due to mining activity. Negligence towards the ecological importance of these plateaus has resulted in misusing these plateaus as dumping sites for mining. In addition, the commercial plantations of cashew nuts and of exotic species are responsible for depletion of the diversity of these outcrops.
Indirect threats Invasive species This is an indirect but very real danger to the rocky plateau habitat. The species that grow on rocky plateaus are adapted to the extreme physico-chemical and climatic conditions of this habitat. Here they have a competitive advantage over other species of more mesic
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environments. The species of surrounding scrub area are not able to establish a foothold in this habitat for several years, because they lack the necessary adaptive strategies. The lack of or low degree of competition from these species allows the specialists to thrive and develop large populations. However, activities that disturb the sensitive balance will lead to invasion by generalists from surroundings -of either native or non-native species. This is already seen on some rocky plateaus which have prolonged disturbance (ref.: Panchgani plateau box). Building a road, digging pits for windmills, plantation will lead to soil upheaval, debris dumping allows establishment of Senecio spp. Heteropogon contortus, Cynodon dactylon from surrounding scrub grassland. On some plateaus, around ponds, hardy weeds such as Argemone mexicana have established. Influx of tourists on large scale can lead to accidental intrusion of invasives from faraway areas, garden weeds (Tridax procumbens, Synedrella nodiflora etc.) which can compete with the specialist vegetation of similar herbaceous nature. This is a serious threat against which preventive measures need to be taken. It has been observed in other tourist areas across the world and is a well documented scientific fact. Also serious threat is of purposeful introduction of some invasive in the general area by unaware tourists. This has happened in the outskirts of Pune city where nature lovers under misguided efforts introduced seeds of Cosmos spp. a hardy extremely competitive annual for beautification of scrub areas. This was a disastrous measure as the species established in natural grass scrub area and spread at the cost of natural vegetation. There is a great danger that some unaware nature lover might take up such an effort in his own way and lead to disastrous effort on some of the plateau areas. A very large sensitization drive needs to be carried out and entry and activity of tourists restricted to prevent such an ecological disaster.
Climate change In addition to the more direct effects of humans, studies are also needed to see how the global phenomenon like climate change will affect these habitats. As discssed earlier, the habitat experiences extreme climates which are highly periodic in nature. Any changes in the climate parameters and patterns will bring in subtle changes at species and communities level. Some guesses can be made: Increase in temperatures might result in desiccation beyond tolerance level for some species Erratic rainfall, gaps in the prolonged monsoon will result in drying of certain habitats leading to shock for some less resilient species. Rainfall heavier than usual will lead to more waterlogging and conditions will change in favour of hydrophytes while the plants of drier microhabitats will not tolerate such waterlogging. Flowering peak will change However, these are simple guesses and an actual modelling exercise will be useful.
Chapter 5: Conservation
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The anthropogenic pressures described above vary from low impact with slow degeneration of species population to high impact with total destruction of the habitat and its diversity. Both the factors need to be addressed while assessing the conservation needs for the habitat. Before considering the conservation efforts it needs to be stated that a lot more exploratory and experimental scientific research is required to aid the conservation planning. The recommendations made here are based on available knowledge and many more can be made if more research is conducted. Two approaches can be taken simulataneously. A. Conservation of habitat: It is required to review the current conservation status of rocky plateaus. A checklist of plateau sites is given in annexure and some general remarks are made on the status of disturbance. However, more detailed studies covering various aspects for each (species richness, endemism, naturalness, potential stresses etc.) should be compiled. A map can be prepared showing all the aspects. The second step towards planning conservation would be find out the landownership and check how many fall within existing PAs, RFs or government or private ownership. Once this is completed and mapped, one can get an understanding of how representative are the currently protected plateaus of the entire range of plateaus diversity. Preliminary survey indicates that the high level laterite plateuas, especially in Kolhapur and Sangli are within the WLS (although % not known) while Satara plateaus are mostly RFs or private lands or part of Koyana WLS. In the basalt plateau area, Harishchandragad area is part of wildlife sanctuary. The steps can be as follows: 1. Find out how many plateaus are already within existing PAs. if yes, is the protection enough? Extra against mining/windmills, grazing, limiting tourism, and monitoring for indirect threats Also study if the protected plateaus are representative enough of the entier range of diversity , identify more sites to make it representative. For RFs, increase the level of protection monitor grazing, do not allow plantations or any other efforts by forest department to modify habitat without study, controll tourism, restrict access, involve local communities in conservation, monitoring, benefit sharing from tourism revenue Identify possible CCAs 2. If not in PAs- either designate PAs-
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identify level of protection required, sanctuary making is very difficult as they are not already forest lands, acquire if revenue, malki lands, create protection mechanism appropriate for the area ex. CCAs/ RFs, discourge quarrying mining power plants by conducting throgh EIAs and declaring the areas biodiversity rich and hence not cleared for such developments feasibility of cluster sanctuary esp for the konkan ones- which have residual patches 3. Create awareness at all levels- scientists (who can contribute towards scientific understanding of the habitat), society (for monitoring the habitats, forming pressure group for conservation, responsible tourism), local community (for local management, conservation benefit sharing, reducing impacts by providing alternative housing material, controlled grazing, controlled agriculture), policy makers- change policy to better reflect the biodiversity importance of rocky plateaus and also of other rock outcrops. 4. Enumerate and assess diversity of all sites and create database.
The last point needs to be specifically taken into account when defining conservation strategy. More number of sites and from further apart need to be conserved if a significant percentage of rock outcrop flora is to be protected.
B. Species conservation locality protection monitor populations habitat restoration Ex-situ for some of the declining and restoration Need for scientific study Legal protection Awareness generation
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Identification of ecosensitive areas
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In the absence of detailed ecological and biodiversity studies from all the sites, it is very difficult to identify areas to be designated ecosensitive. The figures explains the possible ways of identifying conservation and management areas. An attempt is made here based on the study so far and the criteria used are : 1. Naturalness of habitat (High level of naturalness selected) 2. Contiguity between sites (considered and representatives covering entire area selected) 3. Biodiversity richness (high numbers of plant and animals of this habitat) 4. Vegetation community diversity (diversity of microhabitats) 5. Endemism (High endemism) 6. Presence of large populations of habitat specialists (large numbers) 7. Threatened species (Areas of already identified threatened species) 8. New species description (Localities of narrow endemics) 9. Present level of protection (areas within or outside PAs) The areas already within Wildlife Sanctuaries or Sahyadri proposed National Park, and ecosensitive zones (ex. Radhanagari, Chandoli, Dajipur, Harishchandragad, Kalsubai, Mahabaleshwar, Matheran) are not considered as they already have some protection and need to be managed and monitored. Areas outside NP and WLS are selected specifically as they urgently need protection from proposed damaging activities including tourism, mining, nuclear power plant etc. The following areas are considered ecologically sensitive, based on present information Naneghat, Durgawadi, Anjaneri (high level Basalt plateaus, Pune, Nashik districts) Kas, Chalkewadi, Patan, Amba, Zenda, Amboli, Chorla (High level Lateritic plateaus Satara, Chandoli, Kolhapur district areas) Vengurla, Nerur, Achra, Malwan, Devgarh, Vijayadurg, Jaitapur, Vaghotan, Devrukh, Jaigarh, Anjanvel, Jalgao, Dapoli (Low level lateritic plateau areas almost continuous) Goa, Karnataka, Kerala plateaus are not considered here, although they are equally important for conservation.
However, this listing does not imply that these are the ONLY ecosensitive areas. More studies are necessary including sites not covered in the present review.
Chapter 6 Recommnedations
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The present review was undertaken to record baseline information about the plant and animal diversity of the rocky plateaus in the northern Western Ghats. Information regarding species diversity together with spatial and temporal variation has been documented with special emphasis on endemism, adaptive strategies and phytogeographic affinities of the vegetation. Effect of anthropogenic factors are discussed and conservation needs are outlined. Further detailed studies are a needed to understand the ecological, social and economic aspects of rocky plateau conservation. Following recommendations can be made based upong the previous discussion : Complete enumeration of the floral and faunal richness of the habitat including those in the PAs as well as non PAs Assessment of ecological status of the rocky plateaus and biodiversity Establishment of experimental research projects to understand rocky plateau ecology Enhanced protection of rock outcrops within existing protected areas and protection of additional representative sites to complement currently protected outcrops Monitoring the rocky plateau ecology on long-term basis Limiting destructive activities such as mining, plantation, tourism, constructions and burning on plateaus Awareness generation about the importance of preserving these habitats in scientists, policy makers and society Designing community based conservation projects for conservation and management
In addition to this, it is extremely necessary for researchers, environmental managers and others to understand the special nature and uniqueness of rock outcrop habitats in the Northern Western Ghats and Konkan and their global conservation significance. It is hoped that this review paper will prove to be a step towards a much wider study on the biodiversity of rock outcrops in entire India and will sensitize policy makers to design conservation strategy for this unique habitat type.
References:
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Acknowledgements I owe many thanks to
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- my husband, Sanjay Thakur, for being a constant companion in all the hard field work and writing of this study - Dr. Stefan Porembski, for taking a personal interest in guiding me about all the scientific work on rock outcrop habitats and constant support and encouragement in the initial research which was crucial for this study And also to - Dr. Madhav Gadgil, for initiating me to write this paper - Department of Science and Technology, Bombay Environmental Action Group for support to some study components - Agharkar Research Institute, Dr. Rao, ex-director, Dr. Mujumdar, ex-Head, Department of Botany, for laboratory facilities, - Forest Department of Maharashtra, Mr. Thosre, ex-CCF Pune Division, Mr. SaiPrakash, exCF Kolhapur, Mr. Limaye, ex-DCF, Satara and all field staff -Mr. & Mrs. Shirgaonkar, Dr. Swapna Prabhu & Mr. Ashok Captain, Vinay Kolte, Vikram Hoshing, Nina Hobbhahn, Gowri Mallapur - Dr. A. Khadkikar, Dr. M. Sardesai, Mr. G. Potdar, Dr. Sachin Punekar, Dr. Mandar Datar -Director and In-charge of BSI, Blatter Herbarium, Shivaji University herbarium. -Dr. Erach Bharucha, Dr. Vinaya Ghate, Dr. Upadhye, Samir Mehta, Kedar bhide, Sushama Durve - local people from various villages in the study area and many others. And most importantly, my parents Sujala and Vidyadhar Watve for great tolerance without which this study was impossible.
Rocky plateaus (Northern Western Ghats and Konkan) Aparna Watve, draft version Photo 9: EFV with flowering of Utricularia purpurascens Photos by: Aparna Watve, Sanjay Thakur, Ashok Captain, Mandar Datar
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